UNIVERSITY  OF  N.C  AT  CHAPpi  uh  • 

■lillffi 


Digitized  by 

the  Internet  Archive 

in  2014 

https://archive.org/details/popularhandbooktOOcook 


HANDBOOK 

TO 

THE   BRITISH  MUSEUM 


;  A  POPULAR  HANDBOOK 

TO  THE 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN 
ANTIQUITIES 

IN 

THE  BRITISH  MUSEUM 

COMPILED  BY 

EDWARD  T.  COOK 


ILOttllOtt 

M ACMILL AN  AND  CO.,  Limited 

NEW  YORK  :  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
I903 


In  our  Museum  galleries 
To-day  I  lingered  o'er  the  prize 
Dead  Greece  vouchsafes  to  living  eyes, — 
Her  Art  for  ever  in  fresh  wise 
From  hour  to  hour  rejoicing  me. 

D.  G.  Rossetti. 


The  British  Museum  is  open  to  the  Public,  free  of  charge,  on  every 
day  in  the  year  (except  Good  Friday  and  Christmas  Day). 

The  hours  of  opening  are,  on  week-days,  from  10  A.M.  to  6  p.m. 
(After  4  p.m.  in  January,  February,  November,  and  December,  and  after 
5  p.m.  in  March,  September,  and  October,  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Galleries  are  open  only  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Saturdays.) 

On  Sundays  the  Exhibition  Galleries  are  open  from  2  p.m.  to  4,  5, 
or  6  P.M. ,  according  to  the  season. 


The  British  Museum  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best-ordered  and  pleasantest 
institution  in  all  England,  and  the  grandest  concentration  of  the  means  of 
human  knowledge  in  the  world. — Ruskin. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP-  PAGE 

Preface    .       .       .  .  .       ,       .  ix 

1.  The  Hall  of  Inscriptions — 

Inscriptions     ........  I 

Miscellaneous  Statues       .        .        .        .        .  9 

2.  The  Roman  Portrait  Gallery      .       .       .       .  17 

3.  The  First  Gr^bco- Roman  Room  (Athletic  Statues,  etc.)  35 

4.  The  Second  Gr^eco-Roman  Room  (the  Townley  Venus, 

Discobolus,  etc.)  .......  48 

5.  The  Third  Gr^co-Roman  Room     .       .       .       .  55 

6.  The  Gr^eco-Roman  Basement — 

Other  Antiquities     .......  74 

Etruscan  Tombs      .        .        .        .        .        .        .  75,  80 

7.  The  Room  of  Archaic  Greek  Sculpture     .       .  85 

Fragments  from  Mycense  .        .        .        .        .  87 

Metopes  of  Silenus  (casts)  ......  90 

Sculptures  from  Branchidce  93 
Sculptures  from  Naucratis         .        .        .        .        .  95 

The  Xanthian  Marbles      ......  99 

The  Archaic  Temple  of  Ephesus        .        .        .  .105 

The  Temple  of  iEgina  (casts)    .  .        .        .  108 

The  Temple  of  Olympia  (casts)  .        .        .        .        .  113 

Archaic  "  Apollo "  Statues        .        .        .        .  .115 

The  Charioteer  from  Delphi  (cast)     .        .        .        .  116 

Miscellaneous  Sculptures  .        .        .        .        .  .117 

8.  The  Ante-Room — 

The  (i  Choiseul-Gounier  Apollo "       ...        .        .  119 

The  Demeter  of  Cnidus    .        .        .        .        .  .121 

v 


vi  CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAGE 

9„  The  Ephesus  Room— 

The  Second  Temple  of  Ephesus         .        .        .  .128 

Other  Sculptures  from  Ephesus  .        .        .  133 
Miscellaneous  Sculptures  .        .        .        .        .  .134 

Bust  of  Alexander  the  Great      ....  140 

The  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  (cast)         .        .  .142 

10.  The  Elgin  Room — 

History  of  the  Elgin  Marbles     .        .        .  .  .147 

Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon      .        .        .  .  .153 

The  East  Pediment   .        .        .        .  .  .157 

The  West  Pediment  .               .        .  .  .164 

General  Characteristics      .        .        .  .  .167 

The  Metopes    .        .               .        .  .  .  169 

The  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon       .        .  .  .  173 

The  Athena  Parthenos  (casts,  etc.)      .  .  .188 

The  Portrait  of  Pericles     .        .        .        .  .  .190 

Miscellaneous  Sculptures  (Hera  of  Girgenti,  ^Esculapius 

of  Melos,  etc.)  .        .        .               .  .  .191 

The  Erechtheum  (the  Caryatid  and  Architectural  Frag- 
ments)     .        .        .        .        .        .  .  .194 

The  Theseum  (casts)        .        .        .        .  .  .198 

The  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates  (casts)  .  .  199 

11.  The  Nereid  Room   .......  201 

12.  The  Mausoleum  Room — 

Marbles  from  Halicarnassus       .....  208 

Marbles  from  Priene        .        .        .  .  .222 

Lycian  Tombs ........  223 

The  Lion  of  Cnidus  .        .        .        .        .        .  .226 

Miscellaneous  Sculptures  ......  227 

13.  The  Phigalian  Room — 

The  Phigalian  Marbles  230 

The  Temple  of  Wingless  Victory       .  ..  .235 

Sepulchral  Reliefs    .        .        .        .        .        .  .237 

Votive  Reliefs  ........  246 

14.  Ancient  Mosaics     .......  250 

Anglo- Roman  Mosaics  (in  the  Roman  Gallery)  .  .  252 
Mosaics  from  Carthage  and  Utica  (on  the  N.  W.  Staircase)  252 
Mosaics  from  Halicarnassus  (on  the  N  IK  Staircase)     .  257 


CONTENTS 


vii 


CHAP.  PAGE 

15.  Antiquities  from  Cyprus       .....  258 

16.  Greek  Vases  {Introductory  Chapter)    .        .        .        ,  269 

17.  The  First  Vase  Room  {from  prehistoric  times  to  about 

600  B.C.)     ,        .        .        .        .        .        .  282 

18.  The  Second  Vase  Room  {black  -figure  vases :  sixth  cen- 

tury b.c.)       ,       .       .       .       .       .       .  .312 

19.  The  Third  Vase  Room  {red -figure  vases ,  chiefly  fifth 

century  B.C.)    .        .        .        .        .        .        .  351 

20.  The  Fourth  Vase  Room  (vases  of  the  decadence:  fourth- 

third  century  B.C.)    .        .        .        .        .        .        .  393 

21.  The  Bronze  Room — 

Statues   .       .       .       .       .       .       ..<..,       .  422 

Statuettes        ........  428 

Reliefs,  Mirrors,  etc.        .        .        .        .        .  .441 

Lamps,  Candelabra,  etc.   ......  448 

Instruments,  Utensils,  etc.        .        .        .        .  452 

Armour  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .       450,  454 

Inscriptions     .       .        .        .        .        ,        .        •  455 

22.  The  Etruscan  Saloon   457 

The  Cervetri  Sarcophagus         .  .        .  .  .461 

The  Sarcophagus  of  Seianti       .  .  .  .  464 

Etruscan  Tomb- Paintings  {in  the  Vase  Rooms)  .  ,  465 
Candelabra,  Armour,  etc.  ......  469 

Etruscan  Bronze  Statuettes        .  .  .471 

The  Polledrara  Tomb       .        .  .        <  475 

Later  Etruscan  Works      .        .  .  .  .477 

Etruscan  Chests       .               .  .        .  .  .  478 

Etruscan  Mirrors      .        .        .  .        .  •  .  .  480 

Early  Etruscan  Paintings  .        .  .  .  .483 

Miscellaneous  Antiquities  .  484 

23.  The  Coins  of  the  Ancients  .....  488 


24.  Miscellaneous  Antiquities,  chiefly  Roman,  including 
Glazed  Porcelain — Weights  and  Measures — The  Leaden 
Cup  of  Domitilla — Leaden  Curses — Calcined  Food  from 
Pompeii  —  Ivories  —  Encaustic  Painting  Materials  — 
Mural  Decorations — Terra-cotta  Reliefs  ,  .  ^  .,.  545 
b 


viii 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 


PAGB 


The  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments — 


Historical  Collection  of  Ancient  Jewellery 

Celtic  Gold  Ornaments 

Roman  Frescoes  . 

Roman  Silver-Plate  and  Statuettes 

The  Franks  Bequest 


•  558 

•  578 
.  591 

594 
599 
600 
600 


Drinking- Vessels 
The  Oxus  Treasure  . 
Finger- Rings  of  all  ages 
Jewellery,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval 


588,  602 
608 


26.  Engraved  Gems  (in  the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments)— 

Ancient  Intaglios     .        .        .        ...        *  .610 


The  Portland  Vase   654 

Renaissance  Gems,  Historical  Relics,  and  other  Gold 

Ornaments       .......  659 

The  Gold  Cup  of  the  Kings  of  England  and  France     .  664 

27.  The  Room  of  Terra-cottas — 

Tanagra  Figurines    .        .        .        .        .        .        .  670 

The  Collection  of  Statuettes,  etc.       .        .        .        .  685 

Dolls  and  Toys        .......  706 

Grotesques      ........  709 

Terra-cotta  Lamps   .        .        .        .        .        .  .710 

"  Samian "  or  Arretine  Ware     .        .        .        .  .712 

28.  Roman  Britain        .       .       .       .       .       .  .715 

Tesselated  Pavements  (in  the  Roman  Gallery)  .  .  720 
Sarcophagi  and  Inscribed  Stones  (in  the  Roman  Gallery)  723 
Other  Antiquities  (in  the  Cenh-al  Saloon)    .        .        .  727 

Index      .       .       .       .       .  .       .       .       .  767 


Ancient  Cameos 
Paste  Gems 


642 
652 


PLANS 

British  Museum — Plan  of  Ground  Floor 
British  Museum — Plan  of  Upper  Floor 


1 

257 


PREFACE 


There  are  so  many  points  of  view  from  which  a  collection 
of  Antiquities  can  be  approached,  there  are  so  many  and 
such  excellent  aids  to  the  study  of  the  British  Museum 
already  in  existence,  that  it  may  be  well  to  explain  the 
limits  and  scope  of  this  "Popular  Handbook."  Some 
years  ago  I  published  a  "  Popular  Handbook  to  the 
National  Gallery."  It  dealt  mainly  with  the  sentiment  of 
the  pictures.  It  brought  together  some  of  the  best  that 
had  been  known  and  felt  about  the  painters  and  their 
works.  Its  endeavour  was  to  interest  the  general.  It  found, 
and  continues  to  find  readers.  In  the  British  Museum 
there  are  exhibited  treasures  of  a  different  kind,  but  it  had 
long  been  my  belief  that  they  admitted  of  similar  treat- 
ment. The  present  volume  is  an  attempt  to  apply  to  one 
branch  of  the  Museum  the  method  of  popular  compilation 
which  has  been  found  acceptable  by  visitors  in  the  case 
of  the  National  Gallery. 

The  present  Handbook  is  limited,  with  some  few  excep- 
tions, to  the  Greek  and  Roman  Galleries.  It  includes 
however,  somewhat  more  of  the  Collections  than  is  com- 
prised in  the  Department  of  those  Antiquities.  The 
sculptures  from  Cyprus  are  described  as  being  largely 
Greek,  and  closely  connected  with  other  antiquities  from 
that  island.  I  have  also  included  the  Anglo-Roman  col- 
lections. In  making  the  tour  of  the  Room  of  Gold 
Ornaments  and  Gems  I  have  not  limited  myself  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  objects,  but  have  dealt  also  with  those 
of  later  times  which  are  exhibited  in  the  same  room. 
I  have  also  devoted  a  chapter  to  the  Greek  coins,  which 

ix 


X 


PREFACE 


are  shown  in  electrotype  in  one  of  the  public  Exhibition 
Galleries. 

The  order  of  arrangement  in  the  chapters  follows  that 
of  the  Galleries.  For  the  convenience  of  readers  who  may 
desire  to  find  notes  on  particular  groups  of  antiquities,  I 
have  supplemented  the  list  of  contents  with  a  terminal  index. 

The  Handbook  is  intended  primarily  for  use  in  the 
Museum,  though  I  am  not  altogether  without  hope  that, 
in  parts,  it  may  be  found  readable  at  home.  It  is  not  a 
complete  catalogue  of  the  collections.  I  make  no  attempt 
to  notice  all  the  objects  exhibited  in  the  Galleries.  I  have 
taken  occasion  to  refer  the  reader  (generally  in  a  footnote 
at  the  beginning  of  a  chapter)  to  the  official  publications 
wherein  all  the  objects  are  enumerated  and  described,1 
and  to  mention  also  some  of  the  best -known  or  most 
accessible  general  treatises  wherein  further  information  may 
be  sought.  To  those  who  desire  to  make  special  study  of 
the  British  Museum,  the  writings  of  the  successive  Keepers 
of  the  Department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities — the 
late  Sir  Charles  Newton  and  Dr.  A.  S.  Murray2 — are 
especially  valuable,  owing  to  their  close  familiarity  with  the 
Museum  collections,  and  to  their  frequent  reference  to 
antiquities  therein.  In  citing  the  critical  or  expository 
remarks  of  archaeological  experts  and  esteemed  judges  of 
ancient  art  I  have  endeavoured  in  all  cases  to  acknowledge 
the  source  of  my  quotations  •  if  I  have  anywhere  failed  in 
this  respect,  I  beg  to  apologise  for  the  inadvertence.  In 
large  measure  such  quotations  are  from  periodical  literature, 
or  the  publications  of  learned  societies. 

This  Handbook,  as  the  reader  will  speedily  perceive,  is 

1  In  addition  to  the  special  guides  and  catalogues  there  are  also 
published  by  the  Trustees  a  general  Guide  to  the  Exhibition  Galleries 
(price  2d.),  and  a  fuller  Guide  to  the  Department  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities  (price  6d.)  ;  this  latter  is  by  Mr.  Arthur  H.  Smith,  Assistant 
in  the  Department. 

2  I  refer  more  especially  to  Newton's  Essays  on  Art  and  Archceology 
(Macmillan),  and  to  his  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant  (Day  and 
Son).  The  latter  work  (abridged  from  his  larger  History  of  Discoveries 
at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and  Branchidce)  is  a  most  interesting  book  of 
travel.  To  Dr.  Murray's  works  on  special  subjects  I  refer  subsequently. 
Of  a  more  general  character  is  his  Handbook  of  Greek  Archeology  (John 
Murray). 


PREFACE 


xi 


not  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  archaeology.  I  make  the  tour 
of  the  Exhibition  Galleries,  offer  some  general  remarks  on 
the  subject-matter  of  each  portion  of  the  collection, 
and  then  notice  some  of  the  principal  objects  in  detail, 
giving  explanations  as  suggested  by  the  order  of  their 
arrangement,  and  using  them  sometimes  as  pegs  for 
disquisitions  a  little  more  at  large.  The  reader  will  find 
his  attention  directed  now  to  one  subject  and  now  to 
another;  to  such  subjects  as  characteristics  of  the  Greek 
style,  types  of  different  divinities  in  art,  methods  of 
archaeological  research,  literary  associations,  the  story  of 
some  particular  excavation.  The  specialist  requires  to 
know  everything  of  his  subject.  The  aim  of  this  book 
is  rather  to  say  something  about  everything ;  it  does  not 
pretend  to  say  everything  about  anything.  It  is  designed 
for  general  visitors  and  general  readers ;  its  object  is  to 
suggest  and  stimulate  interest,  anjd  from  this  point  of  view 
an  episodical  method  is,  I  think,  the  best. 

What,  it  may  be  asked,  are  the  various  interests  to 
which  a  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities  appeals  ? 
And  why  is  any  cicerone  necessary  at  all  ?  The  objection 
has  high  authority  : — 

There  needs  no  words  nor  terms  precise, 
The  paltry  jargon  of  the  marble  mart, 
Where  pedantry  gulls  folly  :  we  have  eyes. 

We  all  have  eyes,  but  we  have  not  all  the  poet's  eye.  "  In 
every  object  there  is  inexhaustible  meaning ;  the  eye  sees 
in  it  what  the  eye  brings  means  of  seeing."  The  appeal  of 
sculpture,  of  gems,  of  painted  vases  was  primarily,  it  is  true, 
a  sensuous  appeal ;  but,  as  Mr.  Pater  points  out,  what  we 
possess  of  the  finest  Greek  sculpture,  for  instance,  is  pre- 
sented to  us  in  a  cold  isolation,  which  tends  to  deaden  its 
direct  and  instant  appeal  to  the  senses.  The  isolation  is 
threefold  :  "  Isolation  first  of  all  from  the  concomitant  arts 
— the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  without  the  metal  bridles  on 
the  horses,  for  which  the  holes  in  the  marble  remain ; 
isolation,  secondly,  from  the  architectural  group  of  which, 
with  most  careful  estimate  of  distance  and  point  of  obser- 
vation, that  frieze,  for  instance,  was  designed  to  be  a  part  \ 


xii 


PREFACE 


isolation,  thirdly,  from  the  clear  Greek  skies,  the  poetical 
Greek  life,  in  our  modern  galleries.  And  if  one  here  or 
there,  in  looking  at  these  things,  bethinks  himself  of  the 
required  substitution ;  if  he  endeavours  mentally  to  throw 
them,  back  into  that  proper  atmosphere  through  which 
alone  they  can  exercise  over  us  all  the  magic  by  which  they 
charmed  their  original  spectators,  the  effort  is  not  always  a 
successful  one  within  the  grey  walls  of  the  Louvre  or  the 
British  Museum.'71  The  trained  eye,  assisted  by  sympathy 
of  imagination,  pierces  through  all  obstacles  to  the  true 
vision  •  but  there  are  many  of  us — perhaps  more  than 
would  care  to  confess  it — whom  a  first  and  uninstructed 
survey  of  Greek  marbles  in  a  museum  leaves  cold,  careless, 
bewildered.  I  do  not  think,  therefore,  that  it  is  en- 
tirely superfluous,  even  in  the  case  of  the  finest  works  of 
art,  to  give  simple  explanations  of  the  nature  of  their  ex- 
cellence ;  to  suggest  to  the  eye  what  it  should  see ;  to  cite 
appreciations  by  competent  authorities  of  past  and  present 
times.  "  Countless  generations  have  paused  in  front  of 
these  monuments  with  admiration,  joy,  and  love.  There- 
fore we  also  now  admire,  enjoy,  and  love;  and  by  this 
continuity  of  worship  we  seem  to  be  linked  with  the  great 
soul  of  the  world."  2 

The  sensuous  appeal  in  Greek  art  is  reinforced  by  an 
intellectual  appeal.  Ancient  sculpture  puts  forth  not  only 
forms  of  beauty  pleasant  to  the  eye,  but  a  series  of  thoughts 
in  stone.  The  best  Greek  sculptors  were  "most  super- 
sensuous  of  the  sons  of  art."  The  human  figures  which 
they  present  to  us  seem  actually,  as  has  been  well  said, 
"  to  conceive  thoughts."  A  second  element  of  interest 
in  such  works  is  therefore  intellectual.  To  see  all  that 
there  is  to  be  seen  in  them  we  require  to  know  something 
of  the  reasonable  spirit  which  informed  the  design,  of  the 
order  of  ideas  which  suggested  and  governed  the  subject- 
matter.  Probably  every  visitor  to  the  British  Museum  feels 
instinctively  the  beauty  of  many  of  the  figures  and  groups 

1  From  Greek  Studies,  p.  195 — a  volume  which  contains  several  chap- 
ters of  special  interest  in  connection  with  the  British  Museum. 

2  Robert  de  la  Sizeranne,  Ruskin  and  the  Religion  of  Beauty,  p.  137. 


PREFACE 


xiii 


in  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon ;  but  those  of  us  who  are 
not  already  versed  in  the  subject  may  not  at  once  perceive 
the  rational  principles  which  differentiate  the  treatment  of 
low  relief  and  high  relief.  So,  again,  no  one  is  likely  to 
be  unmoved  by  some  haunting  sense  of  beauty  as  he  stands 
before  the  seated  goddess  from  Cnidus  ;  but  that  sense  will 
be  deepened  and  extended  by  a  knowledge  of  the  mytho- 
logical ideas  which  informed  the  artist's  mind,  and  of  the 
local  shrine  which  our  Demeter  once  adorned.  Notes  on 
such  points  as  these  are,  I  believe,  among  the  most  useful 
aids  to  stimulating  interest  in  "  chill  and  ancient  stones." 
As  a  French  critic  says  :  "  You  admire  the  modelling,  the 
relief,  and  the  play  of  shadow,  perhaps  the  graceful  move- 
ment of  a  simple  gesture  or  the  noble  lines  of  multiplex 
folds;  but  unless  you  be  truly  a  craftsman  your  attention 
will  wander  if  your  intellectual  appetite  be  not  excited. 
Those  relics  resting  on  the  black  marble  pavements  of  chill 
halls  in  the  British  Museum1  are  so  far  from  life,  so 
scarcely  do  they  touch  the  economy  of  the  great  world  as 
we  know  it,  its  passions  or  its  sorrows  as  we  feel  it,  its 
pleasures  as  we  love  them."  But  indeed  they  do  touch  it; 
only  it  needs  some  rousing  of  intellectual  interest  to  call 
forth  from  the  inert  fragment  of  marble  the  idea  which 
stirred  it  at  birth.  If  such  aids  to  the  understanding  be 
desirable  even  in  the  case  of  the  best  Greek  sculpture, 
they  are  indispensable  in  some  of  the  other  groups  of 
artistic  antiquities.  Especially  is  this  so  with  Greek  vase- 
painting.  There  is  indeed  much  in  Greek  vases  which 
appeals  directly  to  the  senses — their  graceful  shapes,  the 

1  "  It  is  difficult,"  says  a  vigorous  pamphleteer,  "  to  repress  a  shudder 
as  we  enter  the  long  dim  galleries — I  had  almost  said  wards — in  which 
our  noblest  sculpture  finds  a  home.  And  why  not  wards?  Hospital 
wards,  wards  of  a  maison-dieu  on  a  large  scale  ;  frigid,  cheerless  chambers 
in  which  the  poor  exiled  gods  and  heroes  shiver  and  are  a-cold  ;  inhospit- 
able places,  without  even  the  austere  majesty  of  a  mausoleum  ;  an  asylum 
for  decayed  divinities  "  (Henry  Naegely,  Concerning  the  Royal  Academy 
a?id  other  Reveries,  p.  61).  But  there  are  objections  to  palaces  as  well 
as  prisons.  "  No  one,"  says  a  high  authority,  "  who  in  the  Louvre  has 
strained  his  eyes  in  studying  the  ill-lit  collection  of  vases,  or  tried  to  ap- 
preciate correctly,  in  spite  of  the  cross-lights,  the  modelling  of  a  statue, 
will  wish  for  museums  built  as  palaces"  (Eugenie  Sellers  in  the  Classical 
Review,  1899,  p.  280). 


xiv 


PREFACE 


dappled  brightness  of  their  decoration,  their  sprightly 
vigour  of  design.  But  the  vase -painter's  art  was  in  large 
measure  conventional  to  the  end,  and  some  knowledge  of 
his  conventions — as  also  of  his  themes — is  essential  to  any 
adequate  appreciation.  What  Professor  Gardner  says  of 
schoolboys  in  this  connection  is  equally  true,  I  imagine, 
of  many  older  people  :  "  The  very  first  thing  that  should 
be  done  is  to  explain  to  the  boys  the  accepted  conventions 
of  ancient  art.  This  is  the  alphabet  and  grammar  of  the 
subject.  It  is  useless  to  show  to  a  class  any  ancient  repre- 
sentation until  they  know  what  to  look  for,  and  how  to 
interpret  what  they  see.  The  customs  of  Greek  drawing  and 
composition  are  so  different  from  those  of  our  time,  that 
boys  will  often  find  the  illustration  unintelligible  or  absurd." 1 

On  technical  matters,  and  on  the  historical  development 
of  the  various  arts,  I  have  also  supplied  some  notes,  though 
on  the  former  subject  more  sparingly.  A  few  simple  ex- 
planations are  given  about  many  of  the  technical  processes 
which  the  antiquities  suggest,  and  attention  is  called 
to  the  characteristics  of  successive  schools  and  different 
artists.  Following  the  admirable  arrangement  of  the 
Exhibition  Galleries,  I  have  discussed  the  historical 
development  of  ancient  art  in  various  kinds.  The  evolu- 
tion of  artistic  motives  is  also  occasionally  illustrated. 
These  are  all  subjects  in  which  even  the  general  visitor 
may,  I  think,  find  real  interest. 

All  the  works  of  ancient  art  collected  in  the  Museum 
have,  further,  an  archaeological  interest,  and  many  of  the  anti- 
quities have  no  other.  "  The  record  of  the  Human  Past," 
said  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  his  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Archeology,  "  is  not  all  contained  in  printed  books."  We 
may  also  "  dig  it  out  from  the  barrow  and  the  Nekropolis,  and 
out  of  the  fragments  thus  found  reconstruct  in  museums  of 
antiquities  something  like  an  image  of  the  Past ;  we  con- 
template this  image  in  fairer  proportions,  in  more  exact 
lineaments,  as  it  has  been  transmitted  by  endless  reflections 
in  the  broken  mirror  of  art."  In  some  cases  archaeological 
evidence  is  the  only  basis  of  history  \  more  frequently  it 

1  Classical  Arc hceo logy  in  Schools  (1902). 


PREFACE 


xv 


is  an  illustration  of  history.  The  interest  of  the  collec- 
tions in  the  Museum  as  illustrating  the  manners,  customs, 
ideas,  beliefs  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  is  endless ;  the 
antiquities  touch  classical  literature  at  a  hundred  points, 
explaining  sometimes  what  is  obscure,  illustrating  at  other 
times  what  is  familiar,  and  always  making  the  written  word 
more  vivid  and  actual.  Within  the  limits  of  a  Handbook 
such  as  this,  so  vast  a  field  of  interest  can  only,  as  it  were, 
be  scratched  and  sampled.  These  things  I  have  tried  to 
do  by  including  occasional  notes  upon  the  literary  and 
historical  significance  of  the  antiquities. 

A  collection  of  antiquities  makes  yet  some  further 
claims  upon  the  interest  of  the  public.  They  appeal,  for 
one  thing,  to  the  imagination.  Mankind,  in  all  ages  and 
under  all  creeds,  has  had  a  certain  veneration  more  or  less 
superstitious,  but  never  entirely  unreasonable,  for  relics. 
Antiquities  are  themselves  relics,  and  as  such  appeal  (as 
has  been  truly  said)  to  some  of  the  most  deeply  seated 
principles  of  human  nature — to  that  power  of  connection 
with  the  past  which  has  been  called  one  of  the  divinest 
elements  of  our  being,  to  the  law  of  association,  and  to 
that  love  of  "something  like  ocular  testimony  which 
notoriously  affects  the  mind  more  forcibly  than  "  the  hear- 
ing of  the  ear."  The  man  who  has  stood  upon  the  Acro- 
polis, or  walked  the  Roman  Forum,  may  add  nothing 
thereby  to  his  historical  knowledge ;  but  he  has  enjoyed  an 
imaginative  pleasure  which  no  amount  of  historical  reading 
can  in  quite  the  same  way  afford.  That  pleasure  may  be 
derived,  though  in  a  less  vivid  degree,  from  lingering 
among  the  great  historical  monuments  and  even  the  minor 
works  of  art  and  curiosity  which  are  collected  in  our 
Museum  galleries.  (And  here  it  may  incidentally  be 
remarked  that  some  familiarity  with  the  British  Museum 
will  greatly  add  to  the  intelligent  pleasure  of  travel  in 
classical  lands  or  sight-seeing  in  foreign  galleries.  Abroad 
it  is  a  matter  of  conscience  with  the  Englishman  to  peram- 
bulate every  gallery  and  museum.  He  does  not  always 
remember  that  at  home,  in  the  British  Museum,  he  has 
at  hand  what  is,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  collection  of 


xvi 


PREFACE 


antiquities  in  the  world.  Some  little  study  of  this  might 
turn  into  a  pleasure  the  duty  which  he  undertakes  abroad.) 
The  contemplation  of  antiquities  at  once  adds  vividness  to 
knowledge,  and  affords  food  to  the  imagination.  "  Their 
proper  function/'  it  has  been  well  said,  "  is  to  convince  the 
beholder  of  the  reality  of  ancient  life,  quite  as  much  as  to 
increase  his  knowledge  of  it."  1  Many  of  us  who  were  at 
school  in  days  before  archaeology  had  been  admitted  to  the 
curriculum  can  endorse  what  Professor  Gardner  says,  that 
"the  teaching  of  the  classics  in  schools  suffers  from  a 
certain  unreality,  because  the  learners  do  not  realise  that 
the  ancients  were  men  like  ourselves  and  walked  on  earth." 
There  is  no  excuse  for  such  impediments  to  learning  in  the 
case  of  London  schools,  where  visits  to  the  Museum  might 
be  included  in  every  time-table.  Familiarity  with  a  collec- 
tion of  antiquities  serves  better  than  anything  else  to  supply 
the  want  of  actuality  in  classical  studies.  Here,  in  the 
galleries  of  the  British  Museum, 

Peopled  with  forms  that  mock  the  eternal  dead 
In  marble  immortality, 

we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  actual  works  of  ancient 
civilisations,  with  remains  of  famous  edifices,  with  monu- 
ments of  the  life  and  faith  of  nations  that  have  passed 
away.  Such  a  collection  helps  us  to  repeople  the  ancient 
world,  and  suggests  at  every  turn  the  commonplaces,  ever 
old  and  ever  new,  of  the  mutability  of  human  fortune  : — 

I  do  love  these  ancient  ruins  ; 

We  cannot  tread  upon  them,  but  we  set 

Our  foot  upon  some  reverend  history.  .  .  . 

But  all  things  have  their  end, 
Castles  and  cities  (which  have  diseases  like  to  men) 
Must  have  like  death  which  we  have. 

The  British  Museum  is  peculiarly  the  home  of  such 
thoughts,  for  its  galleries  of  Greek  and  Roman  marbles 
contain  stones  from  many  a  sacred  shrine  and  public 
building  famous  alike  in  history  and  in  art.  "What 
survives  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World  may  mainly 

1  "The  Roman  World,"  an  essay  by  F.  Haverfield,  in  the  volume 
entitled  Authority  and  Archceology  (John  Murray). 


PREFACE 


xvii 


be  seen  in  London."  In  the  ancient  world  men  travelled, 
before  they  died,  to  see  the  shrine  of  Mausolus  or  the 
temple  of  Ephesian  Artemis.  It  is  to  the  British  Museum 
that  men  must  now  pay  pilgrimage  to  gain  some  idea  of 
what  those  famous  buildings  were,  when  their  stones  still 
stood  the  one  upon  the  other.  In  future  ages  when  our 
Museum  is  in  turn  a  ruin,  and  our  civilisation  has  passed 
away,  who  knows  what  questions  may  not  be  suggested  by  the 
unburying  of  these  treasures — relics  then  of  London,  not 
of  Greece  or  Nineveh  ? 1  Nor  is  it  only  among  the  greater 
marbles  of  the  Museum  that  such  thoughts  arise.  In  the 
other  galleries,  where  urns  and  vases,  gold  and  gems,  and 
a  thousand  articles  of  use  or  adornment  are  collected,  we 
are  reminded  of  a  curious  distinction  between  pagan  and 
Christian  times.  It  is  to  the  kindly  charities  of  the  grave 
that  we  owe  the  preservation  of  so  many  relics  of  antiquities. 
Uncertain  or  but  dimly  conscious  of  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  the  ancients  set  themselves  by  every  means  which 
pious  imagination  could  conceive  to  assist  the  survival  of 
the  body.  The  Egyptians,  believing  that  the  life  of  the 
spiritual  "  double "  was  in  some  mysterious  manner  de- 
pendent on  the  survival  of  the  fleshly  body  that  they  knew, 
embalmed  the  dead,  and  encased  them,  and  raised  over 
them,  in  proportion  to  their  worldly  state,  masses  and  even 
pyramids  of  protection.  By  such  customs  and  beliefs,  the 
ancient  world  has  obtained  an  immortality  —  if  not  the 
immortality  it  sought.  The  banquets  which  the  Etruscans 
imagined  for  the  happy  dead  are  set  before  us  to-day,  in 
carved  stone,  and  are  almost  all  that  survives  of  that  once 
wise  and  powerful  people.  The  Egyptian  mummies,  which 
no  human  eyes  were  ever  to  see,  live  in  our  modern 
museums  to  excite  the  curiosity  of  every  passing  tourist ; 
and  the  art  and  literature  of  the  Greek  world  have  in  large 
measure  been  preserved  because  they  were  buried.  A  MS. 
of  Plato's  discourse  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul  was 
found  not  long  ago,  encasing  an  Egyptian  mummified 
body.    What  a  text  for  the  moralist !    But  to  the  anti- 

1  See  D.  G.  Rossetti's  "Burden  of  Nineveh,"  a  poem  into  which  is 
distilled  much  of  the  romance  of  the  British  Museum. 


xviii 


PREFACE 


quarian,  the  strange  coincidence  might  suggest  somewhat 
mixed  reflections.  The  tombs  of  the  pagan  world  are  rich 
because  their  faith  in  another  life  was  faint  or  gross.  There 
will  be  no  treasure  trove,  for  the  antiquarians  of  4000  a.d., 
in  the  tombs  of  to-day.  The  Greeks  placed  vases  and 
statuettes — the  exquisitely  graceful  Tanagra  figurines  among 
them — to  keep  company  with  the  dead.  We  fling  only 
flowers,  for  remembrance,  not  for  survival.  When  the 
Layards  and  Schliemanns  and  Petries  and  Newtons  and 
Murrays  of  future  ages  search  our  graveyards,  they  will  be 
empty. 

Closely  connected  with  what  may  be  called  the 
moralities  of  the  British  Museum  is  the  interest  which 
gathers  round  the  methods  by  which  the  collections  have 
been  formed.  To  appeal  to  this  collector's  interest  is 
another  object  which  I  have  kept  in  mind  in  the  selection 
of  my  notes.  The  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiqui- 
ties, like  other  departments  of  the  British  Museum,  owes 
more  to  private  enterprise  than  to  the  initiative  of  the 
State,  though  the  authority  and  resources  of  the  State  have 
also,  as  we  shall  see,  been  often  employed  on  its  behalf. 
"The  real  founders  of  the  British  Museum  have  been 
neither  our  British  monarchs  nor  our  British  legislators,  as 
such.  They  have  been,  commonly,  individual  and  private 
British  subjects ;  men  loyal  both  to  the  crown  and  to  the 
people.  Often,  they  have  been  men  standing  in  direct 
lineal  descent  from  the  great  barons.  Sometimes  they 
have  been  men  of  very  lowly  birth.  One  boast  is  common 
to  both  of  these  groups  of  our  public  benefactors.  They 
were  men  who  had  alike  a  strong  sense  of  gratitude  to 
those  who  had  gone  before  them,  and  a  strong  sense  of 
duty  to  those  who  were  to  come  after  them."  1  The  first 
founder  of  the  department  of  antiquities  in  the  British 
Museum  was  Sir  Hans  Sloane.  It  was  in  consequence  of 
his  will  (1753)  that  the  incorporation  of  the  Museum  took 
place,  and  his  collections  included  a  large  number  of  coins, 
gems,  and  other  antiquities.    A  great  addition  was  made 

1  Lives  of  the  Founders  of  the  British  Museum,  by  Edward  Edwards 
(Triibner). 


PREFACE 


xix 


to  the  Museum  in  1772,  by  the  purchase  of  a  collection 
formed  by  Sir  William  Hamilton  while  British  Ambassador 
at  the  Court  of  Naples.  This  acquisition  was  the  first 
instance  of  a  parliamentary  vote  (^8400)  on  any  con- 
siderable scale  for  the  purchase  of  antiquities.  The 
Hamilton  collection  was  especially  rich  in  Greek  vases,  for 
which  Sir  William  had  a  collector's  passion.  He  was  once 
seen  coming  from  the  Palace  in  full  court  dress,  with  stars 
and  orders,  carrying  a  basket  full  of  vases ;  a  ragged 
lazzarone  held  one  handle  of  the  basket,  the  British 
Ambassador  the  other.  Upon  the  Townley  Marbles  which 
were  acquired  in  1805,  and  upon  Mr.  Townley  himself, 
some  notes  will  be  found  in  Chapter  111.  The  history  of 
the  Elgin  Marbles  is  detailed  in  Chapter  x. ;  it  is  a  curious 
episode,  and  this  acquisition  set  a  distinctive  glory  upon 
the  antiquities  of  the  Museum.1    The  Elgin  Marbles  were 

1  In  connection  with  what  is  said  at  p.  149  with  regard  to  the  dis- 
covery in  private  collections  of  fragments  from  the  Parthenon,  a  curious 
case  in  point  has  been  recorded  while  this  book  was  passing  through  the 
press.  In  a  paper  read  before  the  Institute  of  British  Architects  on 
November  17,  1902,  Dr.  A.  S.  Murray  "mentioned  that  a  year  or  more 
ago  he  received  from  a  clergyman  a  copy  of  a  Greek  inscription  on  a 
piece  of  marble  in  a  rockery  in  Essex.  It  turned  out  to  be  an  inscription 
which  had  been  missing  since  about  1771,  in  which  year  it  was  published 
in  the  Archceologia  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  The  story  was  that 
Stuart,  when  in  Athens  preparing  the  drawings  for  his  famous  book,  had 
picked  up  this  inscribed  piece  of  marble,  and,  after  changing  hands  several 
times,  it  was  eventually  found  on  an  estate  in  Essex,  once  belonging  to  a 
well-known  antiquary,  Thomas  Astle.  The  inscription  is  of  no  little 
historical  interest,  being  part  of  a  monument  erected  in  Athens  in  honour 
of  volunteers  from  Cleonas,  who  had  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Athenians 
(457  B.C.)  in  the  battle  of  Tanagra  against  the  Lacedaemonians  and 
Eubceans.  When  the  copy  was  sent  to  Dr.  Murray  he  noted  that  an 
important  part  of  the  inscription  was  still  missing.  Since  then,  however, 
a  son  of  the  present  owner  of  the  estate  had  found  that  part  in  digging 
round  the  rockery.  The  larger  piece  has  a  bleached  appearance  from  long 
exposure,  but  the  fragment  lately  dug  up  looks  as  if  it  might  have  been 
brought  from  Athens  the  other  day.  Two  or  three  months  ago  the 
gardener,  in  digging  beside  the  old  rockery,  came  upon  what  has  turned 
out  to  be  a  fragment  of  the  Parthenon  frieze.  Though  found  under  the 
earth  the  fragment  must  have  been  long  exposed  to  severe  English 
weather.  Down  the  face  of  the  sculptured  horseman  the  rain  has  driven 
furrows,  which  take  away  some  of  its  charms.  This  fragment  does  not 
appear  in  any  drawings  made  before  Lord  Elgin's  time.  It  had  fallen 
before  then,  most  likely  during  the  gunpowder  explosion  within  the 
Parthenon  in  the  seventeenth  century"  {Times,  November  19,  1902). 


XX 


PREFACE 


not  only  of  unique  importance  in  themselves  ;  they  were 
unique  also,  for  those  days,  in  being  unrestored.  A  great 
German  expert  of  the  present  time  emphasises  the  scien- 
tific spirit,  which  inspired  the  formation  and  guided  the 
accumulation  of  our  antiquities,  as  the  distinguishing  glory 
of  the  British  Museum  : — 

"  The  good  fortune  which  accompanied  this  foundation  soon 
brought  to  it,  in  the  sculptures  from  the  Parthenon,  the  greatest 
marvel  of  pure  beauty  which  antiquity  has  left  us.  But  a 
collection  supported  by  the  scientific  spirit  could  also  afford  to 
receive  what  was  outwardly  insignificant  and  mutilated,  though 
to  the  eye  of  the  scholar  priceless  ;  nor  did  it  need  to  rest 
content  with  showy  and  decorative  objects  worked  up  or 
restored  in  modern  times.  The  British  Museum  was  a  free 
state — for  a  long  time  the  only  one — for  original  works  of  art 
from  Greece  and  the  East  which  were  left  unrestored  and 
untouched  by  any  modern  hand  "  (Furtwangler,  Ueber  Kunst- 
sammlungen  in  alter  und  neuer  Zeit). 

The  next  great  acquisition  was  that  of  the  Phigaiian 
Marbles  in  1815-16  (Ch.  xiii.).  In  1824  the  collection  of 
Payne  Knight,  the  great  connoisseur  of  his  time,  passed  to 
the  Museum  by  bequest.  In  the  formation  of  this  collec- 
tion, which  was  especially  rich  where  the  Townley  collec- 
tion had  been  poor — namely,  in  bronzes — Knight  had 
spent  infinite  pains  and  enjoyed  remarkable  luck.  Its  value 
was  estimated  at  his  death  at  ^60,000.  The  story  of  the 
Lycian  marbles,  added  to  the  Museum  in  1845,  is  told  in 
Ch.  xi.  The  expeditions  of  Sir  Charles  Newton  (1856-57), 
which  enriched  the  Museum  with  treasures  from  Cnidus 
(Ch.  viii.)  and  Halicarnassus  (Ch.  xn.),  were  equipped  by 
the  State.  Archaeologists  of  our  day  must  look  back,  half 
in  wonder,  half  in  longing,  at  the  way  in  which  Foreign 
Office,  Admiralty,  and  Treasury  all  contributed  to  Sir 
Charles  Newton's  undertakings.  Among  the  officers 
attached  to  Newton's  expedition  was  the  late  Sir  Robert 
Murdoch  Smith  ;  to  his  enterprise  the  Museum  was  in- 
debted for  marbles  from  the  Cyrenaica  (Ch.  in.).  The 
excavations  at  Ephesus  (1863-75)  were  organised  by  the 
Trustees  at  the  public  expense  (Ch.  ix.).    The  excavations 


PREFACE 


xxi 


at  Prienb,  which  also  resulted  in  important  acquisitions 
(Ch.  xii.),  were  conducted  at  the  expense  and  under  the 
direction  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  reinforced  by 
pecuniary  assistance  from  Mr.  Ruskin.  The  next  acces- 
sions of  principal  importance  were  the  results  of  purchases 
of  existing  collections  out  of  public  funds.  Such  were  the 
purchases  from  the  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome  (1864)  and 
the  Pourtales  collection  (1865),  the  acquisition  of  the 
Blacas  collection  (1866),  and  purchases  from  Mr.  Alessandro 
Castellani  (1872-73).  The  most  important  of  recent 
acquisitions  are  those  which  have  rewarded  the  excavations 
in  Cyprus  by  Dr.  Murray  and  his  assistants ;  these  have 
been  carried  out  by  funds  bequeathed  by  Miss  E.  T. 
Turner  in  1892  (Chs.  xvn.  and  xxv.).  Notes  on  many  of 
these  matters  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages,  as  well  as 
on  minor  acquisitions  which  need  not  here  be  enumerated. 

Some  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the 
various  antiquities  have  found  their  way  into  our  Museum 
Galleries  adds  not  a  little  to  their  interest.  The  history  of 
their  excavation  is  often  full  of  romance  ;  that  of  their 
acquisition  tells  not  only  of  moving  accidents,  but  of  many 
a  diplomatic  struggle.  Byron,  in  a  characteristic  outburst, 
cursed  the  whole  antiquarian  tribe  as  "  emasculated  fogies." 
The  annals  of  the  British  Museum  tell  a  different  tale. 
The  life  even  of  the  collector  has  its  fierce  temptations, 
disappointments,  triumphs.  The  work  of  the  excavator  is 
not  of  plodding  industry  alone  compact ;  it  often  makes  a 
heavy  call  on  the  endurance,  courage,  and  resource  of  a 
man. 

Of  the  researches  and  excavations  not  already  noticed, 
by  which  the  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities 
has  been  enriched,  many  were  undertaken  by  members  of 
the  Consular  service,  or  by  British  residents  abroad  who 
enjoyed  in  other  ways  favourable  opportunities  which  they 
turned  to  the  advancement  of  archaeology  and  adornment 
of  the  national  collection.  Such  were  the  late  Mr.  George 
Dennis,  who  conducted  excavations  in  Sicily,  in  the 
Cyrenaica,  and  around  Smyrna;  Sir  Alfred  Biliotti,  who 
worked  in  Rhodes ;  and  Sir  Hamilton  Lang,  who  excavated 


xxii 


PREFACE 


the  temple  of  Idalium  in  Cyprus  (Ch.  xv.).  Sir  Charles 
Newton,  too,  during  his  years  of  work  and  sojourn  in  the 
East,  held  posts  in  the  Consular  service.  In  many  cases 
archaeology  and  diplomacy  have  gone  hand  in  hand,  and 
the  history  of  British  policy  and  prestige  may  be  traced  in 
the  sculpture  galleries  of  the  British  Museum.  This,  too, 
is  a  source  of  interest  upon  which  I  have  drawn  in  my 
notes.  The  works  of  art  which  lay  buried  or  stood 
uncared  for  in  Hellenic  lands  had  passed  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Turk.  In  "backing  the  wrong  horse," 
Lord  Salisbury's  predecessors  scored  at  any  rate  one  ad- 
vantage for  their  country ;  it  was  by  favour  of  the  Turk 
that  the  British  Museum  obtained  its  greatest  treasures. 
The  advantage  in  these  days  accrues  elsewhere. 

Some  familiarity  with  such  persons,  incidents,  adven- 
tures, as  have  been  indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs, 
and  as  are  noticed  more  in  detail  in  subsequent  pages,  can 
hardly  fail  to  impress  upon  the  visitor  to  the  British 
Museum  the  great  diversity  and  wonderful  combination  of 
effort  which  has  been  expended  in  forming  the  collections 
he  looks  upon.  The  British  Museum  is  in  this  respect 
essentially  a  national  institution.  As  one  of  its  annalists 
truly  says,  "  Every  part  and  almost  every  age  of  the  world 
has  contributed  something.  Almost  every  man  of  British 
birth  who  has  won  fame  as  a  traveller,  as  an  archaeologist, 
or  as  a  discoverer,  has  helped,  in  one  way  or  another,  to 
enrich  those  collections.  They  bear  their  own  peculiar 
testimony  to  nearly  every  step  which  has  been  taken  either 
in  the  maritime  and  colonial  enterprise,  or  in  the  political 
growth,  of  the  British  Empire."  To  make  some  little  con- 
tribution to  the  better  enjoyment  of  the  treasures  thus  col- 
lected is  the  hope  that  has  encouraged  the  compiler  of  the 
following  pages. 

E.  T.  C 

November  1902. 

3^  Between  the  Entrance  Hall  {in  which  are  some  pieces  of  modern 
sculpture)  and  the  Reading  Room  is  the  "Hall  of  Ins  crip - 
tions."     This  Hall  is  the  subject  of  our  First  Chapter. 


PLAN  OF  THE  GALLERIES 

(Ground  Floor) 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 
/.  Inscriptio7is.     II.  Miscellaneous  S tatties. 
Litera  scripta  manet. 

INSCRIPTIONS 

Inscribed  stones  such  as  we  see  here  around  us  may  be 
called  the  museums  or  record  offices  of  the  ancient  world.  In 
modern  times  official  documents  are  either  written  on  parch- 
ment or  committed  to  the  printing  press,  the  parchment  being 
stored  in  the  Record  Office,  the  printed  copies  in  the  British 
Museum  and  elsewhere.  The  ancients  had  no  such  instru- 
ments of  publication  and  record.  "  When  any  treaty,  law,  or 
other  public  document  had  to  be  promulgated,  this  was  done 
by  exhibiting  in  certain  places  of  public  resort  authenticated 
copies,  inscribed  first  on  perishable  and  ultimately  on  durable 
materials  ;  and  with  a  view  to  the  perpetual  preservation  of 
these  inscriptions  they  were  very  generally  set  up  in  temples 
or  in  public  buildings,  which  afforded  every  possible  guarantee 
for  their  safe  custody55  (C.  T.  Newton5s  Essays  on  Art  and 
Archceology,  a  book  which  contains  an  interesting  introduction 
to  the  study  of  Greek  inscriptions).  A  large  part  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  ancient  world  is  due  to  the  preservation  of  inscribed 
records,  and  every  day  excavations  are  yielding  fresh  material 
in  this  field.  Of  the  inscriptions  exhibited  in  this  Hall  (which 
are  only  a  very  small  selection  from  those  possessed  by  the 
Museum),  the  most  interesting  will  be  noticed  in  the  follow- 
ing pages.  These  notes  will  indicate  to  those  unfamiliar  with 
the  subject  the  kind  of  information  derivable  from  inscribed 
stones. 

Turning  to  the  left  as  we  enter,  we  come  first  to  a  Law  of 
the  City  of  Iasos  (No.  440).    This  stone  was  taken  from  the 

■ 


2 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS  chap. 


ruins  of  Iasos  (on  the  coast  of  Caria)  during  a  visit  made  by 
the  Duke  of  St.  Albans  to  that  site  in  1872,  and  was  shipped 
on  board  his  Grace's  yacht  under  Sir  Charles  Newton's  super- 
intendence. The  inscription  is  a  law  regulating  the  perquisites 
of  the  priest  of  Zeus  the  Almighty.  Priesthoods  were  valuable 
offices,  and  were  often  put  up  to  sale,  just  as  livings  are  among 
us — though,  to  be  sure,  the  Greek  law  imposed  in  most  cases 
conditions  as  to  the  requirements  of  incumbents  more  stringent 
than  any  which  the  English  law  imposes  on  the  purchaser  of 
the  next  presentation  to  a  living.  The  principle  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  that  "  those  who  minister  to  the  altar  are  to  be  fed  from 
the  altar,"  prevailed  also  among  the  Greeks  ;  and  one  of  the 
provisions  of  the  law  before  us  is  a  specification  of  the  joints 
from  sacrificial  victims  which  are  to  be  the  priest's  perquisites. 

Next  we  may  notice  a  very  famous  inscription — the  Sigean 
Marble.  This  is  a  tall  slab  from  Sigeum  in  the  Troad,  in- 
scribed with  a  dedication  recording  the  gift  to  the  Sigeans  of 
a  vase,  stand,  and  strainer,  by  Phanodicus  of  Proconnessus. 
This  inscription  came  from  Lord  Elgin's  collection,  and  was 
much  valued  on  account  of  its  antiquity.  The  inscription  is  in 
the  most  archaic  Greek  character,  and  in  the  boustropJiedon 
manner  (i.e.  turning  like  oxen  in  ploughing,  as  explained  below). 
Its  date  is  about  520  B.C.,  contemporary,  or  nearly  so,  with  the 
Branchidae  inscriptions  (see  Ch.  VII.)  : — 

"  Every  ambassador  from  Christian  Powers  to  the  Porte,  and  even 
Louis  XIV.  in  the  zenith  of  his  power,  had  failed  to  obtain  leave  for 
its  removal.  Lord  Elgin  found  it  forming  a  seat  at  the  door  of  a 
Greek  chapel,  and  it  had  been  resorted  to  by  persons  afflicted  with 
ague,  who,  deriving  great  relief  from  remaining  reclined  upon  it,  attri- 
buted their  recovery  to  the  marble,  and  not  to  the  elevated  situation 
and  sea  air,  of  which  it  procured  them  the  advantage.  Meanwhile 
the  practice  of  so  using  it  had  nearly  obliterated  many  of  the  letters. 
It  is,  however,  the  most  ancient  and  curious  specimen  extant  of  Greek 
writing  at  an  epoch  when  the  alphabet  was  very  imperfect,  and  when 
the  lines  went  alternately  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right,  like 
the  furrows  made  by  oxen  in  ploughing  "  {Memorandum  on  the  Subject 
of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Pursuits  iri  Greece ,  18 10,  pp.  21,  22). 

The  next  stones  to  be  noticed  contain  Inscriptions  from  the 
piers  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  at  Prien&  in  Asia  Minor — the 
remains  of  which  are  in  the  Museum  (see  Ch.  XII.).  These 
inscriptions  are  of  great  and  varied  interest.  One  of  them 
(399)  gives  the  date  of  the  temple,  334  B.C.,  and  records  it's 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


3 


dedication  to  Athena  by  Alexander  the  Great.  Several  others 
refer  to  a  dispute  between  Priene  and  Samos  with  regard  to 
a  delimitation  of  boundaries  on  the  mainland — a  dispute  of 
which  the  history  can  be  traced,  partly  from  literary  references 
to  it  and  partly  on  these  stones,  for  four  centuries.  At  one 
stage  it  was  referred  to  the  Republic  of  Rhodes  for  settlement 
— an  early  instance  of  international  arbitration.  The  Rhodian 
award  is  given  on  No.  403.  But  an  arbitrator's  award  does 
not  always  give  satisfaction,  and  after  the  Roman  conquest  of 
Asia  Minor  the  dispute  was  referred  for  final  settlement  to  the 
Roman  Senate.  The  Senate  in  135  B.C.  confirmed  the  Rhodian 
award  in  favour  of  Priene.  The  decree,  together  with  an 
elaborate  schedule  specifying  the  exact  boundaries,  is  inscribed 
on  one  of  the  wall  stones  here  preserved.  (A  summary  of  this 
dispute,  more  protracted  even  than  a  Chancery  suit,  may  be 
read  in  Appendix  I.  of  MaharTy's  Greek  Life  and  Thought.} 

Another  interesting  inscription  here  is  a  Law  passed  by  the 
Assembly  of  Halicarnassus  (886).  This  slab  of  white  marble 
was  found  by  Sir  C.  Newton  built  into  the  wall  of  a  house  in 
the  Greek  quarter  of  Budrum  (the  ancient  Halicarnassus) : — 

"  It  has  a  special  interest  from  its  connection  with  the  principal 
incident  in  the  life  of  Herodotus,  his  expulsion  from  his  native 
Halicarnassus,  to  escape  the  tyranny  of  Lygdamis.  The  inscription 
contains  a  law,  the  enactment  of  which  must  have  been  the  result  of 
some  kind  of  political  convention  between  Lygdamis  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  people  of  Halicarnassus  on  the  other.  The  object  of  the  law 
is  to  secure  certain  persons  in  the  possession  of  lands  and  houses,  by 
assigning  a  term  after  which  their  titles  could  not  be  disturbed.  It  is 
probable  that  the  lands  in  question  had  belonged  to  political  exiles, 
and  had  on  confiscation  been  purchased  by  other  parties.  To  guard 
against  the  possibility  of  repeal,  it  is  enacted  that,  if  any  one  tries  to 
invalidate  it,  he  is  to  be  sold  as  a  slave"  (Newton's  Essays,  p.  106). 

We  may  notice  also  an  archaic  inscription  from  Ephesus 
(678),  relating  to  divination  from  the  flight  of  birds,  e.g.  "  If 
the  bird  is  flying  from  left  to  right,  should  it  settle  out  of  sight  in 
a  straight  line,  it  is  unlucky." 

In  the  centre  of  the  west  half  of  the  room  is  an  Inscribed 
Column  from  Rhodes  (344).  This  had  been  built  into  a  step 
in  the  pavement  inside  the  church  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  which 
had  been  converted  into  a  mosque  after  the  taking  of  Rhodes 
by  the  Turks.  In  1856a  powder  magazine  in  the  vaults  under 
the  mosque  exploded,  destroying  the  edifice.    The  fragments  of 


4 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCRLPTLONS  chap. 


the  inscription  were  rescued  from  the  ruins  and  were  presented 
by  the  Pasha  of  Rhodes  to  King  Edward  VII.  (then  Prince  of 
Wales)  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  the  island.  The  Prince 
presented  the  marble  to  the  Museum  in  1873.  The  subject  of 
the  inscription  is  a  decree  of  the  people  of  Rhodes  in  reference 
to  subscription  to  a  loan  on  the  occasion  of  some  great 
emergency,  when  the  equipment  of  a  naval  expedition  was 
necessary.  The  names  of  those  who  promised  contributions 
were  to  be  submitted  to  the  assembly,  which  was  to  decide 
whether  each  offer  was  worthy  of  acceptance.  The  names  of 
subscribers  are  here  published  on  marble.  The  contributions 
were  mostly  in  money,  but  partly  also  in  kind  (provisions  for 
the  crews,  etc.). 

Here  also  is  a  cast  of  a  pillar  under  the  piece  of  black 
marble  pavement  in  the  Roman  Forum,  the  so-called  Niger 
Lapis,  the  discovery  of  which  by  Commendatore  Boni  in  1899 
caused  so  much  stir  in  the  archaeological  world.  In  the 
popular  journals  the  discovery  of  "  the  tomb  of  Romulus  "  was 
heralded  forth.  But  the  legend  of  Romulus  was  that  he  had 
mysteriously  disappeared  from  the  earth.  An  ancient  writer 
says,  however,  that  in  the  Comitium  there  was  a  black  stone 
which  marked  the  spot  as  unlucky,  because  it  reminded  the 
Romans  of  the  tomb  of  the  founder  of  their  city,  adding  that 
Romulus  was  not  buried  there,  but  only  Faustulus  and  one 
named  Quintilius.  In  the  excavations  of  1899  there  was 
discovered  a  pavement  of  black  marble  in  the  Comitium,  and 
this  may  be  taken  to  mark  the  spot  where,  according  to  popular 
fancy,  Romulus  or  Faustulus  (his  guardian)  was  buried.  The 
identification  was  supported  both  by  various  evidences  that  the 
spot  had  been  regarded  as  sacred,  and  by  the  discovery  of  two 
oblong  bases,  apparently  of  the  lions  which,  according  to 
Roman  tradition,  stood  by  the  tomb.  Pursuing  his  excava- 
tions, Commendatore  Boni  next  unearthed,  beneath  the  "  Black 
Stone,"  a  four-sided  shaft,  or  cippus,  of  tufa.  It  is  a  cast  of 
this  shaft  (presented  to  the  Museum  by  Queen  Victoria)  which 
we  see  before  us.  The  meaning  of  the  pillar  is  still  a  mystery; 
its  great  antiquity  is  certain.  On  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the 
cipptis^  and  along  one  edge,  which  had  been  cut  down  to  afford 
extra  space  for  letters,  there  is  an  archaic  inscription,  in  Greek 
letters,  which  read  alternately  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to 
right  (boustrophedon,  see  above,  p.  2).  The  words  belong  to 
the  earliest,  and  as  yet  little  understood,  stage  of  the  Latin 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


5 


language,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  cippus  was  at  some 
unknown  time  destroyed.  The  general  drift  of  what  remains 
is  believed  to  refer  to  the  making  of  sacrifices. 

Passing  now  to  the  north  wall,  we  come  to  the  Salutarian 
Inscription  (481)  from  Ephesus.  These  stones  are  of  great 
interest — among  other  reasons,  for  the  associations  with  the 
New  Testament  which  they  suggest.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  St.  Paul's  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Ephesus  was  attended 
with  great  popular  tumult,  raised  by  the  silversmiths  who 
made  images  for  the  Temple  of  Artemis  (Diana)  there,  and 
who  saw  their  trade  endangered  : — 

And  the  whole  city  was  filled  with  confusion  ;  and  .  .  .  they 
rushed  with  one  accord  into  the  theatre.  .  .  .  All  with  one  voice, 
about  the  space  of  two  hours,  cried  out,  Great  is  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians. 

It  was  from  this  same  theatre  that  the  stones  now  before  us 
were  taken  ;  and  it  is  to  silver  images  of  the  goddess  that  the 
inscriptions  on  the  stones  refer.  They  relate  to  a  number  of 
gold  and  silver  images,  weighing  from  three  to  seven  lbs.  each, 
which  were  dedicated  to  Artemis  by  a  wealthy  Roman  named 
C.  Vibius  Salutarius.  Among  other  particulars,  instructions 
are  given  as  to  the  plate-powder  to  be  used  in  cleaning  them/ 
On  the  birthday  of  the  goddess  the  images  were  to  be  carried 
in  procession  from  the  temple  to  the  theatre.  The  discovery 
of  these  stones  in  the  theatre  led  incidentally  to  that  of  the 
temple  itself  (see  Ch.  ix.),  for  the  inscriptions  recorded  the 
route  taken  by  the  procession,  and  this  gave  a  clue  to  Mr. 
Wood,  the  explorer,  which  ultimately  led  him  to  the  site  of 
the  buried  temple.  The  stones  were  inscribed  about  100 
A.D.  Seventeen  centuries  later,  these  records  of  a  Roman's 
liberality  to  the  heathen  goddess  were  removed  by  British 
bluejackets  and  embarked  on  board  H.M.S.  Terrible  for  con- 
veyance to  London. 

In  the  other  (east)  half  of  the  room,  beyond  the  door  into 
the  reading-room,  another  inscription  relating  to  the  Temple 
at  Ephesus  may  be  noticed  (522).  It  is  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
and  records  the  rebuilding  of  the  outer  boundary  walls  by 
order  of  Augustus,  6  B.C.  The  name  of  the  proconsul,  C. 
Asinius  Gallus,  in  lines  three  and  six,  was  erased  when  he  was 
sentenced  to  death  by  the  Roman  Senate.  Other  interesting 
inscriptions  on  this  same  (north)  wall  are  : — 


6 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCRIPT10NS 


CHAP. 


Marble  slab  (35)  with  inscription  referring  to  the  Erech- 
theum  (p.  194).  This  may  be  called  the  earliest  "blue-book5' 
extant.  It  is  a  report  drawn  up  in  409  B.C.  by  a  Special 
Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  progress  of  the 
building.  "  In  this  elaborate  report  the  exact  state  in  which 
the  building  is  found  by  the  surveyors  is  noted  with  a  minute- 
ness which  could  have  left  no  room  for  future  subterfuge  or 
procrastination,  for  every  block  of  marble  which  carries  any 
ornament  is  specified  as  either  finished  and  in  position,  or  as 
partially  finished  and  not  yet  in  its  place  on  the  building." 

Epitaph,  in  elegiac  verses,  on  Athenians  who  fell  in 
battle  before  Potidsea.  Potidaea  was  a  town  in  the  Thracian 
peninsula,  and  tributary  to  Athens.  With  the  help  of  Corinth 
it  revolted  in  the  summer  of  432  B.C.  The  Athenians  sent  an 
expedition  to  Potidsea,  which  gained  a  victory,  but  only  with 
the  loss  of  the  commander  Callias  and  150  men,  who  are  here 
commemorated  : — 

Their  souls  high  heaven  received,  their  bodies  gained 

In  Potidaea's  plains  the'hallowed  tomb  ; 
Their  foes  unnumbered  fell  ;  a  few  remained, 

Saved  by  their  ramparts  from  the  general  doom. 
The  victor  city  mourns  her  heroes  slain  ; 

Foremost  in  fight,  they  for  her  glory  died  ; 
'Tis  yours,  ye  sons  of  Athens,  to  sustain, 

By  martial  deeds  like  theirs,  your  country's  pride. 

Other  Athenian  inscriptions  on  this  wall  consist  of  public 
documents,  which  are  of  great  historical  interest.  Some  are 
financial — treasury  minutes,  as  we  should  call  them,  or  budget 
statements.  Thus,  No.  23  records  the  disbursements  for  a 
year,  including  a  heavy  item  for  the  support  of  the  Athenian 
expedition  under  Nicias  in  Sicily.  Nos.  29  and  32,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  inventories  of  the  national  assets.  Other 
records  are  political.  No.  2  is  a  decree  relating  to  a  truce 
during  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  ;  No.  3  is  a  Reform  Bill  for 
the  people  of  Ery three  ;  No.  4  regulates  the  position  of  the 
island  of  Eubcea  ;  No.  6  treats  of  lawsuits  arising  in  respect  of 
the  tribute  of  subject  allies  of  Athens.  Other  inscriptions  refer 
to  Temples.  Thus,  No.  33  is  an  inventory  of  the  Treasures 
of  the  Parthenon.  (This  might  also  be  classed  as  financial, 
for  the  treasures  were  in  part  a  kind  of  state  gold  reserve,  see 
p.  189):— 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCR1PTL0NS 


7 


"A  board  of  ten  treasurers,  appointed  by  lot  yearly  from  the 
wealthiest  class,  took  charge  of  the  sacred  deposit  ;  and  it  was  their 
duty  on  going  out  of  office  every  year  to  take  stock  of  the  treasure, 
and  to  hand  it  to  their  successors  as  per  inventory.  Every  fifth  year, 
at  the  great  Panathenaic  festival,  the  registers  of  the  four  preceding 
years  were  inscribed  on  marble  stelae,  the  series  of  which  is  nearly 
complete  from  B.C.  434  to  the  downfall  of  Athens,  B.C.  404.  The 
inventories  specify  a  great  variety  of  precious  objects,  adding  the 
weight  in  every  case  where  it  could  be  ascertained.  As  we  read 
through  this  list  of  statues,  crowns,  cups,  lamps,  necklaces,  bracelets, 
rings,  and  other  ornaments,  all  of  gold  or  silver,  and  many  of  them, 
doubtless,  exquisitely  fashioned,  and  remember  that  these  beautiful 
objects,  once  so  jealously  guarded,  have  all  long  since  vanished  in  the 
crucible,  we  may  learn  to  set  greater  store  on  the  few  specimens  of 
Greek  jewellery  which  have  been  rescued  from  destruction  by  the 
happy  accident  that  they  were  deposited,  not  in  temples  under  the 
immediate  protection  of  tutelary  deities,  but  in  the  dark  and  silent 
tomb,  under  no  other  guardianship  than  that  of  the  dead  "  (Newton's 
Essays,  p.  113). 

Another  temple  document  of  interest  is  No.  34,  on  which 
is  inscribed  a  list  almost  wholly  made  up  of  articles  of  clothing 
dedicated  in  various  years  by  the  women  of  Athens  to  Artemis. 
The  list  includes  a  large  number  of  children's  clothes,  e.g.  "a 
little  tunic  with  a  plain  purple  border  that  has  been  washed 
out."  "  Were  these  the  clothes  of  children  cut  off  by  Artemis 
in  infancy,  such  as  bereaved  mothers  nowadays  often  treasure 
for  years,  having  no  temple  wherein  to  dedicate  them  ? " 

On  the  east  wall  are  Latin  inscriptions,  and  a  series  of 
Roman  cippi  (square  sepulchral  urns).  Among  them  may  be 
noticed  : — 

Record  (83*)  of  the  building  of  a  bridge  by  the  Emperor  Domitian, 
whose  name  is  here  erased,  90  a.d.  The  inscription  was  found  at 
Coptos  in  Egypt.  It  is  known  that  the  monuments  of  Domitian  were 
defaced  by  his  successor. 

Dedication  of  a  Roman  camp  (also  found  in  Egypt)  to  Jupiter, 
Hercules,  and  Victory  by  the  Emperors  Diocletian  and  Maximianus, 
288  A.D. 

Beginning  of  a  Latin  poem  in  hexameters,  on  a  visit  to  Egypt, 
134  A.D. 

Tablet  with  two  lines  of  verse  asking,  Who  can  tell  from  a  bare 
skeleton  whether  the  person  has  been  a  Hylas  (the  beautiful  boy 
beloved  of  the  nymphs)  or  Thersites  (the  ugly  clown  in  Homer)  ? 

Draught-board  {tabula  htsoria).  —  Such  boards  are  inscribed  with 
six  words  of  six  letters,  making  thirty-six  places,  on  which  pieces  were 
moved  by  throws  of  dice.  Here  the  mottoes  refer  to  the  games, 
M  Circus  full,"  "  Great  shouting,"  "  Door  closed." 


8 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


CHAP. 


Several  sepulchral  inscriptions  and  dedications.  One  of 
the  most  interesting,  found  near  the  Porta  Portese  at  Rome, 
and  presented  by  Lord  Savile  (88*),  is  dedicated  by  Florianus 
to  an  unnamed  deity — si  deo  si  deai — whether  god  or  goddess, 
a  parallel  to  the  altar  inscribed  with  a  dedication  "  To  an 
unknown  god  "  which  St.  Paul  noticed  at  Athens  :— 

"As  a  rule  the  priests  refrained  from  mentioning  in  public  the 
name  and  sex  of  new  and  slightly  known  divinities,  especially  of  local 
genii.  For  two  reasons  :  first,  because  there  was  danger  of  vitiating  the 
ceremony  by  a  false  invocation  ;  secondly,  because  it  was  prudent  not 
to  reveal  the  true  name  of  these  tutelary  gods  to  the  enemy  of  the 
commonwealth,  lest  in  case  of  war  or  siege  he  could  force  them  to 
abandon  the  defence  of  that  special  place  by  mysterious  and  violent 
rites.  The  formula  si  deus  si  dea  is  a  consequence  of  this  superstition  " 
(Lanciani's  Pagan  and  Christian  Rome,  p.  72). 

Tombstone  of  Publius  Petronius  Secundus,  his  wife  and 
children.  This  Greek  inscription,  seen  and  copied  in  Smyrna, 
about  the  year  1701,  by  Dr.  Sherard,  was  found  in  1901  in  the 
course  of  excavations  at  Vauxhall.  Presented  to  the  Museum 
by  the  London  and  South-Western  Railway  Company. 

On  the  south  wall  are  two  marble  slabs  (Nos.  811,  812), 
brought  by  Lord  Aberdeen  in  the  early  part  of  last  century 
from  Sklavo-Khori,  near  Amyclas  in  Laconia.  "On  both 
these  are  sculptured  in  relief  various  articles  of  female  toilet, 
such  as  a  pair  of  shoes,  a  hair-net,  a  mirror,  combs,  a  shell 
for  paint,  and  various  little  bottles  for  unguents.  One  of  these 
slabs  bears  the  name  of  a  priestess,  the  other  of  a  subordinate 
tirewoman  attached  to  a  temple.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
objects  dedicated  in  these  two  marbles  represent  the  toilet  of 
the  priestess  when  she  had  to  be  attired  in  her  sacred  robes 
on  solemn  occasions"  (Newton's  Essays,  p.  193).  The  slabs 
were  found  not  far  from  the  site  of  the  ancient  Bryseas,  where 
Pausanias  (iii.  20,  4)  mentions  a  temple  of  Dionysus  which 
none  but  women  were  permitted  to  enter  and  where  women 
only  performed  the  sacrifices. 

A  Greek  inscription  from  Thessalonica  (171)  is  of  interest 
as  containing  the  names  of  certain  magistrates  called politarchs^ 
an  uncommon  local  title,  accurately  quoted  by  St.  Luke  (Acts 
xvii.  6,  8).  This  is  one  of  several  instances  in  which  the 
evidence  of  archaeology  has  established  the  accuracy  of  the 
writer  of  that  book  : — 


r 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCRIPTIONS 


9 


"From  Philippi,  St.  Paul  went  to  Thessalonica(the  modern  Salonika), 
and  there  found  himself,  not  in  a  Roman  colony,  but  in  a  free  Greek 
city  which  possessed  its  own  constitution,  like  Athens,  or  Tarsus,  or 
Antioch.  It  had  received  this  privilege  for  the  part  that  it  had  taken 
against  Brutus  and  Cassius  in  the  civil  wars.  It  kept  its  old  constitu- 
tion ;  it  had  the  right  of  self-government  in  its  own  affairs  ;  and  the 
governor  of  the  province  had,  under  normal  circumstances,  no  right  to 
interfere.  Now,  in  the  Acts  the  magistrates  of  this  city  are  called 
politarcks,  a  name  which  does  not  appear  in  any  other  place  in  Greek 
literature ;  yet  the  evidence  of  inscriptions  shows  that  its  use  here  was 
perfectly  accurate  ;  an  inscription  of  Salonika,  on  an  arch  which  was 
demolished  some  years  ago,  tells  us  that  it  was  erected  when  certain 
persons  were  *  politarchs  of  the  city ' "  [Authority  and  Archeology, 
edited  by  D.  G.  Hogarth,  p.  352). 


MISCELLANEOUS  STATUES 

In  addition  to  the  inscriptions,  this  room  also  contains 
various  statues  and  other  works  of  art  and  curiosity.  We  will 
now  make  a  second  tour  of  the  room  in  the  same  order  as 
before,  in  order  to  examine  these  pieces  : — 

Ariadne,  the  wife  of  Dionysus,  God  of  Wine. — She 
holds  a  thyrsus  over  the  right  shoulder  and  a  bunch  of  grapes 
in  her  left  hand.  Her  head  is  surrounded  by  a  wreath  of  ivy. 
At  her  feet  is  a  panther  on  its  hind  legs.  Found  by  Gavin 
Hamilton  near  Rome. 

Marcus  Aurelius. — This  statue  was  obtained  at  the 
capitulation  of  Alexandria  in  1801.  The  Emperor  is  in  civil 
costume,  and  wears  the  mild  expression  of  a  philosopher.  For 
other  and  more  powerful  representations  of  him  and  remarks 
thereon,  see  p.  30. 

Bacchic  Vase. — This  beautiful  vase  (from  the  Townley 
collection)  was  found  by  Gavin  Hamilton  in  the  villa  of 
Antoninus  Pius  in  detached  pieces,  which  were  afterwards 
joined  together  with  one  or  two  modern  restorations.  The 
bas-relief  represents  the  orgies  of  Bacchus,  a  faun,  a  satyr, 
and  Bacchantes  dancing.  Below,  close  to  the  pedestal,  are 
eight  female  figures  with  wings,  terminating  in  the  form  of 
tritons,  and  holding  a  patera  in  each  hand.  It  was  a  vase  of 
this  kind  (at  Holland  House) — "  with  brede  of  marble  men 
and  maidens  overwrought"  —  that  suggested  to  Keats  his 
"  Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn  "  : — 


IO 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCRIPTLONS 


CHAP. 


What  men  or  gods  are  these  ?    What  maidens  loth  ? 
What  mad  pursuit  ?    What  struggle  to  escape  ? 
What  pipes  and  timbrels  ?    What  wild  ecstasy  ? 

On  the  west  wall  are  portrait  busts  of  Greek  philosophers, 
poets,  and  orators.  The  attributions  are,  however,  in  most 
cases  conjectural  only  : — 

Antisthenes  (flourished  about  400  B.C.). — The  matted  hair 
and  the  rugged  character  of  the  countenance  correspond  with 
what  has  been  handed  down  concerning  the  squalid  habits 
of  this  philosopher — the  founder  of  the  cynical  philosophy, 
who  placed  man's  highest  virtue  in  the  absence  of  wants,  and 
whose  disciples  were  the  mendicant  friars  of  their  time. 

Demosthenes  (384-322  B.C.). — The  great  Athenian  orator 
is  represented  in  the  act  of  speaking.  The  peculiar  twist  of 
the  mouth  is  thought  to  indicate  the  infirmity  of  stammering, 
to  which  he  was  originally  subject,  and  which  he  is  said  to 
have  overcome  by  speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth,  and 
declaiming  on  the  sea-shore. 

Bust  from  the  Townley  collection,  where  it  was  called 
Sophocles — 

Whose  even-balanced  soul, 
From  first  youth  tested  up  to  extreme  old  age, 
Business  could  not  make  dull,  nor  passion  wild  : 
Who  saw  life  steadily,  and  saw  it  whole  ; 
The  mellow  glory  of  the  Attic  stage. 

Here  the  poet  is  shown  in  middle  life.  The  bust  was  found 
near  Rome  in  1775. 

Anacreon  (born  about  562  B.C.). — So  called  from  a  certain 
resemblance  of  the  head  to  that  of  a  statue,  formerly  in  the 
Villa  Borghese  (now  at  Copenhagen),  which  has  been  identified 
from  its  similarity  to  the  figure  of  a  poet  on  a  coin  of  Teos, 
his  native  place. 

Carneades  (213-129  B.C.). — This  philosopher — the  founder 
of  the  so-called  New  Academy,  or  school  of  the  sceptics,  who 
could  not  even  be  sure  that  we  are  sure  of  nothing — visited 
Rome  as  a  member  of  an  Athenian  embassy  in  155  B.C.,  when 
he  produced  a  great  sensation  by  the  keenness  of  his  dialectic. 
Various  portrait  busts  of  him  have  been  found  at  Rome. 

Periander  (665-585  B.C.). — Despot  of  Corinth,  which  city 
he  raised  to  great  power  and  influence.  As  he  ruled  so  long 
before  the  age  of  portraiture^  this  bust  of  him  is  one  of  those 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


1 1 


ideal  portraits  which  artists  of  a  later  day  carved  under  the 
influence  of  the  traditions  about  the  person  represented  (cf. 
the  bust  of  Homer,  p.  47).  The  sculptor  seems  to  have  been 
specially  influenced  by  the  motto  "  Study  is  everything,"  which 
was  one  of  the  traditional  maxims  of  the  Corinthian  tyrant. 
The  head  is  intellectual  ;  the  expression,  severe  and  meditative. 

On  the  north  wall  is  a  fine  statue  dedicated  to  Demeter, 
from  Cnidus  (13 10).  This  is  fully  described,  with  the  other 
figures  from  the  same  site,  in  Ch.  vin. 

Here,  also,  is  a  statue  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (see  p.  26), 
in  military  costume.  His  cuirass  is  richly  decorated  with 
relief ;  in  the  centre  is  a  gorgon's  head ;  below,  a  winged 
female  figure,  Fortune  or  Victory,  holding  in  her  right  hand  a 
palm-branch,  in  her  left  a  cornucopia.  The  reclining  figure 
below  may  represent  Abundantia.  On  the  right  and  left  are 
two  captives,  each  kneeling  at  the  foot  of  a  trophy  ;  the  one 
on  the  right  wears  a  Phrygian  cap  ;  the  figure  on  the  left,  who 
may  represent  a  Dacian,  has  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back. 
This  statue  was  found  at  Hadrian's  Villa,  Tivoli. 

In  the  centre  of  this  part  of  the  room  is  a  large  crater, 
twelve  feet  high.  The  subject  of  the  relief  on  the  body  of 
the  vase,  which  is  rendered  with  much  spirit,  is  that  of  satyrs 
busily  engaged  in  a  vintage.  This  vase,  found  at  Hadrian's 
Villa,  was  purchased  from  Mr.  Hugh  Johnston  in  1869.  hi 
the  same  part  of  the  room  are  two  alabaster  urns  of  the 
Roman  period.  In  one,  broad  and  elegantly  shaped,  yellow 
alabaster  is  mixed  with  stripes  of  onyx.  Pliny  tells  us  {Nat. 
Hist,  xxxvi.  §  12)  how  particular  the  ancients  were  in 
selecting  the  condition  and  colour  of  their  alabaster  vases, 
which  were  used  both  for  ashes  and  unguents.  The  best 
alabaster  was  from  quarries  in  Asia ;  the  whitest  from  Thebes 
in  Egypt  and  Damascus.  There  is  also  a  very  remarkable 
Roman  funeral  urn,  of  circular  form,  ornamented  with  figures 
in  very  high  relief.  The  execution  is  coarse,  but  the  general 
effect  is  good.  The  subject  is  a  battle  between  Romans,  some 
of  whom  are  on  horseback,  and  Gauls.  The  costume  of  the 
Romans  exactly  agrees  with  that  which  we  see  on  the  Trajan 
and  Antonine  columns.  It  is  possible  that  the  person  whose 
ashes  were  deposited  in  the  urn  may  have  fallen  in  the  battle 
represented. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  doors  into  the  Reading  Room  the 
following  statues,  etc.,  may  be  noticed  : — 


12 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


CHAP. 


Portrait  statue  of  a  Roman — not  identified  ;  presented  to 
the  Museum  in  1854  by  Mr.  W.  P.  W.  Freeman.  He  is  clad 
in  a  tunic  and  toga.  Probably  a  Roman  Consul  of  the 
Augustan  age.  Notice  the  roll  held  in  the  left  hand  ;  this 
is  the  model  which  modern  sculptors  have  adopted  as  the  type 
for  statues  of  public  men. 

Cleopatra. — A  portrait  bust  of  the  famous  Egyptian  Queen, 
who  fascinated  in  succession  Julius  Caesar  and  Antony.  (For 
portrait  coins  of  her,  see  p.  539.) 

Portrait  head  of  Cnaeus  Cornelius  Lentulus  Marcellinus 
(1383),  with  a  base  (originally  connected  with  the  head  by  a 
square  pedestal)  containing  an  inscription  by  the  people  of 
Cyrene  in  honour  of  "  their  patron  and  saviour."  He  was 
probably  the  first  governor  of  the  province  of  Cyrene,  where 
this  head  was  found.  Cornelius  Lentulus  was  a  man  of  some 
note  in  the  later  Republic.  He  supported  the  Sicilians  against 
Verres,  70  B.C.,  and  was  consul  56  B.C.  Cicero,  whose  cause  he 
favoured,  said  he  was  one  of  the  best  consuls  he  had  ever  known. 

Epicurus  (342-270  B.C.). — The  memory  of  this  philosopher 
— the  founder  of  the  school  of  Epicureanism,  which  came  to 
mean  much  that  is  the  very  opposite  of  the  master's  teaching 
— was  held  in  great  veneration  in  the  Augustan  age  at  Rome. 
His  portrait  abounded,  we  are  told  by  Cicero  and  Pliny,  in  the 
houses  of  his  admirers,  and  adorned  their  rings  and  drinking- 
cups.  "  The  heavily  drooping  eyelids  in  the  beautiful  haggard 
face  betoken  a  lassitude  produced  by  exhausting  study,  while 
the  pained  movement  of  the  lips  finds  its  explanation  in  the 
physical  suffering  that  racked  the  great  philosopher.  But  the 
most  outstanding  characteristic  is  the  prevailing  expression  of 
resignation.  This  is  admirably  in  keeping  with  the  philo- 
sophy of  Epicurus,  who  taught  that  the  greatest  good  was 
freedom  from  passion  and  suffering"  (Helbig,  Guide  to  the 
Collections  of  Classical  Antiquities  in  Rome,  i.  201).  This 
head  was  found  in  1775  at  Rome. 

Euripides  (480-406  B.C.). — Two  portraits  of  the  poet,  who 
is  represented  to  us,  in  the  extant  busts  and  statue,  as  "  the 
poet  of  the  world's  grief — gentle,  subdued,  and  full  of  sorrow- 
ing sympathy  " — 

Our  Euripides,  the  human, 

With  his  droppings  of  warm  tears, 

And  his  touches  of  things  common 
Till  they  rose  to  touch  the  spheres. 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 


13 


The  portraits  of  Euripides  are,  says  Mr.  Mahaffy,  peculiarly 
"  interesting  and  thoroughly  cosmopolitan." 

Hippocrates  (460-375  B.C.). — This  bust,  supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  celebrated  ancient  physician,  was  found  near  Albano, 
in  the  ruins  of  the  villa  of  Marcus  Varro,  who,  according  to 
Pliny,  had  700  portraits  of  illustrious  men  in  his  library. 
(For  a  discussion  of  the  identity  of  this  portrait,  see  Ellis's 
Townley  Gallery,  ii.  6.) 

Diogenes  (412-323  B.C.). — An  old  man  nearly  bald;  the 
head  bent  forward  and  sunk  between  the  shoulders,  so  as  to 
appear  almost  deformed.  The  surly  and  satirical  expression, 
the  keen  and  observant  glance,  the  unkempt  hair,  the  poorly 
nourished  flesh  — all  these  traits  admirably  suit  the  cynical 
philosopher  who  ruthlessly  carried  out  in  daily  life  the  theory 
of  Antisthenes  (see  p.  10)  that  the  absence  of  desire  is  the 
highest  good,  and  who  held  himself  above  the  ordinary 
conventions  of  society. 

Demosthenes. — Another  portrait  of  the  great  orator  (see 
above,  p.  10).  The  peculiar  twist  of  the  mouth  is  here  less 
apparent.  It  is  a  favourite  amusement  to  find  modern  like- 
nesses in  these  old  Greek  and  Roman  portraits.  The  one 
before  us  is  strikingly  like  a  Liberal  ex-Cabinet  Minister. 

Metrodorus. — The  favourite  pupil  of  Epicurus  (p.  12). 
The  head  is  less  intellectual,  but  exhibits  a  similar  expression 
of  benevolent  resignation. 

A  vase  formerly  in  the  Townley  collection  and  very  much 
restored.  On  the  front  is  a  Bacchic  scene  in  relief ;  round 
the  neck  are  branches  of  ivy.  The  handles  terminate  on  the 
shoulder  in  swans'  heads. 

Thalia. — A  statue  of  the  pastoral  muse,  in  a  contemplative 
but  commanding  attitude.  She  holds  the  pedum  or  pastoral 
staff  in  her  right  hand  and  chaplet  of  ivy  on  her  head.  This 
statue,  which  is  in  fine  preservation,  was  found  at  Ostia  a  few 
yards  from  the  " Townley  Venus"  (Ch.  IV.). 

In  the  centre  of  this  (E.)  side  of  the  room  are  the  following 
pieces  of  sculpture  :— 

Pair  of  Greyhounds. — The  hound  in  front  turns  round 
towards  his  companion,  who  bites  his  ear  caressingly,  and 
rests  her  left  forefoot  upon  his  shoulder.  The  action  is  easy 
and  natural,  and  the  group  well  composed. 

A  Sphinx. — Found  by  Gavin  Hamilton  in  1780  in  the 
ruins  of  the  villa  of  Antoninus  Pius.    The  monster  has  a 


14 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCRLPTLONS  chap. 


female  head  ;  the  body  resembles  that  of  a  greyhound,  but 
with  longer  and  sharper  claws  ;  the  tail  is  that  of  a  lion.  The 
sphinx  was  probably  one  of  the  supports  of  a  table. 

The  Emperor  Caligula  on  horseback. — "  But  more  prob- 
ably the  figure  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Antonines,  and 
represents  Geta  or  Severus  Alexander.  Equestrian  figures, 
except  on  a  small  scale,  are  very  rare  in  ancient  sculpture.  The 
rider  is  well  placed  on  the  horse,  and  his  drapery  is  well  com- 
posed. The  horse  is  treated  in  a  conventional  manner  ;  the 
hind -quarters  seem  too  small,  and  are  feebly  restored;  the 
head  has  an  exaggerated  vivacity "  (Newton's  Guide  to  the 
Grceco-Roman  Sculptures). 

An  Altar. — Presented  by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  1775. 
The  four  corners  are  supported  by  four  sphinxes.  In  the 
panel  in  front  is  a  low  relief  representing  Apollo  standing  by 
the  side  of  a  tripod. 

Base  of  Candelabrum,  on  each  of  the  three  sides  of  which 
is  a  Cupid  flying  through  the  air  and  bearing,  severally,  the 
helmet,  sword,  and  shield  of  Mars.  At  the  corners  of  the 
base  above  the  reliefs  are  rams'  head ;  below,  the  busts  of 
sphinxes  project  from  the  angles.    Found  on  the  Appian  Way. 

Mithras  and  the  Bull. — No  group  is  more  familiar  in 
galleries  of  ancient  sculpture  than  this  of  a  young  warrior,  in 
Phrygian  cap  and  short  tunic  and  mantle  thrown  back  by  the 
wind.  Every  one  has  seen  him  kneel  in  marble  on  the  back 
of  a  bull  and  bury  his  poniard  in  its  throat ;  we  shall  see 
another  example  in  a  later  room  (p.  65).  Probably  every 
one  does  not  remember  that  in  this  representation  of  a  mystic 
sacrifice  we  have  a  monument  of  a  religion  which  once  over- 
spread the  Roman  world,1  which  was  the  most  formidable 
rival  that  Christianity  encountered,  and  from  which  some  of 
the  most  sacred  of  Christian  rites  and  festivals  were  borrowed. 
The  group  in  itself  has  little  that  is  spiritual,  though  much  that 
is  symbolic,  about  it.  A  dog  and  a  snake  are  springing  up  to 
drink  the  blood  of  the  victim  ;  a  scorpion  seizes  the  animal 
underneath.  Behind  the  bull  are  two  small  figures.  These 
represent  priests  of  the  cult ;  for  the  young  warrior  is  Mithras, 

1  In  this  country  Mithraism  had  firmly  planted  itself,  as  may  be 
gathered  from  the  number  of  altars  which  have  been  discovered  bearing 
inscriptions  "  to  the  most  high  god,  the  invincible  Mithras."  Remains  of 
Mithraic  caves  have  also  been  found  (see  T.  Wright's  Celt,  Roman  and 
Saxon,  pp.  326-328). 


I 


THE  HALL  OF  JNSCRLPTIONS 


15 


the  Persian  sun-god,  whose  worship  is  said  by  Plutarch  to 
have  been  introduced  to  Rome  from  Cilicia  after  the  conquest 
of  the  pirates  there  by  Pompey,  70  B.C.  Originally  the  cult 
of  Mithras  was  a  form  of  sun-worship  : — 

cc  There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  allegory  veiled  under  this  repre- 
sentation is  astronomical,  illustrative  of  the  sun's  annual  course.  The 
figure  of  Mithras  is  supposed  to  represent  the  sun  in  its  full  power  ; 
the  bull  as  typifying  the  earth  and  moon,  the  former  by  its  use  in 
agriculture,  the  latter  by  its  horns,  which  form  a  crescent ;  the  dagger 
showing  the  influence  of  the  sun  upon  the  earth,  opening  its  veins  and 
causing  fertility.  The  dog  and  the  serpent  are  emblematic  of  animated 
nature  generally ;  the  scorpion,  of  the  decline  of  Nature's  productive 
power"  (Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery,  i.  283). 

But,  as  the  worship  spread,  it  was  greatly  refined  and 
extended,  until  it  became  the  purest  and  most  elevated  of  all 
non-biblical  religions.  On  the  front  of  the  plinth  on  which  the 
group  before  us  stands  is  an  inscription,  in  letters  probably 
of  the  third  century  A.D.,  recording  that  "  Alcimus  the  slave, 
bailiff  of  Titus  Claudius  Livianus,  dedicated  this  monument  to 
the  sun-god  Mithras  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow."  Monuments  of 
Mithras  have  been  found  all  over  the  Roman  world, — in  all 
the  regions  of  Italy,  in  Spain,  Africa,  and  all  the  provinces 
bordering  on  the  Danube  and  Rhine,  in  Gaul,  and  in  Britain. 
There  was  no  form  of  paganism  which  offered  a  more  stubborn 
resistance  to  Christianity,  partly  because  its  ideas  and  ritual 
were  in  many  respects  very  similar  : — 

"In  the  fourth  century  the  ancient  god  of  light  has  become  the 
supreme  power,  who  is  all-seeing,  all-pervading,  who  is  the  lord  and 
origin  of  life,  the  cleanser  from  sin,  the  protector  of  the  miserable, 
conqueror  of  evil  demons  and  death,  who  assures  to  his  faithful 
worshippers  the  hope  of  immortality.  .  .  .  The  central  idea  seems  to 
have  been  that  of  a  power  who  conquers  the  spirits  of  darkness,  leads 
souls  from  the  under  world,  and  gives  peace  by  purification.  .  .  .  Its 
most  impressive  rite  was  the  baptism  of  blood.1  This  ceremony  was 
apparently  a  sacramental  repetition  of  the  symbolic  slaughter  of  the 


1  Of  the  day-excursions  from  Rome  few  are  so  interesting  as  a  visit  to 
the  ruins  of  Ostia.  Here  may  be  seen  a  Mithraic  temple,  with  a  well  for 
baptizing  the  candidates,  and  seats  for  the  worshippers.  The  mosaic 
pavement  is  divided  off  into  seven  portions,  the  steps  taken  by  the 
initiated  to  gain  the  full  secrets  of  the  mysteries.  At  Rome  itself,  below 
the  church  of  S.  Clemente,  the  remains  (now  flooded  and  inaccessible)  of 
a  Mithraic  chapel  have  been  discovered — the  newer  worship  thus  literally 
superseding  the  older. 


1.6 


THE  HALL  OF  LNSCR1PT10NS  chap.  I 


bull  by  the  god  himself.  .  .  .  With  a  true  instinct,  the  Christian 
controversialists,  from  the  second  century,  recognised  in  this  cult  the 
most  dangerous  spiritual  foe  of  the  Church,  and  ascribed  its  similarity 
to  Christian  ritual  to  the  malign  ingenuity  of  demons.  In  its  expia- 
tion for  sins  by  bloody  baptism,  its  ascetic  preparation  for  the  holy 
mysteries,  its  oblation  of  the  consecrated  bread,  its  symbolic  teaching 
of  the  resurrection,  they  might  well  see  a  cunning  device  of  the  evil 
one  to  find  a  false  resting-place  for  souls  who  were  longing  for  the 
light"  (S.  Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last  Century  ■  of  the  Western 
Empire,  pp.  67-70). 

"As  Mithraicism  gradually  blended  with  Christianity,  changing  its 
name  but  not  altogether  its  substance,  many  of  its  ancient  notions  and 
rites  passed  over  too,  and  the  Birthday  of  the  Sun,  the  visible  mani- 
festation of  Mithras  himself,  was  transferred  to  the  commemoration  of 
the  Birth  of  Christ  "  (Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities). 
Thus  Chrysostom  says  :  "  On  this  day  (the  birthday  of  Mithras),  the 
birthday  of  Christ  was  lately  fixed  at  Rome  in  order  that  whilst  the 
heathen  were  busied  with  their  profane  ceremonies,  the  Christians 
might  perform  their  holy  rites  undisturbed." 

&W  We  nozv  enter  the  Roman  Gallery,  to  the  left  of  the  Entrance 
Hall,  aftemvards  visiting  the  three  Grceco-Roman  Rooms, 
which  open  the  one  out  of  the  other. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 

"  On  all  the  beautiful  figures  of  men  and  women,  throughout  the  ages, 
are  written  the  solemnities  and  majesty  of  the  law  they  knew, 
with  the  charity  and  weakness  of  their  obedience  ;  on  all  unbeauti- 
ful  features  are  written  either  ignorance  of  the  law,  or  the  malice 
and  insolence  of  the  disobedience"  (Ruskin,  The  Art  of  England, 
ch.  iii.). 

"Who  does  not  know  the  curly-headed  Marcus  Aurelius,  with  his 
lifted  brow  and  projecting  eyes — from  the  full  round  beauty  of 
his  youth  to  the  more  haggard  look  of  his  latest  years  ?  Are  there 
any  modern  portraits  more  familiar  than  the  severe,  wedge-like 
head  of  Augustus,  with  his  sharp-cut  lips  and  nose,  or  the  dull  phiz 
of  Hadrian,  with  his  hair  combed  down  over  his  low  forehead,  or 
the  vain,  perking  face  of  Lucius  Verus,  with  his  thin  nose,  low 
brow,  and  profusion  of  curls,  or  the  brutal  bull  head  of  Cara- 
calla?"  (Story,  Roba  di  Roma,  ch.  iv.). 

The  portraits  of  Roman  emperors  and  other  notabilities  of  the 
imperial  age  are  arranged  in  chronological  order,  covering  a 
period  of  250  years — from  Julius  Caesar  to  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  A,D.  Here,  as  still  more  in  the  Hall  of  the 
Emperors  in  the  Capitoline  Museum  at  Rome,  we  may  become 
familiar  with  the  faces  of  successive  rulers  of  the  Roman  world. 
Sometimes  the  evidence  of  the  marble  portrait  is  what  we 
should  expect  from  the  written  histories.  The  piercing  eye 
and  intellectual  brow  of  the  first  Caesar,  the  imperial  calm  and 
mastery  of  Augustus,  the  stern  simplicity  of  Trajan,  the  mild 
benignity  of  Antoninus  Pius,  the  clear  and  steadfast  gaze  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  the  bestial  ugliness  of  Caracalla :  these 
appearances  in  the  portraits  before  us  are  all  in  accordance 
with  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  men  as  severally  known 
to  us  in  history.  In  other  cases,  too,  the  contradictions  and 
uncertainties  of  historical  verdicts  are  reflected  in  the  marble 
countenances.    This  is  notably  the  case  with  Tiberius,  whose 

c 


i8 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


CHAP. 


"  white-washers  5;  might  find  in  his  portraits  no  little  support 
for  their  presentation  of  the  man.  Sometimes  the  evidence 
of  the  marble  seems  to  belie  the  concert  of  history,  and  thus 
serves  to  remind  us  of  the  grains  of  gold  which  may  exist 
even  in  the  coarsest  human  clay.  In  this  connection  some- 
thing must  be  allowed  to  the  persistence  of  family  types.  Two 
things,  indeed,  strike  us  equally  in  studying  any  representative 
collection  of  Roman  imperial  portraits.  One  is  a  certain 
unity  of  racial  character  ;  the  other,  a  marked  diversity  of 
family  types.  On  the  whole,  as  an  eloquent  writer  has  said, 
the  lords  of  the  Roman  world  are  a  high-born  company 1  : — 

"  The  prevailing  impression  is  of  undeniable  strength  and  developed 
character — developed  in  good  and  in  evil.  One  is  tempted  to  believe 
that  natural  selection  has  in  general  asserted  its  right ;  whether  it  were 
the  predecessor's  will,  or  votes  of  the  senators,  or  arms  of  the  legions, 
or  the  life-guards'  thirst  for  gold  that  opened  the  way  to  the  place  of 
honour  of  the  world's  empire.  Faces  that  say  nothing  are  not  many  " 
(Roman  Days,  from  the  Swedish  of  Viktor  Rydberg,  p.  28). 

But  the  strength  is  different  in  kind,  and  the  portraits  show 
successive  types  : — 

"  They  begin  with  a  fine,  regular  type,  which  more  or  less  sustains 
itself  through  all  the  members  of  the  Julian  family,  and  in  which  one 
might  be  inclined  to  see  the  influence  of  an  aesthetic  breeding  carried 
through  many  generations.  These  are  men  who  have  grown  up 
amid  Hellenic  paintings  and  sculpture,  have  brought  their  mental 
food  from  the  literature  of  Greece,  and  moved  in  circles  where  every 
gesture  passing  the  limit  of  beauty  shocks  ;  where  no  one  can  expect 
success  without  mastery  over  his  outer  man,  and  intuitive  knowledge 
of  the  dispositions  of  those  around  him  ;  and  where  perception  is 
sharpened  against  the  polished  exterior  of  his  companions.  With  the 
Flavians  a  coarser  mould  of  features  comes  on  ;  '  the  urbane '  gives 
way  for  something  rustic  ;  the  aesthetic  for  something  common.  The 
honest,  good-humoured,  but  stingy  toll-officer,  who  was  father  of  this 
house,  plainly  has  handed  down  his  face  to  Vespasian  and  Titus. 
Some  of  the  Antonines  have  a  spiritual  look  that  more  than  counter- 
balances the  refinement  of  the  Julians  ;  but  the  beauty  of  the  former 
is  less  a  heritage  than  a  personal  gain,  is  more  of  a  spiritual,  than  of  a 
bodily,  kind  "  (ibid.  p.  30). 


1  Carlyle  was  dissatisfied  with  them,  as  with  all  the  other  portraits, 
Greek  and  Roman,  of  gods  and  men.  "  After  going  with  Tennyson  to 
the  British  Museum,  and  looking  at  the  Greek  and  Roman  statues,  Carlyle 
said,  'Neither  man  nor  god  can  get  on  without  a  decent  jaw-bone,  and 
not  one  of  them  has  a  decent  jaw-bone      ( Tennyson  :  A  Memoir,  n.  234). 


II 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


19 


To  a  certain  extent  the  family  types  in  portraits  of  the 
imperial  house  were  no  doubt  due  to  the  sculptors.  They 
had  an  Augustan  type,  just  as  Greek  artists  of  an  earlier  time 
had  an  Alexandrine  type  (see  below,  p.  142).  This  community 
of  type  increases  the  difficulty  of  identifying  Roman  portraits. 
The  identification  rests  largely  on  the  evidence  of  coins,  and 
about  the  most  distinctive  portraits  there  is  no  uncertainty. 
We  shall  meet  some  of  the  emperors'  heads  again  when  we 
examine  the  coins  and  engraved  gems  (Chs.  XXIII.  and  xxvi.). 
But  a  considerable  number  of  the  portrait  busts  in  any  collec- 
tion remains  unidentified — a  fate  which  Mr.  Austin  Dobson  has 
lamented  in  his  lines,  "To  an  Unknown  Bust  in  the  British 
Museum  "  : — 

Who  were  you  once  ?    Could  we  but  guess, 

We  might  perchance  more  boldly 
Define  the  patient  weariness 

That  sets  your  lip  so  coldly  ; 
You  "  lived,"  we  know,  for  blame  and  fame  ; 

But  sure,  to  friend  or  foeman, 
You  bore  some  more  distinctive  name 

Than  mere  "B.C.,"  and  "Roman"?  .  .  . 

We  gaze  ;  we  pity  you,  be  sure  ! 

In  truth,  Death's  worst  inaction 
Must  be  less  tedious  to  endure 

Than  nameless  petrifaction  ; 
Far  better,  in  some  nook  unknown, 

To  sleep  for  once — and  soundly, 
Than  still  survive  in  wistful  stone, 

Forgotten  more  profoundly. 

The  art  of  portrait  statuary,  taking  rise  in  Greece,  was 
extended  by  a  natural  instinct  over  the  whole  world  ;  from 
public  characters  in  public  places,  the  iconic  statue  passed 
into  private  houses.  The  different  parts  of  the  world  in  which 
the  imperial  portraits  have  been  found  show  how  widely  dis- 
persed they  were.  Busts  or  statues  of  the  emperors  were  as 
much  de  rigneur  as  engravings  of  the  king  or  queen  among 
ourselves.  The  Romans  took  the  same  pride,  too,  in  rows 
of  portrait  statues  of  their  ancestors  that  is  taken  to-day  in 
galleries  of  family  portraits.  "  Those,"  says  Seneca,  "  who 
expose  the  family  images  in  the  hall,  with  the  names  in  long 
order,  are  rather  to  be  termed  notables  than  nobles."  On  the 
other  hand,  Valerius  Maximus  speaks  of  the  advantage  it  is 
to  a  man  to  be  surrounded  by  ancestral  portraits,  when  these 


20  THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


speak  of  services  rendered  to  the  State.  Roman  libraries,  too, 
were  often  filled  with  portrait  busts  of  men  of  letters  (see 
p.  47).  In  the  case  of  the  emperors,  their  statues  were 
sometimes  in  civil,  sometimes  in  military,  dress.  Nude  statues 
were  peculiarly  Greek  ;  the  Romans,  by  military  instinct,  added 
the  breastplate.  The  method  of  taking  a  cast  of  the  human 
face  was  well  understood,  and  Pliny  says  that  sculptors  liked 
to  have  these  casts  to  work  from.  Fidelity,  not  idealisation, 
was  what  the  sculptor  strove  after.  Many  of  the  busts  we 
possess  were  originally  intended  for  statues.  New  heads  were 
sometimes  put  upon  old  statues,  as  we  know  from  Tacitus  : 
"  Marcellus  had  set  the  bust  of  Tiberius  on  another  statue, 
from  which  he  had  struck  off  the  head  of  Augustus."  (The 
English  reader  may  consult,  for  some  general  remarks  on 
Roman  portraiture  and  references  to  authorities,  the  intro- 
ductory chapters  in  Baring-Gould's  Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars). 


We  describe  the  statues  in  their  order  against  the  walls 
(beginning  at  the  far  end  of  the  room)  : — 

Julius  Caesar  (born  100  B.C.;  died  44  B.C.). — "In  per- 
son,55 says  Froude,  "  Caesar  was  tall  and  slight.  His  features 
were  more  refined  than  was  usual  in  Roman  faces  ;  the  fore- 
head was  wide  and  high,  the  nose  large  and  thin,  the  lips  full, 
the  eyes  dark-grey,  like  an  eagle5s,1  the  neck  extremely  thick 
and  sinewy.  His  hair  was  short  and  naturally  scanty,  falling 
off  towards  the  end  of  his  life,  and  leaving  him  partially  bald.55 
This  bust  of  him  is  an  admirable  specimen  of  the  portraiture 
of  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  Republic  2  : — 

"  It  shows  us  the  man  as  he  lived,  his  features  and  expression,  ren- 
dered with  the  most  unsparing  realism,  no  detail  softened,  if  it  could 
add  to  the  individuality  of  the  portrait,  and  it  shows  in  its  lean  and 
expressive  features  the  wear  and  waste  due  to  a  restless  and  fiery 
genius.  If  we  contrast  this  face  with  that  of  Pericles  (p.  190),  and 
with  that  of  Alexander  (p.  140),  we  see  the  difference  not  only  between 
the  men,  but  also  in  the  art  that  portrayed  them.  Pericles  is  almost 
an  ideal  abstraction,  representing  the  calm  and  moderation  of  the 
statesman  and  leader.     In  Alexander  there  is  more  individuality,  but 

1  Dante  speaks  of  "Caesar  with  the  falcon  eyes"  {Inf.  iv.  120). 

2  The  authenticity  of  this  celebrated  bust  is  denied  by  Furtwangler, 
who  pronounces  it  a  modern  work  of  which  the  surface  has  been  skilfully 
corroded  in  imitation  of  the  antique  {Netiere  Falschungen  von  Antiken, 
1899,  p.  14). 


it  THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  21 


it  is  tempered  with  an  idealism  which  raised  him  above  mortality,  and 
gives  to  his  face  the  character  of  one  whose  career  was  too  astonishing 
to  be  due  to  mere  human  aims  or  means.  But  in  Caesar  the  sculptor 
has  portrayed  the  conqueror,  who  owed  his  success  to  his  own  con- 
summate genius,  which  was  too  strong  for  the  human  frame  that  it 
wasted  and  consumed  in  its  service.  It  is  the  man  himself  that  the 
sculptor  brings  before  us.  This  criticism  implies  that,  viewed  merely 
as  portraiture,  the  work  of  the  Roman  sculptor — or  rather  of  the 
Greek  sculptor  working  for  Romans — fulfils  its  object  the  most  com- 
pletely. But,  for  that  very  reason,  it  is  of  the  less  importance  for  the 
history  of  sculpture.  Though  it  is  a  more  valuable  document  for  the 
character  of  the  man  it  represents,  it  does  not  show  in  the  same  way 
the  impression  he  produced  upon  his  contemporaries.  The  portraits 
of  Pericles  and  of  Alexander  embody  a  conception  of  wider  and  more 
lasting  influence  than  the  individual  traits  of  the  man  they  represent " 
(E.  Gardner,  Handbook  of Greek  Sculpture ',  pp.  513-515). 

"This  splendid  bust,"  says  Mr.  Baring-Gould,  "is  full  of  character, 
especially  observable  in  the  profile.  There  is  a  wondrous  expression 
of  kindliness,  sincerity  and  patient  forbearance  with  the  weakness  of 
mankind  in  the  face,  also  a  little  weariness  of  the  strain  of  life.  .  .  . 
The  sculptor  has  caught  and  reproduced,  from  intimate  acquaintance 
with  his  model,  those  peculiarities  of  his  expression  which  Caesar's  face 
had  when  in  repose — the  sweet,  sad,  patient  smile,  the  reserve  of 
power  in  the  lips,  and  that  far-off  look  into  the  heavens,  as  of  one 
searching  the  unseen,  and  trusting  in  the  Providence  that  reigned 
there"  {The  Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars,  p.  114). 

Marcus  Brutus. — In  this  bust,  as  in  others  of  the  same 
original,  we  may  see  "  the  traditional  characteristics  of  Cassar's 
murderer — a  somewhat  limited  intelligence,  a  tendency  to 
gloomy  dreaming,  and  a  hardness  bordering  on  cruelty " 
(Helbig).  "  He  combed  his  hair  down  over  his  low  forehead, 
and  cut  it  straight  across  above  the  brows.  The  cheek-bones 
are  high  ;  there  is  no  breadth  and  no  indication  of  genius  in 
the  brow,  and  the  head  is  round  and  devoid  of  the  imaginative 
faculty.  The  pouting,  peevish  mouth  is  above  a  small  pro- 
truding chin.  Indeed,  the  lower  portion  of  the  face  is  pinched. 
All  the  portraits  that  exist  give  to  his  countenance  the  expres- 
sion of  a  cantankerous,  pettifogging  character"  (Baring-Gould, 
The  Tragedy  of  the  Ccesars,  i.  90). 

Augustus  (reigned  12  B.C. -14  A.D.).  —  Three  portraits 
of  the  founder  of  the  Roman  Empire — Caius  Octavius,  the 
great-nephew  and  adopted  son  of  Julius  Csesar.  The  first 
shows  the  emperor  in  maturity.  The  second,  from  the 
Castellani  collection,  shows  him  as  a  young  man.  The  third, 
a  very  fine  and  characteristic  bust,  shows  him  in  the  prime  of 


22  THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


life,  and  has  some  additional  interest  as  having  formed  part 
of  the  collection  of  the  great  Burke.  The  young  Augustus 
was  noted  for  his  singular  beauty.  "  In  contemplating  the 
formation  of  the  features,"  says  one  critic,  "  in  which  forehead 
and  nose  lie  nearly  in  the  same  line,  and  are  more  Hellenic 
than  many  Greek  portrait  busts,  you  are  reminded  that  the 
Octavian  race  took  its  rise  in  Thurii,  an  Athenian  colony  in 
Lower  Italy.  Suetonius,  the  biographer,  gives  us  the  colour 
of  these  forms.  The  lightly  waving  hair  was  of  golden  hue, 
the  eyes  had  a  mild  and  kindly  glance,  the  complexion  was 
between  tawny  and  white"  {Roman  Days,  p.  10).  But  though 
the  face  is  very  beautiful,  there  is  somewhat  of  gloom  in  the 
look.  The  eyebrows  are  prominent,  giving  the  countenance 
an  expression  of  great  concentration,  and  even  of  hardness 
when  seen  in  full  face,  but  of  melancholy  when  seen  in  profile. 
The  expression  seems  restrained  by  a  calculated  prudence, 
almost  bordering  on  shyness,  and  by  anxious  thought  of  the 
brilliant  but  perilous  future  before  him  (Helbig). 

In  the  portraits  of  the  emperor  in  the  prime  of  life  this 
expression  of  care  disappears :  Augustus  has  triumphed  over  his 
difficulties.  "  In  person,"  says  Suetonius,  "  he  was  delicately 
formed  and  graceful  through  every  period  of  his  life.  But  he 
was  negligent  in  his  dress,  and  so  careless  about  dressing  his 
hair  that  he  usually  had  it  done  in  a  scramble  by  several 
barbers  at  once.  His  countenance,  either  when  in  discourse 
or  silent,  was  so  calm  and  serene  that  a  Gaul  once  declared 
among  his  friends  that  on  his  passage  over  the  Alps  he  drew 
near  Augustus  with  the  deliberate  purpose  of  throwing  him 
over  a  precipice,  but  he  was  so  softened  by  the  serenity  of  the 
Prince's  face  that  he  desisted  from  so  doing."  In  all  the 
portraits  of  him  we  see  the  characteristic  dignity  and  control 
of  the  ruler  whose  proudest  title  it  was  to  be  the  Father  of  his 
country,  whose  ambition  it  was  to  embody  Peace  and  Order, 
and  who  asked  his  friends  on  his  death-bed  whether  he  had 
played  his  part  well  in  the  drama  of  life. 

The  Younger  Drusus  (died  23  a.d.). — Two  portraits  of 
the  son  of  Tiberius,  to  whom  he  bore  a  marked  resemblance, 
except  that  his  nose  was  more  prominent.  A  feature  in  the 
portrait  of  him  is  the  hair  worn  down  on  the  nape  of  the  neck. 
One  bust  was  found  at  Kyrenia,  in  Cyprus,  1884  ;  the  other 
in  Egypt.  Notice  the  cross  incised  on  the  forehead,  probably 
in  early  Christian  times. 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


Tiberius  (reigned  14-37  A.D.). — Two  portraits  of  this 
emperor,  the  stepson  of  Augustus.  One  was  found  at  Capri, 
the  scene  of  his  seclusion  and  reputed  orgies  ;  the  other  came 
from  the  collection  of  Burke,  and  is  described  as  "  Tiberius  or 
the  Younger  Drusus."  The  portraits  reflect  the  puzzle  of  his 
character,  with  its  alternations  of  control  and  indulgence,  and 
of  his  reign,  with  its  personal  and  private  vices,  and  yet  public 
felicity.  If  the  bust  from  Burke's  collection  be,  as  some  suppose, 
a  portrait  of  the  young  Tiberius,  it  is  in  strong  contrast  with 
the  evil  reputation  which  he  acquired  in  later  life.  The  face 
is  very  refined  and  sensitive,  but  there  is  sadness  in  it,  and  not 
a  little  weakness.  "  His  head,"  says  Gregorovius,  "is  full  of 
intellect  and  is  nobly  formed  ;  the  mouth  infinitely  refined 
and  beautiful.  One  expects  the  face  of  a  devil,  and  finds  the 
delicacy  of  feature  of  a  woman." 

The  other  portrait  shows  the  emperor  wearing  the  sash 
pertaining  to  his  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus.  The  bust  is 
characteristic,  though  the  restoration  of  the  nose  has  somewhat 
altered  the  character  of  the  face.  The  breadth  of  brow,  the 
rapid  narrowing  to  the  small  chin,  and  the  peculiar  mouth 
may  be  taken  to  denote  intellectual  capacity,  combined 
with  feebleness  of  purpose  and  over- sensitiveness  (Baring- 
Gould). 

Caligula  (reigned  37-41  A.D.). — Called  also  "  the  young 
Augustus."  Caligula  —  the  son  of  Germanicus  and  grand- 
nephew  of  Tiberius — as  a  youth  somewhat  resembled  Augustus, 
and  Suetonius  tells  us  that  the  people  were  wont  to  call  him 
"  the  young  Augustus."  Mad,  profligate,  and  cruel  though 
Caligula  proved  himself  to  be,  his  features,  as  shown  in  the 
busts,  are  regular  and  beautiful  ;  and  one  of  these — the  famous 
bust  in  green  basalt  in  the  Museum  of  the  Capitol — is  among 
the  very  finest  art  treasures  of  Rome.  The  present  bust  is 
beautiful  also,  but  there  is  "a  strain  of  dire  mental  tension  on 
the  forehead."  All  his  portraits,  it  has  been  said,  give  him  a 
violent  and  sinister  expression — a  true  image  of  his  cruel  and 
disturbed  mind. 

A  Priestess.  —  "The  drapery  is  richly  composed  and 
wrought  with  great  delicacy  and  facility  of  execution.  The 
composition  of  the  folds  is  strikingly  like  that  of  the  drapery 
of  the  female  statue  in  the  Mausoleum  Room,  which  is  com- 
monly called  Artemisia,"  p.  212  (Newton).  Sometimes  taken 
for  the  Empress  Livia. 


-'4 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


Claudius  (No.  1155)1  :  reigned  41-54  a.d. — This  emperor 
• — the  younger  son  of  Drusus  and  Antonia,  the  uncle  of 
Caligula,  and  nephew  of  Tiberius — was  poisoned  by  his  wife, 
Agrippina,  the  sister  of  Caligula  and  mother  of  Nero.  Though 
the  historians  of  the  time  draw  a  most  unfavourable  picture 
both  of  his  bodily  and  of  his  intellectual  qualifications,  he  was 
in  fact  an  able  ruler  ;  and  in  his  portraits  we  see  a  countenance 
which,  though  depressed  with  an  appearance  of  pain  and 
perplexity,  is  yet  handsome  and  intelligent : — 

"  A  well-formed  head,  against  which,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
beauty,  one  can  hardly  note  anything,  but  that  the  oval  of  the  face  is 
too  compressed.  The  broad  forehead  is  overcast  with  clouds  of 
melancholy.  The  eyes  disclose,  with  their  unsteady,  sad,  and  kindly 
look,  a  plodding  and  suffering  spirit,  that  is  conscious  of  its  noble 
birth,  but  unable  to  maintain  its  freedom  "  [Roman  Days,  p.  63). 

This  bust,  which  is  in  a  very  fine  style,  was  put  together 
from  several  fragments  found  on  the  floor  of  the  temple  at 
Priene  (Ch.  XII.).  It  shows  marks  of  the  fire  by  which  that 
temple  was  destroyed. 

Nero  (reigned  54-69  A.D.). — Nero,  the  son  of  Agrippina 
the  younger,  and  stepson  of  Claudius — who  lives  in  history  as 
a  monster  of  iniquity,  is  represented  in  his  busts  as  handsome 
in  countenance,  but,  as  Suetonius  remarks,  without  grace  or 
winningness  of  expression.  As  a  boy  he  inherited  -something 
of  the  beauty  of  the  Julian  family,  and  Seneca,  his  tutor, 
described  him  as  a  young  Apollo.  But  his  brow  was  low,  his 
neck  thick  and  sensual,  and  a  scowl  seems  to  mark  the 
expression  of  his  eyes.  This  bust  was  brought  from  Athens  in 
1740  by  Dr.  Askew. 

Otho  (reigned  69  A.D.). — With  Nero  the  Julian  stock 
came  to  an  end.  Otho — at  first  the  boon  companion  of  Nero, 
and  then  the  husband  of  Poppaea  Sabina,  whom  Nero  took 
away  from  him  —  seems  to  have  affected  to  imitate  that 
emperor  in  appearance.  He  was  an  exquisite  of  the  period. 
He  shaved  daily,  we  are  told,  and  rubbed  his  face  with  bread- 
sops.  This  portrait  shows  him  at  a  later  period,  and  at  his 
best,  when  "  he  suddenly  threw  off  the  habits  of  his  past  life, 
and  embraced  without  a  murmur  all  the  severities  of  service  in 
the  field."    The  wig  which  Otho  wore  is  easily  distinguishable. 

1  The  reference  is  to  the  number  in  the  new  Catalogue  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  issued  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum  (1892- 1900). 


II 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


25 


From  the  shortness  of  the  reign  of  this  emperor,  his  portraits 
are  very  rare.  This  one,  which  is  in  exceptionally  fine  con- 
dition, was  purchased  in  Alexandria.  The  head  is  coarsely 
but  forcibly  executed. 

An  Empress.  —  Variously  identified  as  Messalina,  as 
Agrippina  (wife  of  Claudius),  and  as  Domitia.  Found  on  the 
Esquiline  Hill,  1775.  The  hair  is  dressed  elaborately  in  the 
form  of  a  diadem. 

Domitia  Longina,  wife  of  Domitian  (reigned  81-96  a.d.). 
— Purchased  in  1865  at  the  sale  of  the  Pourtales  collection. 
The  empress  wears  an  expression  at  once  charming  and 
dignified. 

Trajan  (reigned  98-117  a.d.).  —  Excavated  by  Gavin 
Hamilton  in  the  Campagna.  In  very  fine  condition.  The 
want  of  elevation  over  the  forehead,  which  is  remarkable  in 
this  head,  may  be  observed  in  all  the  ancient  portraits  of  the 
emperor,  whether  in  medals  or  in  marble.  There  was  in 
this  great  ruler,  who  rose  from  the  ranks  of  the  army,  none 
of  the  beauty  of  the  imperial  families  ;  we  see  rather  in  his 
face  the  old  hardy  Roman  type.  He  had,  we  read,  a  fine 
figure  and  a  noble  countenance  : — 

M  In  stature  he  exceeded  the  common  height,  and  on  public  occasions, 
when  he  loved  to  walk  bareheaded  in  the  midst  of  the  senators,  his 
grey  hairs  gleamed  conspicuously  above  the  crowd.  His  features,  as 
we  may  trace  them  unmistakably  on  his  innumerable  busts  and 
medals,  were  regular,  and  his  face  was  the  last  of  the  imperial  series 
that  retained  the  true  Roman  type,  not  in  the  aquiline  nose  only,  but 
in  the  broad  and  low  forehead,  the  angular  chin,  the  firm  compressed 
lips,  and  generally  in  the  stern  compactness  of  its  structure  1 ;  the  thick 
and  straight-cut  hair,  smoothed  over  the  brow  without  a  curl  or  a 
parting,  marks  the  simplicity  of  the  man's  character  in  a  voluptuous 
age,  which  delighted  in  the  culture  of  flowing  or  frizzled  locks.  But 
the  most  interesting  characteristic  of  the  figure  I  have  so  vividly  before 
me  is  the  look  of  painful  thought,  which  seems  to  indicate  a  constant 
sense  of  overwhelming  responsibilities,  honourably  felt  and  bravely 
borne,  yet,  notwithstanding  much  assumed  cheerfulness  and  self- 
abandonment,  ever  irritating  the  nerves  and  weighing  upon  the  con- 
science "  (Merivale,  History  of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire ;  ch. 
ixiii.). 


1  Winckelmann  has  observed  that  generally  in  the  busts  of  Roman 
emperors  the  lips  are  closed,  indicating  peculiar  reserve  and  dignity,  free 
from  human  passion  and  emotion.  For  a  contrasted  usage  in  Greek 
sculpture  see  p.  135. 


26 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


Titus  (reigned  79-81  A.D.). — This  emperor — the  conqueror 
of  Jerusalem — was  very  handsome,  we  are  told,  with  a  fine 
commanding  presence.  There  was  in  him,  says  Merivale,  a 
certain  feminine  softness  which  ingratiated  him  with  those  who 
came  ordinarily  in  contact  with  him,  and  he  bore  the  reputation 
of  a  scholar  and  a  refined  thinker  no  less  than  that  of  a  great 
military  leader.  His  bust,  says  another  critic,  "  suggests  in 
the  clearest  manner  his  two  most  prominent  characteristics — 
his  marked  sensuality,  and  the  high  degree  of  benevolence 
which  curiously  enough  accompanied  it "  (Helbig).  His  fine 
saying,  "  I  have  lost  a  day,"  when  he  suddenly  remembered  one 
evening  that  he  had  done  no  act  of  kindness,  is  well  known. 
The  present  bust  was  found  at  the  Porta  Portese,  Rome,  and 
was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  the  late  Lord  Savile,  who, 
when  Ambassador  at  Rome,  took  so  great  an  interest  in 
archaeology. 

[Below  the  bust  of  Titus  are  two  portraits,  unidentified,  of 
the  time  of  the  Republic] 

Hadrian  (reigned  1 17-138  A.D.). — Of  this  remarkable  em- 
peror, who  visited  in  person  every  corner  of  his  vast  dominions 
and  combined  the  most  diverse  interests  and  tastes,  the  Museum 
possesses  several  portraits.  One  was  found  in  the  emperor's 
villa  at  Tivoli.  In  it  he  is  clad  in  armour  and  wears  the 
paludamentum  (military  cloak).  Another  was  formerly  in  the 
Villa  Montalto  at  Rome,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  busts  of  the 
emperor.  In  a  third  (see  below,  p.  29),  he  carries  emblems 
of  the  poet.  In  a  fourth  (in  the  Hall  of  Inscriptions,  p.  11), 
he  is  again  in  full  armour  as  military  commander  : — 

"  His  person  and  countenance,  which  we  have  unusual  means  of 
figuring  to  ourselves  from  the  number  of  his  busts,  statues,  and  medals, 
corresponded  well  with  his  character.  With  Hadrian  the  Roman  type 
of  features  begins  to  disappear.  Hadrian  is  neither  Greek  nor  Roman  ; 
he  is  of  no  race  nor  country,  but  rather  what  we  might  deem  the  final 
result  of  a  blending  of  many  breeds  and  the  purest  elements.  He  re- 
minds us  more  than  any  Roman  before  him  of  what  we  proudly  style  the 
thorough  English  gentleman,  with  shapely  trunk  and  limbs,  and  well- 
set  head,  no  prominent  features,  no  salient  expression,  but  a  general 
air  of  refinement  and  blood,  combined  with  spirit  and  intelligence. 
His  face  and  figure  are  both  eminently  handsome,  though  inclining  to 
breadth  and  bulk.  His  countenance  expresses  ability  rather  than  genius, 
lively  rather  than  deep  feelings,  wide  and  general  sympathies  rather 
than  concentrated  thought  or  fixed  enthusiasm.  The  sensual  predomi- 
nates in  him  over  the  ideal,  the"  flesh  over  the  spirit ;  he  is  an  adminis- 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


trator  rather  than  a  statesman,  a  man  of  taste  rather  than  a  philosopher. 
A  casual  observer  would  perhaps  hardly  notice  that  Hadrian  is  the 
first  of  the  Romans  whose  bust  is  distinguished  with  a  beard.  Hitherto, 
though  the  arrangement  of  the  hair  varies  from  one  generation  to 
another,  or  follows  the  personal  taste  of  the  wearer,  eveiy  public  man 
at  Rome  scrupulously  shaved  his  cheeks,  lip,  and  chin.  But  Hadrian 
Atticised  as  well  as  philosophised,  and  he  might  reasonably  incline  to 
cherish  the  natural  appendage  which  betokened  both  the  Greek  and 
the  sophist.  Some  indeed  whispered  that  he  suffered  hair  to  grow  on 
his.  chin  to  conceal  a  physical  blemish ;  but  this  explanation  seems  far- 
fetched, and  the  fashion  set  by  Hadrian  and  adopted  generally  by  his 
successors  seems  rather  to  indicate  a  change  in  the  feelings  of  the 
people,  and  their  inclination  to  disregard  the  special  distinction  of  race 
in  deference  to  views  more  enlightened  and  general  "  (Merivale,  History 
of  the  Romans  under  the  Empire,  ch.  lxvi. ). 

"It  has  been  observed,"  says  Gregorovius,  "that  the  busts  of 
Hadrian  show  a  foreign,  not  a  Roman  face,  possessing  neither  the 
Latin  beauty  of  the  Julian  family,  nor  the  mild  gravity  of  the  features 
of  Trajan.  ...  This  marble  face  does  not  convey  the  impression  of 
all  that  was  contained  in  the  character  of  this  strange  man.  He  was 
a  mass  of  contradictions,  which  no  single  portrait  could  display.  For, 
on  the  one  hand,  we  find  his  delight  in  the  intellect  of  Greece  and 
in  Eastern  sensuality,  his  enthusiastic  love  for  art,  his  sophistical 
versatility,  his  sound  judgment,  his  statesmanship,  his  humanity  and 
generosity.  But  there  is  also  the  darker  side  of  his  capricious  temper, 
his  inordinate  vanity,  his  love  of  irony  and  of  trifles,  and  his  gloomy 
mysticism.  Who  could  hope  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  traits  in 
one  portrait  ?  We  cannot  see  his  bust  without  asking  who  the  dis- 
tinguished man  is,  so  conscious  of  his  own  power,  with  the  questioning 
glance  and  the  light  observant  smile  playing  round  his  mouth.  It 
must  be  the  likeness  of  one  who  has  been  sovereign  in  some  sphere  of 
life,  and  has  ruled  over  the  spirit  of  his  age  "  ( The  Emperor  Hadrian, 
translated  by  Mary  E.  Robinson,  p.  186). 

Antinous.- — A  fine  specimen  in  Parian  marble  of  Roman 
sculpture  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  one  of  the  most 
noteworthy  of  the  numerous  representations  of  the  emperor's 
favourite  which  have  been  preserved.  The  head,  with  several 
parts  of  the  statue  to  which  it  belonged,  was  found  in  1770, 
in  small  pieces,  used  as  stones  in  a  wall  erected  in  some 
grounds  near  the  Villa  Pamphili  at  Rome. 

Antinous  was  born  of  unknown  parents  in  Bithynia,  and  was  brought 
in  early  youth  to  Rome,  where  he  soon  attracted  the  regard  of  the 
Emperor  Hadrian,  who  made  him  the  companion  of  his  travels  in  the 
East.  While  they  were  in  Egypt  Antinous  was  drowned  by  accident, 
as  the  emperor  reported  in  a  letter  to  the  Senate,  but  according  to 
another  account  by  an  act  of  self-devotion.     "The  Magi  had  pre- 


28  THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


dieted  danger  to  Hadrian's  life,  which  could  only  be  averted  by  the 
substitution  of  another  life.  Antinous  is  said  to  have  voluntarily 
offered  himself  to  the  dark  powers  of  fate  for  his  imperial  friend.  The 
regret  and  gratitude  of  the  emperor  knew  no  bounds.  Temples  were 
erected  to  Antinous  as  a  god  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  oracles  and  games 
established  in  his  honour,  and  countless  statues  set  up  in  every  part  of 
the  empire"  (W.  C.  Perry,  Catalogue  of  the  Collection  of  Casts  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum). 

The  large  number  of  these  representations  which  have 
survived,  and,  on  the  whole,  their  good  preservation,  are 
remarkable.  Some  have  argued  from  this  fact  that  his 
deification  was  generally  acceptable  in  the  ancient  world  and 
that  he  became  a  popular  saint,  his  legend  being  taken  as 
typical  of  the  self-devotion  of  Love.  He  is  often  represented,, 
as  in  this  bust,  with  the  attributes  of  Dionysus,  in  reference 
to  the  enthusiasm  which  inspired  his  supposed  self-sacrifice.. 
What  is  certain  is  that  the  desire  to  represent  the  deified 
favourite  of  the  emperor  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  art  of 
sculpture.  All  the  representations  of  Antinous  show  the  same 
peculiar  features  by  which  even  the  most  casual  observer 
cannot  fail  to  be  arrested.  Beneath  all  the  idealisation  of  the 
artists  a  strongly-marked  and  individual  character  survives  : — 

"  The  whole  body  combines  Greek  beauty  of  structure  with  something 
of  Oriental  voluptuousness.  The  same  fusion  of  diverse  elements  may 
be  traced  in  the  head.  It  is  not  too  large,  though  more  than  usually 
broad,  and  is  nobly  set  upon  a  massive  throat,  slightly  inclined  for- 
wards, as  though  this  posture  were  habitual ;  the  hair  lies  thick  in 
clusters,  which  only  form  curls  at  the  tips.  The  forehead  is  low  and 
somewhat  square  ;  the  eyebrows  are  level,  of  a  peculiar  shape,  and 
very  thick,  converging  so  closely  as  almost  to  meet  above  the  deep-cut 
eyes.  The  nose  is  straight,  but  blunter  than  is  consistent  with  the 
Greek  ideal.  Both  cheeks  and  chin  are  delicately  formed,  but  fuller 
than  a  severe  taste  approves  :  one  might  trace  in  their  rounded  con- 
tours either  a  survival  of  infantine  innocence  and  immaturity,  or  else 
the  sign  of  rapidly  approaching  over-bloom.  The  mouth  is  one  of  the 
loveliest  ever  carved  ;  but  here  again  the  blending  of  the.  Greek  and 
Oriental  types  is  visible.  The  lips,  half  parted,  seem  to  pout,  and  the 
distance  between  mouth  and  nostrils  is  exceptionally  short.  The  un- 
definable  expression  of  the  lips,  together  with  the  weight  of  the  brows 
and  slumberous  half-closed  eyes,  gives  a  look  of  sulkiness  or  volup- 
tuousness to  the  whole  face.  This,  I  fancy,  is  the  first  impression. 
which  the  portraits  of  Antinous  produce  ;  and  Shelley  has  well  con- 
veyed it1  by  placing  the  two  following  phrases,  'eager  and  im- 


1  In  his  prose  fragment  ' '  The  Coliseum. 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


passioned  tenderness'  and  '  effeminate  sullenness, '  in  close  juxta- 
position. But  after  longer  familiarity  with  the  whole  range  of 
Antinous's  portraits,  and  after  study  of  his  life,  we  are  brought  to 
read  the  peculiar  expression  of  his  face  and  form  somewhat  differently. 
A  prevailing  melancholy,  sweetness  of  temperament  overshadowed  by 
resignation,  brooding  reverie,  the  innocence  of  youth  touched  and 
saddened  by  a  calm  resolve  or  an  accepted  doom — such  are  the  sen- 
tences we  form  to  give  distinctness  to  a  still  vague  and  uncertain 
impression "  (J.  A.  Symonds  in  Sketches  and  Studies  in  Italy  and 
Greece). 

Julia  Sabina,  wife  of  Hadrian,  and  grand-daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Trajan's  sister.  The  hair  is  plaited  and  built  up  into 
an  elaborate  structure,  according  to  the  grotesque  fashion  of 
the  period,  as  described  by  Juvenal,  who  likens  these  arrange- 
ments of  hair  to  "towers  of  many  stories"  (vi.  502).  There 
is  a  singular  moroseness  in  the  expression  of  the  countenance 
which  corresponds  with  the  character  of  this  empress  as  given 
by  Spartianus. 

Bust  of  a  Young  Man. — Inscribed  as  dedicated  by  the 
Decemviri  stlitibus  jtcdicandis,  officials  who  presided  in  the 
Court  of  the  Centumviri.  It  has  been  conjectured  to  represent 
Marcus  Aurelius  or  Commodus.  It  was  found  in  excavations 
at  Rome,  and  probably  removed  surreptitiously,  as  Mr.  Townley 
notes  in  his  description  that  the  site  must  not  be  mentioned. 

Statue  of  Hadrian  (No.  1381,  see  p.  26),  found  broken  in 
two  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  at  Cyrene.  "  The  head,  which  was 
of  a  separate  piece  from  the  body,  from  which  it  could  be 
removed  at  pleasure,  fitted  into  a  socket — a  somewhat  bar- 
barous expedient  for  making  a  deceased  emperor  do  duty  as 
his  living  successors,  after  the  simple  change  of  the  head  and 
the  name."  Close  to  the  statue  was  found  an  inscription  with 
Hadrian's  name.  Presumably,  therefore,  the  statue  represents 
that  emperor,  though  the  likeness  is  not  a  strong  one.  In  the 
left  hand  is  a  sprig  of  laurel ;  on  the  head  a  pine  wreath, 
which  would  indicate  a  victory  in  some  Greek  festival  (Smith 
and  Porcher,  History  of  Rece?tt  Discoveries  at  Cyrene^  1864, 
pp.  42,  92). 

Antoninus  Pius  (No.  1463):  reigned  138- 161  a.d. — 
Found  at  Cyrene,  on  the  site  of  a  building  which  was  probably 
an  Augusteum.  When  discovered  beneath  the  ground  the 
bust  was  thickly  coated  with  an  incrustation  of  sand  and  lime  ; 
this  was  removed  by  warm  water  (Smith  and  Porcher,  pp. 
76,  95).     The  bust,  which  is  in  very  fine  condition,  is  an 


30 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


CHAP. 


admirable  portrait  of  the  good  emperor,  the  praise  of  whom 
by  his  adopted  son  Marcus  Aurelius  is  confirmed  by  the  uni- 
versal voice  of  antiquity,  and  who  gave  to  his  guard  as  his  last 
watchword,  Equanimity.  His  moral  excellences  were  set  off 
by  a  noble  figure  and  expression.  The  numerous  busts  of  him 
agree  in  representing  him  as  one  of  the  finest  in  personal 
appearance  of  the  whole  line  of  Caesars.  "  Seldom,"  it  has 
been  said,  "does  the  quiet  and  gentle  strength  of  moral  will 
shine  forth  from  the  features  of  a  Roman  emperor  as  from  the 
glorious  face  of  Antoninus  Pius  "  (Rydberg). 

I  saw  a  calm  and  Princely  Presence  come, 
Who,  stately  as  the  imperial  purple,  bore 
His  robe,  a  saint  in  mien,  mild,  innocent, 
Perfect  in  manhood,  with  clear  eye  serene, 
And  lofty  port ;  who  from  the  sages  took 
What  lessons  earth  could  give,  but  trod  no  less 
The  toilsome  path  of  Duty  to  the  end  ; 
And  as  he  passed  I  knew  the  kingly  ghost 
Of  Antoninus,  who  knew  not  Christ  indeed, 
Yet  not  the  less  was  His.    I  marked  the  calm 
And  thoughtful  face  of  him  who  ruled  himself, 
And  through  himself  the  world. 

Lewis  Morris,  Epic  of  Hades, 

Faustina,  the  elder. — The  unworthy  wife  of  Antoninus  Pius. 
A  fine  example  of  the  general  Roman  female  type,  of  mingled 
energy  and  sensuousness.  Found  in  1887  at  Rome,  in  the 
ruins  of  the  gardens  of  Sallust. 

Antoninus  Pius. — See  above  for  a  much  finer  portrait 
of  this  emperor. 

Marcus  Aurelius  (reigned  1 61-180  a.d.). — The  Museum 
is  fortunate  in  having  several  portraits  of  this  imperial  sage, 
who  has  been  called  by  a  critic  of  our  own  time  "the  most 
beautiful  figure  in  history,"  and  who  sought,  both  in  precept 
and  in  practice,  to  show  that  "  even  in  a  palace  life  may  be  led 
well."  His  countenance  was,  as  it  were,  the  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  inward  and  spiritual  grace.  Farther  on,  in  this 
room  (see  p.  32),  is  a  bust  of  the  emperor  in  his  gracious  and 
beautiful  youth.  The  present  statue  shows  the  emperor  as 
one  of  the  Fratres  Arvales,  a  college  of  priests  instituted  by 
Romulus,  whose  office  it  was  to  go  into  the  fields  in  procession 
at  certain,  seasons  and  offer  prayer  for  the  crops.  The  bust 
is  very  beautiful  and  characteristic.    For  Marcus  Aurelius,  we 


II 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


3i 


read,  was  attached  in  very  early  years  to  the  service  of  the 
altars,  and  was  "  observed  to  perform  all  his  sacerdotal 
functions  with  a  constancy  and  exactness  unusual  at  that  age  ; 
was  soon  a  master  of  the  sacred  music  ;  and  had  all  the  forms 
and  ceremonies  by  heart/'  No.  1464,  which  was  found  at 
Cyrene,  is  in  very  fine  condition,  having  sustained  no  injury 
except  a  fracture  across  the  neck.  The  hair  is  skilfully  dis- 
posed in  clustering  masses,  and  the  general  treatment  of  the 
head  is  simple  and  dignified  (Smith  and  Porcher,  pp.  76,  95). 
"  The  bust  rests  on  a  circular  plinth,  on  which  are  three 
leaves — an  ornament  the  same  in  intention  as  that  of  the  bust 
called  Clytie,"  see  p.  70  (A.  H.  Smith,  Catalogue  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  vol.  ii.).  In  the  Hall  of  Inscriptions  (see  p.  9)  is  a 
full-length  statue  of  the  emperor  in  civil  costume. 

Mr.  Pater,  in  a  chapter  entitled  "  The  Divinity  that  doth 
hedge  a  King,"  has  drawn  in  words  a  portrait  of  the  emperor 
which  will  be  read  with  interest  in  the  presence  of  these  marble 
effigies  : — 

"Amply  swathed  about  in  the  folds  of  a  richly  worked  toga,  Marius 
beheld  a  man  of  about  forty-five  years  of  age,  with  prominent  eyes — 
eyes,  which  although  demurely  downcast,  were  by  nature  broadly  and 
benignantly  observant.  He  was  still,  in  the  main,  as  we  see  him  in 
the  busts  which  represent  his  gracious  and  courtly  youth,  when 
Hadrian  had  playfully  called  him  not  Verus,  after  his  father,  but 
Verissimus,  for  that  candour  of  gaze,  and  the  bland  capacity  of  the 
brow  ;  which,  below  the  brown  hair,  clustering  as  thickly  as  of  old, 
shone  out  low,  broad,  and  clear,  and  still  without  a  trace  of  the 
trouble  of  his  lips.  It  was  the  brow  of  one  who,  amid  the  blindness 
or  perplexity  of  the  people  about  him,  understood  all  things  clearly. 
.  .  .  That  outward  composure  was  deepened  during  the  solemnities 
of  the  day  by  an  air  of  pontifical  abstractedness  ;  which,  though  very 
far  from  being  pride,  and  a  sort  of  humility  rather,  yet  gave,  to  him- 
self, an  aspect  of  unapproachableness,  and  to  his  whole  proceeding,  in 
which  every  minutest  act  was  considered,  the  character  of  a  ritual. 
...  It  was  that  pontifical  collectedness  which  now  impressed  itself 
on  Marius  as  the  leading  outward  characteristic  of  Aurelius  "  {Marius 
the  Epicurean,  ch.  xii.). 

Faustina,  the  younger. — Daughter  of  Antoninus  Pius,  and 
wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius  : — 

i 'The  most  beautiful  woman  in  the  world,  who  was  also  the  great 
paradox  of  the  age.  As  has  been  truly  said  of  the  numerous  repre- 
sentations of  her  in  art,  she  had  the  air  of  one  restless  to  enter  into 
conversation  with  the  first  comer.     She  had  certainly  the  power  of 


32 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY  chap. 


stimulating  a  very  ambiguous  sort  of  curiosity  about  herself.  And 
Marius  found  this  enigmatic  point  in  her  expression,  that  even  after 
seeing  her  many  times  he  could  never  precisely  recall  her  features  in 
absence  "  {Marius  the  Epicurean,  ch.  xiii. ). 

Claudia  Olympias. — A  bust  dedicated,  as  the  inscription 
shows,  to  a  lady  so  named  by  her  freedman,  Epithymetus. 
This  bust,  of  indifferent  sculpture,  but  in  excellent  condition, 
formerly  belonged  to  Burke.  It  is  probably  of  the  time  of 
Nero. 

A  Roman  Portrait. — Unidentified.  Found  at  the  Porta 
Portese,  Rome,  and  presented  by  Lord  Savile. 

Marcus  Aurelius  as  a  boy  (see  above). 

Lucius  Verus  (reigned  1 61-169  A.D.). — Associated  with 
Marcus  Aurelius  in  the  government  of  the  empire,  and  in 
spite  of  his  unworthiness  always  treated  by  the  elder  emperor 
with  great  forbearance.  The  bust  from  the  Pourtales  collec- 
tion shows  him  in  the  pleasant  comeliness  of  youth.  The 
statue  (made  of  one  block  of  marble)  shows  him  in  manhood. 
All  the  portraits  of  him  are  noticeable  for  the  hair,  of  which  he 
is  said  to  have  been  proud,  and  to  have  taken  special  care. 
This  statue  was  acquired  by  Mr.  Townley  from  the  Mattei 
collection.  There  is  another  portrait  of  Lucius  Verus  in  the 
Bronze  Room  (p.  440). 

Lucilla. — Daughter  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  wife  of  Lucius 
Verus.  This  finely-sculptured  bust  was  purchased  from  the 
Castellani  collection  in  1873. 

Commodus  (reigned  180-193  a.d.).  —  Son  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  and  Faustina.  This  infamous  prince,  whom  his 
biographer  calls  ik'  more  cruel  than  Domitian,  more  vicious 
than  Nero,"  inherited  something  of  his  father's  good  looks 
but  none  of  his  good  qualities.  The  insinuation  that  he  was 
the  base-born  son  of  a  gladiator — suggested  perhaps  by  his 
own  passion  for  the  shows  of  the  arena — is  belied  by  his 
strong  likeness  to  Marcus  Aurelius.  There  is,  however,  a 
singular  weakness  in  the  face  of  Commodus  ;  he  was,  we  are 
told,  the  slave  of  those  who  surrounded  him. 

Crispina. — The  profligate  wife  of  Commodus.  This  bust, 
which  is  in  excellent  condition,  comes  from  the  Pourtales 
collection. 

Pertinax  (reigned  193  A.D.). — This  emperor,  a  veteran 
soldier  and  prefect  of  Rome — who  reigned  only  three  months 
— -was  sixty-two  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  after  the 


II 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY 


33 


assassination  of  Commodus.  He  is  described  as  being  a 
"  toothless  but  hale  old  man,'5  and  we  see  in  his  face  some 
reversion  to  the  old,  hardy  type. 

Septimius  Severus  (reigned  193-21 1  ajx). — The  energy 
and  dominance  of  Severus's  character  and  his  capacity  for  rule 
— which  led  him  from  the  legions  on  the  Danube  to  the  im- 
perial throne — are  easily  traceable  in  his  portraits.  These 
correspond  with  the  description  of  his  biographer,  Spartianus  : 
ipse  decorus,  ipse  ingens,  firomissa  barba,  ca?io  capite  et  crispo, 
vultu  reverendus.  This  bust,  in  excellent  condition  and  well  exe- 
cuted, was  found  on  the  Palace  of  the  Caesars  in  Rome  in  1776. 

A  Female  Figure  (No.  141  5). — Found  in  the  Temple  of 
Venus  at  Cyrene.  "  It  is  evidently  a  portrait,  but  has  not  yet 
been  identified.  The  countenance  is  very  expressive,  and  the 
whole  statue,  though  not  finely  executed,  is  interesting  from  the 
simplicity  of  the  conception,  and  the  impression  it  conveys 
of  a  faithful  rendering  from  nature "  (Smith  and  Porcher, 
pp.  76,  97).  From  the  fashion  in  which  the  lady's  hair  is 
plaited,  the  portrait  is  ascribed  to  the  age  of  Hadrian. 

Caracalla  (reigned  2 1 1-2  1 7  a.d.). — The  face  of  this  emperor 
— perhaps  the  most  frantic  in  his  cruelties  of  all  the  tyrants 
who  disgraced  the  purple  of  the  Caesars — is  that  of  a  wild 
beast  rather  than  of  a  man.  As  numerous,  almost  identical 
examples  of  the  bust  have  been  discovered,  we  may  accept 
it  as  embodying  the  portrait  approved  by  the  emperor  and 
officially  vouched.  He  specially  prided  himself  on  his 
ferocious  expression,  which  is  reproduced  in  the  portrait  busts 
of  the  time  with  a  realism  that  almost  causes  horror.  The 
head,  it  will  be  observed,  inclines  towards  the  right  shoulder. 
It  is  stated  by  his  biographer,  Aurelius  Victor,  that  Caracalla 
affected  this  attitude  and  a  scowling  expression  in  order  to  be 
thought  like  Alexander  the  Great.  The  treatment  of  the  hair, 
in  short  crisp  curls,  probably  represents  the  close  yellow  wig 
which  Caracalla  is  said  to  have  worn.  This  bust  was  found 
on  the  Esquiline  Hill  in  1776.  The  other  bust  of  him  is  very 
similar  in  expression. 

Julia  Mammsea.  —  Mother  of  the  gentle  and  pious 
Alexander  Severus  (who  reigned  222-235  A.D.),  his  guardian, 
and  for  many  years  the  real  head  of  the  administration.  The 
hair  is  plainly  arranged  in  front  and  looped  behind  the  ear. 
This  bust,  formerly  in  the  collection  of  Cardinal  Fesch,  came 
to  the  Museum  from  the  Pourtales  collection. 

D 


THE  ROMAN  PORTRAIT  GALLERY      chap,  ii 


G-ordianus  Africanus,  the  elder  (reigned  238  a.d.). — 
Gordianus,  procurator  of  Africa,  was  proclaimed  emperor  at 
Carthage,  and  wore  the  purple  for  a  month.  He  was  a  scholar, 
a  poet,  and  a  man  of  integrity. 

Sabinia  Tranquillina. — Wife  of  Gordian  the  Third,  who 
reigned  238-244  a.d.  Her  father,  Timesitheus,  was  appointed 
Pretorian  Prefect,  and  to  his  ability  was  due  the  brief  tran- 
quillity which  the  empire  enjoyed  under  Gordian. 

Otacilia  Severa. — Wife  of  Philip  the  elder  (reigned  244 
A.D.). 

Herennia  Etruscilla. — Wife  of  Trajanus  Decius  (reigned 
249-25  1  A.D.). 

Female  Bust. — Unidentified,  belonging  to  the  period  230- 
260  A.D.     From  the  Castellani  collection. 

Portrait  Bust. — Dedicated,  as  the  inscription  tells  us,  to 
L.  Vetulenius  Caricus  by  his  heir  and  friend,  L.  Julius 
Theseus. 

[On  the  wall  high  above  the  busts  are  Roman  mosaics  :  for 
these  see  Ch.  XIV.  On  the  other  side  of  the  room  are  Roman 
antiquities  found  in  this  country  :  see  Ch.  XXVili.] 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  FIRST  GR^CO-ROMAN  ROOM 

Greece,  conquered  Greece,  her  conqueror  subdued, 
And  Rome  grew  polished,  who  till  then  was  rude. 

This  and  the  two  succeeding  rooms  are  called  "  Grseco- 
Roman,"  because  they  are  appropriated  to  sculptures  which 
were  discovered  elsewhere  than  in  Greece  and  mainly  in  Rome, 
but  which  in  style  and  subject  were  derived  from  Greece.  The 
saying  of  Horace,  that  Greece  led  her  conquerors  captive,  is 
familiar.  During  the  first  five  centuries  of  her  existence, 
Rome  "neither  possessed,"  says  Plutarch,  "nor  knew  of  any 
curiosities  of  this  kind,  being  a  stranger  to  the  charms  of  taste 
and  elegance."  The  Romans  were  content,  in  Macaulay's 
words,  to  "  leave  to  the  Greek  his  marble  nymphs."  But  after 
the  conquest  of  Greece,  Roman  generals  began  to  carry  back 
with  them,  among  their  spoils,  works  of  Greek  art.  The  con- 
templation of  these  refined  the  taste  of  the  more  cultivated  of 
the  Romans.  Cicero  has  recorded  for  us  the  acts  of  meanness 
and  violence  into  which  Verres  was  driven  by  his  passionate 
connoisseurship.  The  emperors  despoiled  the  cities  of  Greece 
in  the  most  wholesale  manner,  and  filled  the  palaces  and 
temples  of  Rome  with  Greek  masterpieces.  The  greater  part 
of  these  has  perished,  but  among  the  works  in  our  Museum, 
which  have  been  excavated  in  or  about  Rome,  some  few 
Hellenic  originals,  transplanted  by  the  Romans  from  Greece, 
may  be  included.  The  plunder  of  Greece  by  the  Romans  was, 
however,  followed  by  the  migration  of  Greek  artists  to  Rome, 
and  most  of  the  Grseco- Roman  works  here  collected  were 
executed  in  the  time  of  the  emperors.  They  were  the  work  of 
Greek  sculptors,  based  on  Greek  models,  but  were  executed  in 
Rome  to  suit  the  Roman  taste. 

Three  classes  of  such  Graeco-  Roman  works  may  be  dis- 

35 


36 


THE  FIRST  GRAlCO- ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


tinguished  :  (i)  direct  copies  from  Greek  originals — such,  for 
instance,  as  the  Caryatid  in  this  room  ;  (2)  variations,  in 
representations  of  divinities,  upon  a  limited  number  of  well- 
known  types  ;  (3)  perversions  of  Greek  types  to  suit  the  less 
refined  taste  of  Imperial  Rome — as,  for  instance,  the  Venus  in 
this  room. 

In  some  directions,  it  should  be  added,  Roman  sculpture 

struck  out  new  paths  for  itself.  Thus,  it  excelled  in  portraiture 
of  a  realistic  kind,  as  we  saw  in  the  Roman  Gallery  ;  it  grafted 
foreign  deities  upon  Roman  or  Greek  types  (as,  for  instance, 
the  Jupiter-Serapis,  p.  64)  ;  and  it  personified  abstract  ideas 
and  localities  more  freely  than  was  usual  in  Greek  art.  Akin 
to  Roman  realism  in  portraiture  was  the  historical  sculpture 
which  decorated  triumphal  arches  with  contemporary  scenes. 
The  Greek  custom  (as  we  shall  see)  was  very  different  (p.  170). 
Lastly,  we  may  note,  as  something  distinctive  of  the  Graeco- 
Roman  school,  the  revival  of  art  which  took  place  under 
Hadrian,  which  has  filled  the  museums  and  galleries  with 
idealised  portraits  of  his  favourite,  Antinous.  The  task  of  the 
student  and  connoisseur  in  this  branch  of  archaeology  consists 
in  no  small  measure  in  deriving  and  reconstructing  Greek 
originals  from  Graeco-Roman  copies,  and  distinguishing  pure 
Greek  types  from  Graeco-Roman  modifications.1  We  shall 
therefore,  in  the  following  notes,  include  occasional  references 
to  such  points. 

A  large  part  of  our  collection  of  Graeco-Roman  works  came 
from  the  collection  of  Mr.  Charles  Townley  (1 737-1 805),  who 
may  almost  be  called  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Museum.  He 
was  of  an  ancient  and  Catholic  family  of  Lancashire,  and  his 
ample  means  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  gratifying  his 
archaeological  tastes.  By  singular  good  fortune  he  settled  at 
Rome  in  1765,  in  an  era,  next  to  that  of  Leo  X.,  the  most 
interesting  and  fruitful  in  the  discovery  of  antiquities.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  confidence  of  three  British  residents  in  Rome, 

1  Among  the  best  English  works  on  ancient  sculpture  are: — A.  S. 
Murray's  History  of  Greek  Sculpture  (2  vols.,  Murray);  E.  Gardner's 
Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture  (2  vols.,  Macmillan)  ;  Upcott's  Introduction 
to  Greek  Sculpture  (Clarendon  Press)  ;  and  W.  C.  Perry's  Greek  and 
Roma?i  Sculpture  (Longmans).  Mr.  Perry's  Catalogue  of  the  valuable 
Collection  of  Casts  presented  by  him  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum 
(where  they  deserve  to  be  better  shown)  is  also  an  instructive  work. 
Furtwangler's  great  work  has  been  translated  into  English  :  Masterpieces  of 
Greek  Sculpture  (Heinemann). 


in  THE  FIRST  GRAL CO- ROMAN  ROOM  37 


who  had  formed  a  sort  of  syndicate  for  excavation.  These 
were  James  Byres,  an  architect,  Gavin  Hamilton,  and  Thomas 
Jenkins,  a  banker.  Many  of  the  marbles  which  he  bought 
came  from  excavations  at  Hadrian's  Villa  and  at  Tivoli. 
Townley  also  bought  largely  from  existing  collections.  In 
1777  he  returned  to  England  and  exhibited  his  treasures  in  a 
house  in  Park  Street,  Westminster.  "  The  arrangement,"  we 
read,  "  was  so  classically  correct,  and  with  accompaniments  so 
admirably  selected,  that  the  interior  of  a  Roman  villa  might 
be  inspected  in  our  own  metropolis."  He  continued  to  import 
antiquities  largely,  and  would  start  off  at  a  moment's  notice 
to  be  present  at  some  specially  promising  excavation.  His 
collection  was  always  accessible  to  students,  and  by  his  will 
he  left  the  whole  of  it  to  the  nation.  By  a  later  codicil, 
necessitated  by  family  arrangements,  this  bequest  was  made 
conditional  and  reversionary.  Upon  his  death  in  1805,  his 
executors  offered  the  marbles  and  terra-cottas  to  the  Museum, 
and  these  were  purchased  by  Parliament  for  ^20,000.  His 
other  collections — of  gems,  coins,  etc.- — were  purchased  in  1 8 1 4 
for  ,£8200  (see  The  Tow?iley  Gallery,  by  Sir  H.  Ellis,  1836). 
To  Townley's  enterprise,  therefore,  it  is  owing  that  some  share 
of  the  Graeco-Roman  antiquities  excavated  in  Italy  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  found  its  way  into  our  Museum. 

The  Townley  marbles  were,  however,  in  accordance  with 
the  custom  formerly  prevalent  in  Italy,  freely  restored.  Among 
the  persons  employed  in  this  way  at  Rome  was  Nollekens, 
the  sculptor.  Gavin  Hamilton  and  Nollekens  used  at  one 
time  to  go  shares  in  what  they  bought ;  "  and  as  I  (said 
Nollekens)  had  to  match  the  pieces  as  well  as  I  could,  and 
clean  'em,  I  had  the  best  part  of  the  profits.  Why,  I  got  all 
the  first,  and  the  best,  of  my  money  by  putting  antiques 
together."  Nollekens  used  to  restore  his  antiques  by  fitting 
heads  and  arms  to  trunks  at  his  own  sweet  will,  and  Townley 
was  among  the  most  constant  of  his  customers  for  these  botched 
goods.  In  other  cases  Townley  himself  employed  Nollekens 
to  restore  his  antiques  by  the  addition  of  modern  arms.  The 
sculptor's  biographer,  who  stood  to  him  for  some  of  these 
restorations,  has  left  reminiscences  which  are  interesting,  but 
to  the  archaeological  student  painful,  on  this  point.  (See  J.  T. 
Smith's  Nollekens  and  his  Times,  1828,  vol.  i.  pp.  10,  184, 
251,  etc.) 


3* 


THE  FIRST  GR/ECO- ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


Ample  is  the  glory  stored  up  for  Olympian  winners.'  What 
Pindar's  contemporaries  asked  of  him  for  the  due  appreciation,  the 
consciousness,  of  it,  by  way  of  song,  that  the  next  generation  sought, 
by  way  of  sculptural  memorial  in  marble.  ...  In  the  courts  of 
Olympia  a  whole  population  in  marble  and  bronze  gathered  quickly, — 
a  world  of  portraits,  out  of  which,  as  the  purged  and  perfected  essence, 
the  ideal  soul,  of  them,  emerged  the  Diadunienus ,  for  instance,  and 
the  Discobolus.  .  .  .  All  over  Greece  the  enthusiasm  for  gymnastic, 
the  life  of  the  gymnasia,  prevailed.  It  was  a  gymnastic  which,  under 
the  happy  conditions  of  that  time,  was  already  surely  what  Plato  pleads 
for,  already  one-half  'music,'  a  matter,  partly,  of  character  and  of 
the  soul,  of  the  fair  proportion  between  soul  and  body,  of  the  soul  with 
itself.  Who  can  doubt  it  who  sees  and  considers  the  still  irresistible 
grace,  the  contagious  pleasantness,  of  the  Discobolus,  the  Diadumentis, 
and  a  few  other  precious  survivals  from  the  athletic  age  which  imme- 
diately preceded  the  manhood  of  Phidias,  between  the  Persian  and  the 
Peloponnesian  wars  ?  "  (Pater,  Greek  Studies,  p.  296). 

The  period  and  phase  of  Greek  art  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Pater  as  "  the  Age  of  Athletic  Prizemen  "  are  represented  by 
the  collection  of  athletic  statues  arranged  around  the  door  of 
this  room.  The  spirit  of  it  seems  to  be  concentrated  in  the 
small  figure  of  an  athlete  in  white  marble,  poised  gracefully, 
on  the  extreme  right.  This  charming  figure,  from  the  West- 
macott  collection,  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  copy  of  a  work 
by  Polyclitus  ;  by  others,  to  belong  to  the  later  Attic  school, 
1st  century  B.C.,  and  to  belong  to  a  group  of  the  Orestes  and 
Pylades  type.  The  other  figures  are  on  a  larger  scale,  and  we 
will  notice  them  in  order,  turning  first  to  the  left : — 

The  "Vaison"  Diadumenus  (500).  — A  Graeco-Roman 
copy,  found  at  Vaison,  in  Provence,  in  1862,  of  the  Diadu- 
menus (or  youth  binding  a  diadem)  by  Polyclitus  : — 

Polyclitus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Phidias,  was  the  chief 
sculptor  of  the  Argive  school.  His  activity  covered  roughly  the  years 
450-420  B.C.  He  was  an  architect  as  well  as  a  sculptor.  He  worked 
also  in  gold  and  ivory,  and  was  celebrated  for  his  chasing  of  precious 
metals.  He  wrote  a  book,  now  lost,  on  the  proportions  of  the  human 
figure,  and  drew  up  a  canon  for  the  use  of  sculptors.  Most  of  his 
statues  rested  on  one  leg,  and  ancient  writers  speak  of  them  as  being 
square-set  in  form.  "But  although,"  says  Quintilian,  "the  palm  is 
awarded  to  him  by  most  persons,  yet,  that  some  qualification  may  be 
made,  they  think  that  he  wanted  dignity,  for  though  he  endowed  the 
human  form  with  a  beauty  beyond  the  truth  of  nature,  he  did  not  reach 
the  sublimity  of  the  gods."  Works  in  the  Museum  which  have  been 
brought  into  relation  with  Polyclitus  are,  besides  the  Diadumenus,  an 
Amazon  (p.  69)  and  a  head  of  Hera  (p.  192). 


in  THE  FIRST  GRjECO-ROMAN  ROOM  39 


The  "  Diadumenus "  was  ori£  of  his  most  famous  works. 
It  fetched,  Pliny  tells  us,  100  talents  at  an  auction — an  enor- 
mous sum  in  antiquity,  and  was  copied  in  innumerable  forms 
in  marble  and  bronze.  The  Diadumenus  is  a  victorious 
athlete,  binding  about  his  head  the  sacred  diadem  over  which 
the  judge  was  to  place  the  wreath  of  wild  olive.  The  subject 
afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  for  displaying  the  symmetry 
and  proportion  of  the  arms  and  chest.  Another  subject  of  the 
artist  was  the  "  Doryphorus ;'  or  spear-bearer,  and  of  these 
two  subjects  Pliny  says  that  the  one  represented  "  a  young 
man  of  soft  forms  "  (juvenis  molliter) ;  the  other,  "  a  boy  of 
manlike  forms  "  {ftuer  viriliter).  Of  the  beauty  of  the  head 
of  the  Diadumenus  the  present  copy  gives  no  idea.1  "  The 
weak  point  about  the  statue,"  says  Furtwangler,  "  is  the 
motive.  The  pause  in  the  act  of  walking  is  not  appropriate 
to  the  principal  action  represented.  No  one  walks  about 
while  tying  a  ribbon  round  his  head.  Polyclitus  cannot 
identify  himself  with  his  subject  sufficiently  to  create  the 
motive  from  the  centre  outwards.  The  first  consideration  for 
him  is  the  beauty  of  rhythmic  movement ;  the  meaning  of  the 
movement  comes  second.  The  result  is  that  the  movement  is 
beautiful  indeed,  but  appears  unnatural,  nay,  even  affected " 
{Masterpieces,  p.  244). 

Turning  now  to  the  other  side  of  the  doorway,  we  notice 
the  statue  of  a  hero.  This  noble  figure  of  a  young  hero, 
from  the  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome,  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy  of 
an  original  by  Calamis  (about  500-460  B.C.),  an  Athenian 
sculptor  whose  school  flourished  alongside  of  that  of  Phidias, 
and  was  characterised  by  a  somewhat  greater  degree  of 
stiffness.  "  Who,"  says  Cicero,  "  does  not  know  that  the 
statues  of  Canachus  are  too  rigid  to  be  true  to  nature  ;  that 
those  of  Calamis,  while  still  hard,  are  yet  softer  than  those  of 
Canachus  ? "  The  statue  before  us  shows  the  original  Attic 
composition  for  the  type  of  Hercules — a  strong  and  beautiful 
young  man,  free  and  bold  in  attitude,  with  the  left  leg  placed 
flat  on  the  ground  to  one  side,  and  the  head  turned  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  free  leg  ;  the  right  arm  hangs  down,  and 

1  ' '  The  head  of  the  '  Vaison  '  can  give  us  but  a  very  unsatisfactory 
notion  of  the  original  ;  not  so  much  because,  like  the  body,  it  is  a  poor 
and  careless  piece  of  work,  as  because  it  is  so  much  defaced  and  so  much 
and  so  arbitrarily  worked  over"  (Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  edited  by  Eugenie  Sellers,  p.  239). 


4o  THE  FIRST  GRJS.CO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


the  left  arm  and  forearm  is.  extended  and  carries  a  club 
(Furtwangler's  Masterpieces,  p.  298).  In  the  present  statue 
a  chlamys,  falling  in  firm,  vigorous  folds,  is  flung  over  the 
hero's  left  shoulder.  The  body  is  beautiful  and  life-like.  The 
hair  has  a  strongly  plastic  quality,  the  eyes  are  heavy-lidded, 
the  mouth  is  full  and  open.  It  is  an  admirable  realisation  of 
"  the  young  man  rejoicing  in  his  strength."  Later  sculptors 
introduced  some  element  of  pathos  into  the  faces  of  their 
victorious  athletes. 

The  "Farnese"  Diadumenus  (501). — From  the  Farnese 
Palace  at  Rome.  Often  considered  a  copy  of  the  original  by 
Polyclitus  (see  under  500  above),  and  the  nearest  approach, 
according  to  Dr.  Murray,  to  Pliny's  description,  as  an  example 
of  "a  boy  with  manlike  forms"  : — 

"The  torso  is  strongly  marked,  as  of  an  athlete,  though  the  outline 
of  the  chest-bones  is  softened  down.  The  calves  of  the  legs  and  the 
feet  are  softly  covered  with  flesh  and  rounded.  The  thighs  also  are 
fleshy  rather  than  muscular,  while  down  the  back  of  the  left  thigh  (the 
other  is  invisible)  runs  a  sharp  muscle,  as  in  the  leg  of  a  boy  rather 
than  a  man.  Again,  the  face  is  soft  and  young,  while  the  large 
development  of  the  skull,  and  the  diminished  proportions  of  the  statue 
as  a  whole,  are  characteristic  of  youth  "  {History  of  Greek  Sculpture, 
i.  314)' 

On  the  other  hand,  Furtwangler  attributed  this  copy  to  an 
original  by  Phidias  : — 

"  (In  respect  of  motive)  the  Farnese  Diadumenus  far  surpasses  the 
Diadumenus  of  Polycleitus  by  the  very  simplicity  and  naturalness  of  the 
conception.  The  youth  stands  still  and  puts  on  the  fillet  just  as  he 
would  have  done  in  real  life.  There  is  neither  stride,  nor  bend  of  the 
head,  nor  forced  attitude  of  the  right  elbow  near  the  body.  .  .  .  The  head 
and  the  bodily  forms,  the  whole  appearance  and  bearing,  are  nowhere 
more  closely  parallel  than  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon.  .  .  .  We  are 
justified  in  expressing  the  opinion  that  the  Farnese  statue  is  a  copy  of 
the  Phidian  Diadumenus  in  Olympia.  ...  It  is  clear  from  a  con- 
sideration of  form  alone  that  the  Farnese  type  is  a  pure  product  of  the 
older  style,  as  the  attitude  and  the  treatment  of  the  hair  show  most 
clearly  ;  further,  the  natural  simplicity  of  the  motive  proves  that  we 
have  it  here  in  its  original  form.  Polycleitus  borrowed  the  motive 
from  Phidias,  and  gave  it  an  artistic  elaboration  which  never  could 
have  formed  part  of  the  earliest  conception "  (see  Masterpieces, 
pp.  244-245). 

Head  of  a  Diadumenus. — See  under  No.  500,  above. 
This  head,  recently  obtained  from  Greece,  is  (says  Mr.  A.  H. 


Ill 


THE  FIRST  GRAECO-ROMAN  ROOM 


41 


Smith)  "of  a  finer  style  than  either  of  the  two  statues,  and 
probably  nearer  to  the  work  by  Polycleitus "  {Guide  to  the 
Department,  p.  91). 

We  now  proceed  past  the  opening  and  notice  a  Canephora. 
This  figure  of  a  "  basket -carrier "  was  found  with  four 
similar  figures  among  some  ancient  ruins  in  the  Villa  Strozzi 
on  the  Appian  Way.  It  is  evidently  an  architectural  statue, 
and  the  figures  probably  supported  the  portico  of  a  small 
temple.  On  one  of  them  was  an  inscription  showing  that  it 
was  made  by  Athenian  sculptors  in  the  Roman  period.  The 
figure  is  a  Graeco-Roman  imitation  of  the  Caryatids  of  the 
Erechtheum  at  Athens.  One  of  the  latter  is  exhibited  in  the 
Elgin  Room  (p.  195),  and  a  comparison  of  the  two  figures  gives 
a  clear  idea  of  the  difference  between  Greek  and  Graeco-Roman 
art  (C.  T.  Newton,  Guide  to  the  First  GrcFCO-Ro?nan  Room). 
The  later  work  is  more  formal,  and  lacks  the  graceful 
spontaneity  of  the  original. 

Dionysus. — From  the  Castellani  collection.  Discovered  at 
Posilipo  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  1874.  There  is  none  of  the 
Greek  gods  who  underwent  such  transformations  both  in 
worship  and  in  art  as  Dionysus,  the  wine-god.  Nothing  can 
be  more  dissimilar  than  the  type  here  set  before  us,  and  that 
which  we  shall  often  meet  of  the  youthful  Bacchus.  This 
later  type  was  evolved  by  the  Greek  imagination  as  an 
embodiment  of  the  impressions  derived  from  the  vine  and  its 
fruit  (see  Mr.  Pater's  Study  of  Dionysus').  The  earlier  type, 
represented  in  the  statue  now  before  us,  embodies  rather  the 
Asiatic  conception  of  the  god  (whose  worship  originated  in  the 
East)  and  his  legendary  advent  to  Greece.  He  is  a  man  of 
years,  with  a  long  beard,  wide  draperies,  and  majestic  pose, 
having  the  appearance  of  an  Asiatic  monarch.  It  is  thus  that 
he  is  represented  in  a  series  of  bas-reliefs  as  entering  into  the 
house  of  mortals  (see  the  relief  in  the  Third  Graeco-Roman 
Room,  p.  62). 

Bust  of  Jupiter. — This  bust,  found  in  Hadrian's  Villa,  at 
Tivoli,  was  presented  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Barber  Beaumont,  1836. 
It  is  very  coarsely  sculptured,  but  reproduces  in  some  sort  the 
normal  Greek  conception  of  the  head  of  Zeus — a  conception 
which  Graeco-Roman  sculptors  adopted,  and  which  is  best  seen 
in  the  "  Otricoli  Jupiter "  of  the  Vatican.  The  hair  rises 
straight  up  on  the  forehead,  and  falls  down  on  each  side  of  the 
head  like  a  mane.     The  head  is  full  and  massive,  and  flows  in 


42  THE  FIRST  GRJE CO-R OA/A N  ROOM  chap. 


rich  curls.  The  god  is  thus  given  a  certain  leonine  aspect, 
but  mildness  is  mixed  with  majesty  in  the  general  effect,  as 
befits  one  who  is  the  Gracious  Father  as  well  as  the  Omnipotent 
Ruler.  There  is,  however,  something  exaggerated  and  stagey 
in  this  type  :  the  pure  Greek  type,  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
"  Asclepius "  in  the  Elgin  Room,  and  on  a  smaller  scale  on 
several  Greek  coins,  is  at  once  simpler  and  more  effective. 

On  either  side  of  the  door  is  a  bust  of  Minerva.  Here,  as 
in  the  Jupiter,  we  see  a  conventional  type  adapted  by  Graeco- 
Roman  artists  from  the  earlier  Greek  representations.  The 
goddess  has  clear-cut,  severe  features  and  a  thoughtful 
expression  ;  the  hair,  divided  into  two  parts  and  slightly 
waving,  frames  a  severe  brow  beneath  a  helmeted  head  ;  the 
mouth  is  stern,  the  head  somewhat  bent.  The  Greeks  in 
Athena,  and  the  Romans  in  Minerva,  personified  the  warlike 
courage  which  guarantees  peace  and  the  intellectual  activity 
which  makes  peace  fruitful.  In  one  of  the  busts  Minerva's 
owl  is  sculptured  on  each  side  of  the  helmet.  The  sockets  of 
the  eyes,  now  hollowr,  were  originally  filled  with  some  viscous 
material  ;  it  appears  from  an  extant  inscription  that  the  art  of 
putting  the  eyes  into  marble  statues  was  a  distinct  profession. 

Satyr  and  Infant  Bacchus.  —  A  satyr  playing  with  the 
infant  Bacchus,  whom  he  holds  in  a  fawn  skin.  The  infant 
has  one  bunch  of  grapes  in  his  hand,  and  is  in  the  act  of 
pilfering  another,  looking  up  at  the  satyr  with  an  expression  of 
conscious  naughtiness.  The  satyr,  with  a  roguish  smile  which 
intimates  that  he  is  not  in  earnest,  threatens  the  little  Bacchus 
with  a  club  : — 

"The  motive  of  this  group  (purchased  in  1864  from  the  Farnese 
Palace)  is  original  and  animated,  but  the  composition  is  not  felicitous. 
The  principal  figure  seems  over-laden  on  the  left  side,  and  depends  too 
much  on  a  clumsy  and  artificial  support  which  disturbs  the  eye.  The 
proportions  of  the  satyr  are  too  long,  and  the  subordinate  parts  of  the 
composition  are  very  carelessly  treated.  Allowing  for  these  defects, 
this  group  may  be  considered  a  fair  specimen  of  decorative  Roman 
sculpture  "  (Newton). 

The  "  Rondonini "  Faun. —  So  called  because  the  statue 
formed  for  a  long  period  one  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  in 
the  Rondonini  Palace  at  Rome.  Only  the  torso  is  ancient ; 
the  restorations,  very  skilfully  made,  represent  the  Faun 
playing  on  the  cymbals,  a  motive  which  occurs  in  several 
extant  statues.    (See  the  cymbals  hanging  from  the  limb  of  a 


Ill 


THE  FIRST  GRAl,  CO-R OMA N  ROOM 


43 


tree  in  the  next  statue).  The  torso  is  noted  for  its  anatomical 
skill,  and  the  statue  was  so  highly  prized  by  Canova  that  he 
succeeded  in  preventing  its  exportation  from  Italy,  although  it 
had  been  disposed  of  to  an  English  nobleman.  On  the 
sculptor's  death  it  was  brought  to  England,  and  in  1826  the 
British  Museum  acquired  it  for  ^300. 

[The  treatment  in  art  of  satyrs  and  fauns,  the  attendants 
of  Dionysus,  underwent  modifications  corresponding  to  those 
already  noticed  in  connection  with  the  case  of  Dionysus 
himself.  Originally  they  are  no  more  than  the  savage  and 
superhuman  beings  with  which  popular  fancy  peoples  the 
mountains  and  forests,  and  their  type  in  art  results  from  a 
combination  of  human  and  animal  nature.  Their  bodies  end 
in  a  tail,  their  noses  are  snub,  their  profiles  savage,  their  ears 
pointed  like  those  of  goats.  We  shall  encounter  frequently 
this  type  of  satyr  on  the  Greek  vase  paintings.  In  sculpture 
the  Marsyas  in  the  Bronze  Room  belongs  to  the  same  type. 
But  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  tendency  of  Greek  art  was  to 
humanise  the  type.  The  brutal  Faun  passes  into  the 
"  Laughing  Faun,"  and  finally  the  animal  nature  almost 
disappears.  In  the  type  conceived  by  the  Greek  sculptors  of 
the  fourth  century,  the  satyr  has  no  longer  anything  brute-like 
about, him,  only  his  pointed  ears  and  the  fawn  skin  recalling  his 
origin  ;  his  careless  attitude  and  graceful  figure  give  him  the 
charm  of  a  young  man.  This  new  type  of  the  satyr  was 
reproduced  in  art  incessantly  with  every  kind  of  variation.  It 
attained  its  greatest  refinement  in  the  Satyr  of  Praxiteles, 
which  is  echoed  in  the  famous  Faun  of  the  Capitol,  so  well 
described  by  Hawthorne  and  Pater.] 

Head  of  Juno. — A  typical  head  of  the  consort  of  Jupiter, 
in  whom  the  Greeks  and  Romans  saw  a  representative  of 
queenly  dignity.  She  wears  the  frontal  called  stephane.  This 
bust  was  acquired  at  Rome  in  1774. 

Venus. — One  of  many  statues  of  this  subject  derived  from 
the  Venus  of  Praxiteles  at  Cnidus,  which  drew  many  visitors 
to  the  town  in  Roman  times.  In  the  original  statue  the 
goddess  was  represented  as  just  about  to  remove  her  last 
garment  preparatory  to  returning  to  the  sea,  her  native  element. 
In  these  later  adaptations  (of  which  the  Capitoline  Venus  at 
Rome  is  the  best),  the  vase  (originally  a  mere  artistic  accessory 
required  to  support  the  drapery)  was  given  more  prominence 
from  the  desire  of  the  copyists  to  produce  a  general  impression 


44 


THE  FIRST  GRMCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


of  a  goddess  entering  a  bath — a  motive  suitable  to  the  tastes 
of  their  time  (cf.  Ovid,  de  Art.  Am.  ii.  614).  Presented  by 
King  William  IV.,  1834. 

Bust  of  Apollo. — The  head  only  is  antique.  From  the 
Albani  collection  :  of  the  Citharoedus  type. 

Apollo  Citharoedus  (1380). — Found  in  1862  on  the  floor 
of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Cyrene,  10  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  : — 

"  The  head  was  broken  off,  and  the  body  in  three  pieces  ;  but,  as 
the  fractures  were  clean  and  sharp,  and  their  edges  unchipped,  we 
hoped  that  the  whole  figure  might  afterwards  be  put  together  without 
difficulty.  When  this  was  actually  done,  after  the  arrival  of  the 
sculptures  in  England,  the  parts  were  all  found  to  fit  each  other  so 
accurately  that  the  fractures  were  barely  perceptible.  The  statue  as  it 
now  stands,  without  the  slightest  restoration,  is  built  up  of  no  less  than 
121  separate  pieces.  .  .  .  The  god  is  represented  in  a  musing  attitude, 
as  if  pausing  between  the  strains  of  his  music.  His  left  hand,  now 
broken  off,  must  have  played  over  the  strings  of  his  lyre  ;  his  right  arm 
has  been  raised,  the  right  hand,  resting  on  the  crown  of  his  head,  has 
held  the  plectrum,  with  which  he  is  about  to  strike  the  lyre.  On  the 
hair  may  be  seen  a  projection  where  this  hand  has  been  attached.  The 
head  of  the  serpent  round  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  upturned  as  if  he 
were  listening  to  the  music  of  the  god.  The  countenance  of  Apollo 
has  a  suave  and  beautiful  expression,  and  the  general  attitude  is  very 
harmoniously  composed  "  (Smith  and  Porcher,  Discoveries  at  Cyrette, 
pp.  41,  91). 

[This  statue  is  one  of  the  more  important  "  finds  "  made  by 
the  late  Sir  Robert  Murdoch  Smithy  of  the  Royal  Engineers, 
and  Commander  Porcher,  of  the  Royal  Navy.  Smith  had  been 
attached  to  Sir  Charles  Newton's  expedition  to  the  Levant  in 
1857-58,  and  had  taken  the  keenest  interest  in  the  archaeological 
discoveries  at  Halicarnassus  and  Cnidus  (see  Ch.  xil).  He 
was  afterwards  stationed  at  Malta,  and  "  it  occurred  to  him 
that  a  rich  and  hitherto  almost  untouched  field  for  exploration 
lay  ready  to  hand  at  Cyrene.  That  city  had  for  many  centuries 
been  the  capital  of  a  flourishing  Greek  colony,  afterwards  the 
Roman  province  of  the  Cyrenaica.  Since  the  Arab  conquest 
there  had  been  no  settled  population  in  the  Cyrenaica,  which 
favoured  the  hope  that  such  remains  would  be  found  in  a 
comparatively  perfect  condition."  Smith  talked  over  the 
project  with  his  friend  Lieutenant  E.  A.  Porcher,  who  agreed 
to  join  him  in  the  undertaking.  It  was  not  without  its 
difficulties  and    dangers.      The  country  was  inhabited  by 


in  THE  FIRST  GRAlCO-ROMAN  ROOM  45 


fanatical  Bedouins  ;  it  was  mountainous,  it  lay  inland,  and 
communications  were  defective.  The  explorers  conducted 
three  excavations  in  1860-61  at  their  own  expense,  but 
under  official  sanction.  They  discovered  several  temples,  and 
procured  several  statues,  as  well  as  other  antiquities,  which 
they  presented  to  the  British  Museum.  The  track  of  the 
ancient  road  was  found  ;  brushwood  was  cleared  away,  and 
cuttings  and  embankments  were  restored  in  order  to  bring 
away  the  treasures.  The  story  of  the  expedition  is  told  in  the 
History  of  the  Recent  Discoveries  at  Cyrene,  1864,  written  by 
Smith  and  illustrated  by  Porcher  (referred  to  in  this  handbook 
as  "  Smith  and  Porcher")  :  see  also  ch.  v.  in  W.  K.  Dickson's 
Life  of  Sir  Robert  Murdoch  Smith,  1901.  Smith  was  sub- 
sequently employed  for  many  years  on  telegraph  service  in 
Persia,  where  he  acquired  a  valuable  collection  of  Persian 
objects  of  art  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

The  types  of  Apollo  in  Greek  and  Grseco-Roman  art  are 
very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  represented  in  the 
Museum  : — • 

Primarily  Apollo  was  to  the  Greeks  the  sun-god,  the  god 
of  light  and  radiance,  the  divine  archer  who  shot  his  beams 
with  power  at  once  to  heal  and  to  destroy.  But  he  was  also 
the  god  of  harmony,  the  leader  of  the  choir  of  the  Muses,  the 
inspirer  of  poets  and  able  to  give  men  the  gift  of  prophecy. 
Hardly  had  he  been  born  than  he  cried  out,  "  Give  me  a 
sweet-sounding  lyre  and  a  curved  bow,  and  my  oracle  shall 
make  known  unto  men  the  true  wishes  of  Zeus."  These 
and  many  other  aspects  of  Phcebus  -  Apollo  were  dif- 
ferentiated in  later  art ;  in  the  statue  before  us  he  appears 
as  Apollo  with  the  lyre.  Originally,  however,  the  god  was 
represented  under  one  uniform  type — not  always  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  other  gods.  The  earliest  images  of 
Apollo  were  mere  symbols — shapeless  forms  of  wood  or  stone. 
Then,  as  technical  skill  increased,  he  was  given  the  robust 
development  of  an  athlete,  wearing  his  hair  long  after  the 
ancient  Greek  fashion.  He  is  so  described  in  the  Homeric 
hymn,  "  The  god  was  like  unto  a  man  full  of  sap  and  vigour  in 
all  the  brilliancy  of  young  manhood  ;  and  over  his  broad 
shoulders  streamed  his  loosed  locks."  The  visitor  will  find 
specimens  of  these  earlier  types  in  the  Archaic  Room  (p.  115 ), 
the  Ante-Room  (p.  119),  and  the  Bronze  Room  (p.  429).  In 
later  times  various  types  were,  as  we  have  said,  differentiated, 


46  THE  FIRST  GRALCO- ROMAN  ROOM 


for  instance  : — ( i )  Apollo  Victorious — as  in  the  famous  Apollo 
Belvedere  of  the  Vatican.  (2)  Apollo  at  rest — in  graceful  and 
unstudied  pose,  of  less  muscular  frame,  and  wearing  a  marked 
expression  of  calm  and  gentleness.  Among  the  Bronzes  from 
Paramythia  there  is  a  statuette  of  this  type  (p.  437).  (3)  Apollo 
Citharcedus — sometimes  fully  draped,  in  the  flowing  robes  of 
a  minstrel;  sometimes  half- draped,  as  in  the  statue  before 
us.  (4)  Apollo  Musagetes — "'Tis  Apollo  comes  leading  His 
choir,  the  Nine."  In  this  type  the  expression  of  the  god  is 
more  rapt  and  enthusiastic,  and  it  passes  into  another  (5) — 
that  of  the  Pythian  Apollo,  as  the  god  of  prophecy.  Beautiful 
heads  belonging  to  these  two  latter  types  will  be  found  in  the 
next  room  (p.  51).] 

Diana. — The  type  of  Artemis  (Diana) — sister  of  Apollo  and 
goddess  of  the  chase — is  drawn  in  bold  outline  by  Homer  ; 
"  as  when  Artemis,  proud  of  her  arrows,  walks  over  the 
mountains,  either  upon  the  long  ridge  of  Taygetus  or  on 
Erymanthus,  and  delights  in  following  the  wild  boar  or  the 
swift  stag."  Her  characteristic  as  huntress  is  the  dominant 
note  in  all  the  representations  of  her  in  Greek  and  Graeco- 
Roman  art — as  a  poet  of  the  Anthology  says,  "  On  a  statue  of 
Artemis  ready  for  the  chase  "  : — 

I  am  Artemis,  as  ye  may  know.     That  the  craftsman  who  wrought  me 
Did  purpose  to  show  me,  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  no  other, 
The  virgin's  hold  aspect  proclaims.     One  would  say  of  a  surety 
That  all  the  whole  earth  was  a  hunting-ground  only  for  me. 

(Translated  by  Alma  Strettell.) 

In  the  present  statue  the  goddess  is  obviously  pressing  forward. 
The  arms,  as  well  as  the  feet,  are  restored.  Probably  the  left 
arm  originally  held  a  bow,  and  the  right  was  drawing  an  arrow 
from  a  quiver.  In  the  early  statues  of  Artemis  she  is  clad  in 
a  long  tunic,  over  which  is  thrown  a  shawl ;  the  hair  spreads 
over  the  shoulders,  and  two  locks  fall  upon  the  chest ;  the 
straightness  of  the  body  and  the  nearness  to  one  another  of 
the  legs  give  an  appearance  of  rigidity  to  the  body.  Of  this 
archaic  type  an  imitation  may  be  seen  in  the  next  room  but 
one  (p.  62).  The  same  type  survives  in  many  respects  in  the 
present  statue,  but  the  legs  are  freer,  and  there  is  altogether 
more  life  in  the  figure.  In  the  later  Attic  type  the  virgin 
huntress  was  rendered  in  a  much  freer  and  more  elegant 
manner.    She  wears  only  a  short  tunic  (the  lightness  of  which, 


Ill 


THE  FIRST  GRMCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


47 


as  she  moves  through  air,  is  remarkable  in  contrast  to  the  some- 
what stiff  folds  here) ;  the  hair  is  gathered  up  on  the  top  of 
her  head  in  a  knot  and  the  legs  are  left  free.  The  present 
statue  was  found  in  1772  near  La  Storta,  about  eight  miles  from 
Rome,  on  the  same  spot  as  the  "  Bacchus  and  Ambrosia  "  (p.  58). 

The  "Head  of  Diana,"  bequeathed  by  Payne  Knight  in 
1824,  looks  like  a  portrait,  and  is  probably  a  bust  of  some 
imperial  personage,  perhaps  Faustina  the  younger,  in  the 
character  of  Diana. 

Bust  of  Homer. — Discovered  in  1780  among  some  ruins  on 
the  site  of  Baiae.  A  fine  example  of  the  portrait  busts  which, 
as  Pliny  tells  us,  the  Romans  loved  to  place  in  their  libraries, 
when  "  desire  of  possession  gives  birth  to  unrecorded  features 
as  happens  in  the  case  of  Homer."  A  fillet  (tainia),  the 
distinctive  mark  of  a  poet,  encircles  the  head.  The  poet  is 
represented  in  advanced  age,  and  blind.  No  actual  portrait 
of  Homer  was  extant ;  this  ideal  conception,  in  which  the 
ancients  endeavoured  to  compose  a  head  suitable  in  expression 
of  dignity  to  the  genius  and  reputation  of  the  poet,  probably 
dates  from  the  Macedonian  period,  when  Homer  was  so  much 
studied  at  Alexandria.  By  this  bust,  as  also  by  one  of  Pericles, 
Mr.  Townley  set  special  store.  He  had  engravings  of  them 
made  on  a  small  plate,  which  he  used  as  a  visiting  card. 

Bust  of  a  Poet. — Another  such  portrait,  possibly  of  Hesiod. 
Found  near  Albano,  on  the  supposed  site  of  a  villa  belonging 
to  Marcus  Varro,  lieutenant  of  Pompey,  the  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  the  most  learned  of  Roman  antiquaries. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  SECOND  GR/ECO-ROMAN  ROOM 

There,  too,  the  goddess  loves  in  stone  and  fills 
The  air  around  with  beauty. 

Rejoice,  O  young  man,  in  thy  youth. 

This  room  contains-  some  of  the  best-known  Graeco-Roman 
sculptures  in  the  collection,  especially  the  "  Townley  Venus  " 
in  the  alcove  on  the  left,  and  the  "  Quoit-Thrower 55  in  that  on 
the  right. 

The  "Townley"  Venus.— This  statue,  found  in  1776 
among  the  ruins  of  the  baths  of  Claudius  at  Ostia,  was  one 
of  the  principal  gems  of  Mr.  Townley's  collection,  hence  the 
name  by  which  it  is  generally  known.  The  figure  consists  of 
two  pieces  of  marble  imperceptibly  joined  within  the  drapery. 
It  was  in  consequence  of  the  two  parts  being  separately 
exhibited  as  unconnected  fragments  that  Mr.  Townley  obtained 
permission  to  export  them  from  Rome.  This  was  one  of  the 
stratagems  in  which  the  wily  Nollekens,  who  was  Mr.  Townley's 
agent  in  Rome,  excelled.1 

If  the  ascription  of  Furtwangler  be  correct,  the  statue  is  as 
historically  interesting  as  it  is  beautiful  in  itself.  He  regards 
it  as  a  copy,  after  Praxiteles  (see  p.  144),  of  the  portrait  statue 
of  his  mistress,  Phryne — the  famous  courtesan — which  she 
presented  to  Delphi.  "The  left  hand  held  up  the  mirror,  and 
the  right  may  have  held  some  other  toilet  requisite.  The 
whole  conception  lacks  the  dignity  and  repose  of  the  other 
statue  (the  '  Venus  d' Aries  '  in  the  Louvre)  ;  this  maiden  has 
a  questioning,  self-conscious  look  ;  rejoicing  in  her  beauty  she 

1  Another  was  the  smuggling  of  silks,  gloves,  and  lace,  by  packing 
them  inside  hollow  busts  and  statues  which  he  afterwards  stopped  by  an 
outside  coating  of  plaster  (see  Nollekens  and  his  Times,  i.  pp.  13,  262). 

48 


chap,  iv    THE  SECOND  GRALCO- ROMAN  ROOM 


raises  the  mirror,  and  cares  not  if  her  mantle  slips  down  a 
little  lower.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  Phryne  by  Praxiteles  must 
have  looked  just  like  this — ideally  beautiful  and  noble,  yet 
different  enough  from  a  goddess.  The  statue  of  Phryne,  so 
famous  in  antiquity,  was  the  one  at  Delphi.  It  is  this  statue 
that  I  should  like  to  imagine  as  the  original  of  the  Townley 
Venus"  (Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  319  sq.). 

The  Discobolus,  or  quoit-thrower  {250), — This  is  a  marble 
copy  (found  in  1 79 1  at  Hadrian's  Villa)  of  the  famous  bronze 
original  by  Myron.  We  have  seen  in  the  Diadumenus  of 
Polyclitus  the  beau  ideal  of  athletic  repose  ;  in  the  Discobolus 
of  Myron  we  have  the  beau  ideal  of  athletic  motion. 

Myron  (about  500-440  B.C.)  was  a  contemporary  of  Phidias.  He 
was  a  native  of  Eleutherse  in  Bceotia  and  a  pupil  of  Ageladas  of 
Argos,  but  the  main  scene  of  his  activity  was  Athens.  While  Phidias 
was  pre-eminent  in  the  field  of  ideal  art,  Myron  excelled  rather  in 
studies  from  nature.  He  was  in  fact,  says  Mr.  Pater,  "an  earnest 
realist  or  naturalist,  and  rose  to  central  perfection  in  the  portraiture, 
the  idealised  portraiture,  of  athletic  youth,  from  a  mastery  first  of  all 
in  the  delineation  of  inferior  objects."  There  are  thirty-six  epigrams 
extant  on  a  brazen  cow  by  Myron — "  So  like  a  living  animal  that  the 
cowherd  tried  to  drive,  it  off."  He  seems,  said  Pliny  of  him,  to  have 
"multiplied  truth."  He  succeeded,  that  is  to  say,  in  realising 
particular  situations  or  characters,  as,  for  instance,  in  his  statue  of 
Ladas,  the  celebrated  runner,  of  which  a  Greek  epigram  said  that  the 
sculptor  "graved  in  the  whole  body  the  hope  of  the  crown."  He 
studied  varieties  of  truth  by  seeking  out  daring  situations,  even 
strained  and  violent  actions  which  his  accurate  knowledge  of  nature 
enabled  him  to  invest  with  the  appearance  of  ease  essential  to  artistic 
effect.  According  to  Quintilian,  the  laboured  complexity  of  the 
Discobolus  is  extreme,  but  any  one  who  should  blame  it  on  this  ground 
would  do  so  under  a  misapprehension  of  its  purpose,  inasmuch  as  the 
merit  of  the  work  lies  in  its  novelty  and  difficulty.  Lastly,  according 
to  Pliny,  Myron,  though  accurate  in  representing  bodily  forms,  did  not 
express  the  feelings  of  the  soul.1 


1  Such  is  the  traditional  characterisation  of  Myron.  If,  however, 
Furtwangler's  ascriptions  of  works  to  the  sculptor  be  correct,  the  traditional 
view  of  him  must  be  abandoned.  ' '  He  is  no  longer  the  one-sided  sculptor 
of  athletes,  interested  only  in  violent  exertion,  and  caring  nothing  for  the 
spiritual  element  of  his  figures.  Myron  has  created  gods  and  heroes  too, 
which  for  depth  of  conception  and  power  in  the  presentation  of  character 
surpass  all  contemporary  work.  The  ancients,  however,  were  so  lost  in 
admiration  of  his  two  figures,  representing  athletes  in  violent  movement, 
the  Discos- thrower  and  the  Ladas,  and  of  the  cow  with  its  fidelity  to  nature, 
that,  by  the  side  of  these,  other  aspects  of  his  work  became  obscured.  If 

E 


5° 


THE  SECOND  GRAL CO-R OMA N  ROOM  chap. 


In  the  style  of  Myron,  as  thus  defined  by  ancient  writers, 
the  Quoit-Thrower  is  the  most  famous  of  his  works.  The 
Ouoit-Thrower,  says  Lucian  in  a  description  of  the  statue,  uis 
stooping  forward  in  attitude  to  throw,  twisting  his  body  round 
towards  the  hand  that  holds  the  quoit,  half  crouching  on  one 
leg,  and  looking  ready  to  spring  up  as  he  makes  his  cast." 
The  marble  copies  agree  with  this  description,  except  that  the 
head  is  here  looking  forward  instead  of  back.  Notice,  first, 
the  skill  with  which  the  sculptor  adapts  his  work  to  the  limita- 
tions of  his  art.  A  sculptor  cannot  represent  movement ;  he  can 
only  suggest  it.  Since  he  can  only  render  permanent  a  single 
instant  of  time,  the  skilful  artist  will  choose  that  moment 
which  is  most  pregnant  with  suggestion,  that  which  in  itself 
partakes  in  as  small  a  degree  as  possible  of  violent  action, 
while  it  is  most  suggestive  of  the  action  which  is  over  and  the 
action  which  is  to  follow.  Here  the  sculptor  has  chosen  (says 
Mr.  Perry)  the  moment  of  pause  and  transition  between  two 
energetic  actions,  when  the  disk-thrower  has  collected  all  his 
force  for  the  supreme  decisive  effort,  and  all  his  powers  of  body 
and  mind  are  bent  to  the  fullest  stretch,  "  like  a  bow  before 
the  discharge  of  the  arrow."  Every  limb,  every  muscle 
partakes  in  and  contributes  to  the  main  action  of  the  body, 
and  the  rhythm  runs  from  the  centre  through  all  the  members, 
through  every  vein  and  fibre.  (Myron,  says  Pliny,  was  more 
rhythmical  in  art  than  Polyclitus.)  The  youth,  it  will  be  seen, 
rests  all  his  weight  on  his  right  foot,  the  toes  of  which  clutch 
the  ground  for  firmer  hold  ;  as  the  arms  swing  round,  the  left 
foot,  now  balanced,  will  be  thrust  forward  and  receive  all  the 
weight  of  the  body  as  the  missile  leaves  the  hand.  In  another 
moment  the  imagination  sees  the  left  foot  planted  and  the  quoit 
whirled  into  the  air.  The  object  of  the  game  was  to  throw 
the  quoit,  a  mass  of  stone  or  metal,  as  far  as  possible  ;  not,  as 
with  us,  at  a  mark  (Upcott,  Introduction  to  Greek  Scitlpture, 
p.  56 ;  Perry's  Catalogue  of  the  Casts).  Another  work  by  Myron 
in  which  he  similarly  chose  a  moment  of  pause  was  the  Marsyas, 
of  which  there  is  a  bronze  statuette  upstairs  (see  p.  431). 

With  regard  to  the  face,  the  absence  of  expression  seems 

we  compare  Myron  with  Phidias,  we  find  that  the  bent  of  Phidias  is 
towards  the  peaceful,  the  mild,  the  reflective,  the  beautiful  ;  while  Myron's 
is  to  energy,  power,  character,  and  truth"  (pp.  201-202).  Among  other 
works  in  the  British  Museum  which  Furtwangler  brings  into  relation  with 
Myron  are  a  Hercules  (p.  56),  and  a  Perseus  (p.  138). 


THE  SECOND  GRAL  CO- ROMAN  ROOM  51 


to  bear  out  Pliny's  criticism  given  above.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  head  really  belonged  to  the  statue.1 

We  now  examine  more  cursorily  the  other  sculptures  in 
this  room : — 

Heroic  Bust. — This  beautiful  head,  which  formerly  belonged 
to  a  statue,  shows  the  type  of  features  characteristic  of 
Greek  heroes  as  they  were  represented  by  sculptors  of  the 
Macedonian  period.  The  countenance  is  very  beautiful,  and 
the  sculpture  is  probably  by  a  Greek  hand.  The  head  was 
found  at  Ostia,  and  was  formerly  in  the  possession  of  Rogers 
the  poet,  by  whom  it  was  greatly  esteemed.  The  base  and 
bust  were  restored  by  Flaxman. 

Head  of  Apollo  ("  Pourtales  "). 

Head  of  Apollo  (Baths  of  Caracalla). 

Head  of  Apollo  (from  Capua). 

The  first  of  these  heads,  called  "  Pourtales,"  from  a  former 
owner  (from  whose  collection  it  was  bought  in  1865),  is  re- 
markable for  the  earnest  pathos  of  the  expression  and  its 
somewhat  effeminate  character.  It  probably  belongs  to  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  corners  of  the  eyebrows 
are  slightly  drawn  up,  thus  giving  to  the  face  a  somewhat 
melancholy  expression  very  unlike  that  of  the  Apollo  Belvedere. 
The  form  and  expression  of  the  face  make  it  probable  that  it 
is  intended  for  the  ideal  of  the  Pythian  Apollo  :  the  rapt  and 
overwrought  expression  would  be  very  appropriate  to  the 
statue  of  the  God  of  Prophecy  (Perry's  Catalogue  of  the  Collec- 
tio7i  of  Casts  at  South  Kensington,  No.  198).  For  different 
types  of  Apollo,  see  last  chapter,  p.  45.  The  head  from 
Capua  wears  also  an  expression  of  pathos. 

The  other  head,  found  in  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  is  doubt- 
less a  copy  from  the  same  original  as  the  Pourtales  head. 
There  are,  however,  certain  differences  between  the  two, 
which  Furtwangler  ascribes  to  reminiscences,  on  the  part  of 
the  Pourtales  sculptor,  of  the  style  of  Cresilas  : — 

"  From  the  similarity  in  their  proportions  and  main  features,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  two  heads  are  merely  different  versions  of 
one  and  the  same  original,  while  from  the  qualities  common  to  both  it 
is  evident  that  this  original  was  not  materially  earlier  than  Alexander, 


1  The  head  appears  to  have  been  put  on  to  the  figure  by  a  modern 
restorer  under  the  direction  of  the  English  dealer  through  whose  hands  it 
passed  at  Rome  (Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery,  i.  240). 


52 


THE  SECOND  GRAECO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


Now  the  copy  from  the  Baths  of  Caracalla  displays  exclusively  the 
forms  proper  to  that  period  :  the  eye  is  deeply  recessed  and  exceed- 
ingly pathetic  (the  god  is  supposed  to  be  sunk  in  musical  inspiration) ; 
the  hair  aims  dexterously  at  the  most  realistic  treatment.  In  a  word, 
there  is  complete  harmony  between  the  conception  and  the  stylistic 
forms.  In  the  Pourtales  head,  on  the  contrary,  we  note  an  irreconcil- 
able contradiction  between  style  and  conception  ;  an  artist  enamoured 
with  the  style  of  Cresilas  has  evidently  attempted  to  introduce  the 
formal  qualities  of  the  master  into  a  head  of  totally  different  style. 
Accordingly,  the  deeply  recessed  and  pathetic  eyes  have  been  trans- 
formed into  Cresilaian  eyes  with  strong  prominent  lids  and  overshadowed 
by  sharp  angular  brows  ;  in  the  hair  conventional  little  curls  with 
twisted  ends  replace  the  naturalistic  fall  of  the  loop  of  hair  over  the 
forehead,  and  the  loop  itself  hangs  more  over  to  the  front "  (Furt- 
wangler,  Masterpieces^  p.  165/2). 

Alexander  the  Great. — If  this  be  indeed  a  portrait  of 
Alexander,  it  is  much  idealised.  It  should  be  compared  with 
the  beautiful,  but  more  realistic,  bust  in  the  Ephesus  Room 
(p.  142). 

Head  of  Aphrodite. — Formerly  described  as  a  head  of 
Dione,  the  mother  of  Aphrodite.  The  head  is  antique,  but 
the  nose  and  bust  are  modern.  "  Notwithstanding  the  injuries 
it  has  received,  this  head  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  Graeco-Roman  sculpture"  (Newton). 

Heroic  Head,  known  as  "  Diomedes." — This  head,  cele- 
brated for  the  intensity  of  its  expression,  was  found  at 
Hadrian's  Villa  in  1 77 1,  and  is  generally  recognised  as  be- 
longing to  the  School  of  Pergamum. 

[In  connection  with  this  head  and  that  of  the  Alexander 
already  noticed,  a  few  words  may  be  useful  upon  the  Hel- 
lenistic ^  Macedo?iian,  and  Pergamene  Schools.  The  period 
covered  by  the  work  of  these  schools  may  be  put  roughly  at 
as  from  320  to  100  B.C. 

It  thus  precedes  and  partly  overlaps  what  in  a  previous 
note  we  have  called  the  Graeco-Roman  and  Roman  period 
(p.  35).  The  chief  influence  at  the  beginning  of  this  period 
was  the  personality  of  Alexander,  who  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  portrait  sculpture  under  his  favourite  sculptor  Lysippus 
(p.  141).  The  conquests  of  Alexander  carried  Greek  art  over 
all  the  Eastern  world,  and  this  is  called  therefore  the  Hellenistic 
age.  Other  characteristics  of  the  art  of  the  period  were  a 
fondness  for  pastoral  motives  (see  under  the  Bacchus  relief  in 
the  next  room,  p.  63),  and  the  recognition  of  childhood  as  a 


rv 


THE  SECOND  GRALCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


53 


theme  (see  p.  68).  It  is  from  the  beginning  of  the  Hellenistic 
age  that  the  chubby  cupids,  so  familiar  to  us  from  late  Greek 
and  Roman  art,  begin  to  date.  The  "boy  and  goose"  subject 
also  belongs  to  this  period  (see  a  silver  statuette  described  on 
p.  598).  The  introduction  of  genre  subjects  generally  is  also 
characteristic  of  this  age  (see  under  the  Spinario,  p.  63). 

Under  Attalus  I.  (241  B.C.),  and  Eumenes  II.  (197  B.C.), 
the  city  of  Pergamum  became  the  centre  of  a  new  school  of 
Greek  sculptors.  To  celebrate  his  victories,  Attalus  summoned 
from  Greece  a  body  of  sculptors,  and  thus  arose  the  Pergamene 
School,  The  victories  of  the  kings  of  Pergamum  over  the 
Gauls  gave  the  occasion  and  the  motive  to  this  school,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  victories  of  the  Athenians  over  the  Persians 
had  given  the  impulse  to  the  earlier  Greek  sculptors.  Of 
extant  works  thus  executed  for  Attalus,  the  so-called  "  Dying 
Gladiator"  (really,  Wounded  Gaul)  of  the  Capitol  at  Rome  is 
the  best  known.  Under  Eumenes  II.  yet  more  splendid 
works  were  undertaken.  To  commemorate  the  great  achieve- 
ment of  his  race,  the  overthrow  of  the  barbarians,  he  built  a 
vast  altar  to  Zeus  the  Saviour,  on  which  the  symbolic  theme  of 
the  defeat  of  giants  by  gods  was  treated  on  such  a  scale,  with 
such  wealth  of  detail  and  with  such  dramatic  force,  as  made  the 
monument  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  "  I  know  where 
thou  dwellest,"  says  St.  John  in  the  Revelation,  addressing  the 
angel  of  the  church  of  Pergamum,  "  even  where  Satan's  throne 
is  " — a  striking  description  of  that  wonderful  open-air  altar, 
where  gigantic  figures  of  the  old  Pagan  deities  still  towered 
above  the  city.  A  German  engineer,  employed  in  making- 
roads  for  the  Turkish  Government,  discovered  in  1871  the 
remains  of  this  altar.  They  are  now  in  the  Pergamum  Museum 
of  Berlin,  and  still  overwhelm  the  spectator  with  a  sense  of  the 
force  and  profusion  of  the  art  employed  upon  them.  It  is 
from  these  marbles  that  the  characteristics  of  the  Pergamene 
School  are  deduced.  What  most  concerns  us  here  is  the 
intense  pathos  of  some  of  the  Pergamene  figures — the  char- 
acteristic of  Scopas  (p.  217)  carried  to  an  extreme.] 

This  characteristic  is  very  marked  in  the  head  now  before 
us.  It  is  inclined  to  the  right ;  the  eyes  are  intently  fixed  ;  the 
lips  parted.  The  countenance,  one  of  the  most  expressive 
ever  produced  in  marble,  speaks  of  the  agony  of  painful 
suspense.  "The  treatment  is  broad  and  masterly,  and  the 
countenance  is  remarkable  for  a  subdued  intensity  of  pathos 


54  THE  SECOND  GRALCO- ROMAN  ROOM     chap.  IV. 


rare  in  ancient  art.  .  .  .  The  head  seems  to  possess  those 
characteristics  which  we  associate  with  the  Macedonian  period 
of  sculpture,  and  the  features  present  a  striking  likeness  to  a 
head  on  the  silver  tetradrachm  of  Philip  V.  of  Macedon,  which 
appears  to  represent  that  king  or  some  member  of  his  family 
in  the  character  of  the  hero  Perseus  "  (Newton). 

Bacchante  Chimairophonos  (bas-relief). — A  graceful  figure 
of  a  Bacchante,  clothed  in  thin  transparent  drapery,  holding  a 
knife  in  her  right  hand,  and  the  hind  limbs  of  a  kid  in  the 
left.  The  priestesses  of  Bacchus,  during  the  celebration  of  the 
Dionysiac  festivals,  ate  the  raw  flesh  of  different  animals, 
which  is  the  reason  why  they  are  so  often  represented  carrying 
the  knife  and  limbs  of  animals  (chimairophonos  =  goat-slaying). 
Euripides  describes  the  Bacchas  as  rushing  upon  the  herds  as 
they  grazed,  to  rend  them  piecemeal.  You  might  see,  he 
says,  the  ribs  and  cloven  feet  here  and  there,  or  hanging  upon 
the  pines  and  dropping  blood. 

Head  of  a  Muse.  —  uThe  head  is  remarkable  for  its 
simplicity  of  treatment,  and  its  tranquil  harmony  accords  well 
with  the  ancient  conception  of  a  muse.  Probably  a  skilful 
Roman  copy  of  some  masterpiece  of  Greek  art"  (Newton). 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  THIRD  GR/ECO  -  ROMAN  ROOM 

"  When  the  Roman  came  under  the  spell  of  the  more  highly  cultivated 
Greek,  a  new  era  began.  First  it  was  an  era  of  plunder  ;  next 
of  imitation  and  reproduction  ;  finally,  the  art  put  on  such  new 
features  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  development.  The 
immense  majority  of  the  antique  statues  in  our  European  galleries 
belong  to  this  age  of  revival,  and  yet  the  number  of  works  which 
can  be  assigned  to  a  positive  date,  or  placed  within  certain  limits 
of  time,  is  comparatively  small  "  (Upcott). 
.  .  In  order  to  determine  the  relative  merit  of  these  works,  and  to 
approximate  to  their  dates,  we  must  refer  them  to  the  one  standard 
of  comparison,  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  "  (Newton). 

On  entering  this  room  we  find  on  either  side  of  the  door 
busts  of  Hercules.  This  deified  hero — the  type  among  the 
Greeks  of  gigantic  labour  and  romantic  adventure — was  a 
favourite  subject  in  ancient  sculpture,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
distinguish  different  types  of  him.  Sometimes  he  was  repre- 
sented as  a  beautiful  youth ;  then,  as  a  young  man  less 
beautiful,  but  having  characteristic  marks  of  strength  strongly 
defined.  It  is  as  a  full-grown  hero  with  muscular  limbs  that 
we  shall  encounter  him  in  the  casts  of  the  metopes  of  Olympia 
(p.  114).  Lastly,  he  came  to  be  represented  as  an  old  man, 
bearded,  with  features  bearing  testimony  to  his  labours. 

Head  of  Youthful  Hercules. — From  the  Barberini  Palace, 
Rome.  The  ears  are  bruised  and  broken — a  characteristic  of 
ancient  pugilists.  A  fine  type  of  Hercules,  probably  introduced 
in  the  Macedonian  period.  Larger  than  nature,  and  strongly 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  muscular  strength.  "  Remark- 
able for  the  character  of  individuality  in  the  features,  which 
nearly  resemble  those  on  the  gold  coins  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 
in  which  the  portrait  of  the  king  is  intermixed  with  the  ideal 
image  of  the  deity — a  mode  of  compliment  not  infrequent  in 
ancient  art"  (Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery,  i.  328). 

55 


THE  THIRD  GRA£CO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


Hercules  in  Advanced  Life. — Found  at  Hadrian's  Villa 
in  1769.  This  is  a  head  of  the  hero  more  advanced  in  life. 
Furtwangler  sees  in  this  head  a  copy  of  an  original  by  Myron. 
The  eyes  are  unusually  big  and  round,  rather  than  long — a 
trait  which  especially  distinguishes  Hercules  in  archaic  art. 
The  head  conforms  to  the  usual  type  of  Hercules  as  fixed  by 
earlier  sculptors,  but  some  new  characteristics  are  introduced 
to  accentuate  the  individuality  of  the  hero.  "  On  the  sharp 
edge  of  the  brow  the  trace  of  the  eyebrows  is  slightly  indicated 
—a  singularity  which  is  not,  I  think,  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
copyist,  but  to  the  artist's  search  after  realism,  or  after  some 
touch  that  should  emphasise  the  powerful  nature  of  the  hero. 
Hair  and  beard  are  quite  short,  and  arranged  in  small  tight 
curls.  Just  over  the  centre  of  the  forehead  the  little  locks  are 
brushed  up,  obviously  in  order  to  heighten  the  impression  of 
strength"  {Masterpieces,  p.  179). 

Head  of  the  Youthful  Hercules. — The  countenance  is 
mild  and  pleasing,  and  more  of  a  feminine  type  than  is  usually 
associated  with  Hercules.  But  the  bruised  ears  leave  no 
doubt  of  the  identification.  Found  near  Genzano,  in  very  good 
condition.  He  wears  a  wreath  of  poplar.  "  Several  replicas 
exist  of  this  attractive  work,  which  is  thought  to  be  copied  from 
an  original  by  Scopas  "  {Guide  to  the  Department). 

On  the  other  side  of  the  door  are  two  heads  of  Hercules  as 
an  old  man.  Of  these  the  more  remarkable  is  the  one  found 
in  the  lava  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  and  presented  to  the 
Museum  by  Sir  William  Hamilton.  This  head  resembles  that 
of  the  well-known  Farnese  Hercules  in  Naples.  That  statue 
was  the  work  of  Glycon,  an  Athenian  sculptor ;  in  it,  as  in  this 
head,  two  sets  of  characteristics  may  be  noticed,  both  of  which 
distinguish  Gneco-Roman  work  of  the  age  of  Hadrian  from 
Greek  work  of  an  earlier  period.  In  the  first  place  there  is  a 
note  of  exaggeration.  The  strength  of  the  hero  is  expressed 
by  colossal  size,  massive  proportions,  protruding  bones,  swollen 
muscles.  Secondly,  the  conception  of  the  hero  is  changed 
from  the  "glad  confident  morning"  of  eternal  youthfulness  to 
a  more  modern  note  of  weariness  and  depression.  The  weary 
Titan  has  found  his  strength  overtaxed  at  last,  and  looks  down- 
ward with  pathetic  gaze.  The  other,  and  smaller  head,  shows 
Hercules  as  an  old  man  again,  but  the  expression  is  less  pathetic. 

We  now  return  to  the  other  side  of  the  door,  and  make  the  tour 
of  the  room  from  left  to  right,  noticing  the  more  interesting  pieces. 


V 


THE  THIRD  GRJ2.C0-R0MAN  ROOM 


57 


A  Votive  Offering  to  Apollo  (776). — A  father  and  two  sons 
(all  clad  in  Roman  military  armour)  are  consulting  the  oracle 
of  Apollo.  Each  has  his  right  hand  placed  upon  his  breast 
to  express  their  awe  of  the  god.  The  god  is  seated  on  the 
omphalos  (or  round  stone  supposed  to  mark  the  centre  of  the 
earth),  holding  up  his  hand  in  an  impressive  manner.  The 
two  female  figures — of  taller  stature  than  the  mortals — are 
supposed  to  be  Latona  and  Diana,  the  mother  and  sister  of 
Apollo,  whose  worship  was  often  associated  with  his.  On  the 
base  are  the  remains  of  a  dedication  to  Apollo  in  verse.  (On 
the  subject  of  votive  reliefs,  see  Ch.  xm.) 

Hecate  Triformis. — The  Triple  Hecate — a  common  type 
m  ancient  art — seems  to  express  the  mystical  union  of  the 
Chthonian  deities,  the  deities  of  the  under-world  —  Artemis, 
Selene,  and  Persephone.  Such  statues  as  this  were  frequently 
placed  in  towns  and  villages  where  three  roads  met ;  the  suit- 
ability of  the  triple  form  for  the  ornament  of  a  finger-post  at 
such  places  may  have  influenced  the  selection  of  this  artistic 
type.  In  one  aspect  Persephone  was  the  goddess  of  corn  and 
other  fruits  of  the  earth  :  hence  she  wears  the  modius  or  corn 
measure  on  her  head  (cf.  the  statuette  in  the  Ephesus  Room, 
p.  125).  The  country  folk  left  her  a  fragment  of  bread  and  a 
morsel  of  meat,  at  the  cross-roads,  to  take  on  her  journey  ; 
and  perhaps  some  real  Demeter  carried  them  away,  as  she 
wandered  through  the  country.  But  she  was  the  goddess  of 
death  as  well  as  of  life  ("dust  thou  art  and  unto  dust  shalt 
thou  return JJ),  and  her  worship  included  magical  rites  and 
incantations.  Hence  in  her  hands  she  holds  instruments  of 
terror — the  key  of  the  under-world,  a  serpent,  twisted  cords, 
the  lower  part  of  a  torch,  and  the  handle  of  a  sword.  This 
statue — found  outside  the  Porta  del  Popolo,  Rome — was  set 
up,  as  an  inscription  informs  us,  by  ^Elius  Barbarus,  an 
imperial  freedman  and  bailiff  of  the  estate. 

Geres,  with  Attributes  of  Isis.  —  On  her  head  is  a 
stephane  ornamented  with  a  disk  placed  between  two  serpents, 
the  symbol  of  Isis,  and  surmounted  by  ears  of  corn,  the  symbol 
of  Ceres  or  Demeter.  In  her  left  hand  she  holds  a  situla  or 
bucket,  the  usual  attribute  of  Isis.  Probably  executed  in  the 
time  of  Hadrian,  when  the  types  of  Ceres  and  Isis  were  so 
blended  as  to  be  with  difficulty  distinguished.  These  mixed 
types  were  a  result  of  the  pantheistic  spirit  of  the  second  century 
(Newton). 


58 


THE  THIRD  GRMCChROMAN  ROOM 


Bust  of  Minerva. — Found  in  1784  at  Rome.  k,'The  head 
only  is  antique.  The  helmet  and  the  breast,  which  are 
bronze,  are  modern  :  they  were  copied,  with  some  variations, 
by  Albanini,  from  an  ancient  bust  in  the  Vatican  Museum. 
The  eyes,  which  are  now  rilled  with  plaster,  were  originally 
formed  of  onyx  or  some  similar  material  in  imitation  of  the 
natural  eye'"5  (Ellis,  Townley  Gallery,  i.  319). 

Cupid  riding  on  a  Dolphin. — In  green  basalt ;  found  in 
Egypt  :  Roman  period.  "  The  complete  group  probably  con- 
tained a  figure  of  Aphrodite,  supporting  herself  by  a  rudder,  of 
which  a  part  remains.  The  figure  appears  to  have  formed 
part  of  a  fountain,  as  a  bronze  tube  passed  through  the 
rudder ;J  {Guide  lo  the  Department). 

Girl  playing  Astragali. — For  this  game,  see  below.  The 
attitude  here  is  very  easy  and  graceful.  This  figure  was 
found  in  1766  at  Rome,  on  the  site  of  the  Gardens  of  Sallust. 

Head  of  a  Water  Nymph. — Notice  the  wavy  lines  of  the 
hair.  The  hollow  sockets  of  the  eyes  were  originally  filled 
with  glass  or  precious  stones. 

Figure  from  a  Group  of  Astragalizontes. — "  Players  at 
knuckle  -  bones "  (in  English  called  dibbs).  The  game  was 
played  with  four  astragali,  dice  made  of  knuckle-bones.  The 
earliest  recorded  use  of  this  motive  in  sculpture  is  a  group  of 
two  naked  boys  by  Polyclitus,  which  stood  in  the  palace  of 
the  Emperor  Titus.  It  is  probable  that  that  work  was  of  an 
ideal  character,  and  not  intended  to  represent  a  street-scene 
from  daily  life  (cf.  the  group  on  Table-case  D  in  the  Terra-cotta 
Room,  p.  7 1 4).  The  present  marble — found  in  the  Baths  of 
Titus  and  bought  by  Mr.  Townley  from  the  Barberini  Palace 
— is  of  a  very  much  later  date,  and  of  a  different  order  of  art, 
being  an  excellent  example  of  the  genre  style  which  prevailed  in 
the  Hellenistic  period.  The  figure  belonged  to  "  a  group  of  two 
slave  boys  quarrelling  over  their  game.  The  figure  which  has 
survived  is  biting  his  companion  in  the  leg,  in  which  operation 
he  shows  his  teeth.  His  body  is  spare  and  sinewy,  and 
reminds  us  strongly  of  the  putti  of  Murillo.  He  wears  the 
exomis,  the  usual  dress  of  slaves,  the  folds  of  which  are  very 
skilfully  treated  to  suit  the  material.  His  opponent,  who 
must  have  been  either  kneeling  or  standing,  was  behind :) 
(Perry).  There  is  great  vigour  and  dramatic  force  in  this 
representation  of  a  street-scene. 

Bacchus  and  Ambrosia. — Ambrosia — a  personification  of 


THE  THIRD  GRALCO- ROMAN  ROOM  59 


the  food  of  the  gods — looks  up,  holding  in  her  right  hand  a 
bunch  of  grapes  towards  the  wine-cup  in  his  hand.  Bacchus, 
in  an  easy  and  graceful  attitude,  leans  on  her,  placing  his  hand 
affectionately  on  her  shoulder.  "  The  skill  of  the  sculptor  has 
blended  together  the  animal  and  vegetable  forms  with  so  much 
ingenuity  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where  the  one  begins 
or  the  other  terminates"  (Ellis). 

The  Slaying  of  Niobe's  Children. — The  legend  of  Niobe — 
one  of  the  most  familiar  in  ancient  art  and  poetry — first  occurs 
in  the  24th  book  of  the  Iliad.  Niobe,  filled  with  pride  in  her 
"  six  beauteous  daughters  and  six  stalwart  sons,"  dared  to 
challenge  comparison  with  Latona,  the  goddess -another  of 
Apollo  and  Artemis.  For  which  impiety  were  her  children 
slain  : 

The  maids,  the  Archer-Queen,  Diana,  slew, 

With  anger  fill'd  that  Niobe  presumed 

Herself  with  fair  Latona  to  compare 

Her  many  children  with  her  rival's  two  ; 

So  by  the  two  were  all  the  many  slain.  .  .  . 

And  now  in  Sipylus  amid  the  rocks 

And  lonely  mountains,  where  the  goddess  nymphs 

That  love  to  dance  by  Achelous'  stream, 

'Tis  said,  were  cradled,  she,  though  turn'd  to  stone, 

Broods  o'er  the  wrongs  inflicted  by  the  gods. 

In  this  circular  disk  (from  the  Castellani  collection)  the 
figures  are  carved  in  relief  on  a  series  of  terraces  represent- 
ing the  side  of  Mount  Sipylus.  Apollo  and  Artemis  are  on  the 
topmost  row.  In  the  second  row,  notice  the  son  throwing  up 
his  mantle  like  a  curtain  or  shield  to  protect  his  sister  ;  and  in 
the  bottom  row,  the  paedagogue  or  tutor,  who  is  less  concerned 
for  his  own  safety  than  for  that  of  his  charge,  who  clings  to 
him.  The  figures  on  this  disk  were  doubtless  copied  from 
statues  in  well-known  attitudes — such  as  those  of  the  Niobe 
series  now  at  Florence.  Those  famous  statues  were  from 
originals  by  Scopas  or  Praxiteles.  It  is  probable  that  in  this 
disk  we  have  reminiscences  rather  of  the  Niobe  group  which 
Phidias  is  known  to  have  executed  for  the  throne  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia.  Furtwangler  calls  special  attention  to  the  figure  in 
the  middle  of  the  second  row.  It  is  "  a  bold  and  individual 
design.  A  Niobid  has  fallen  backwards  over  a  rock.  The 
head  is  down,  the  hands  clasped  behind  it,  while  the  legs,  bent 
at  the  knees,  still  seem  clinging  to  the  rock  above.    Just  the 


6o 


THE  TFIIRD  GRAL CO- ROMA N  ROOM  chap. 


same  motive  is  introduced  on  the  shield  of  the  Athene  Par- 
thenos  "  {Masterpieces,  p.  44). 

Eecumbent  Satyr. — Originally  part  of  a  group  of  a  satyr 
struggling  with  a  nymph.  "  Only  two  fingers  of  the  nymph 
are  left,  pressed  against  the  face  of  the  satyr.  The  modern 
restorer  has  ignorantly  adapted  these  to  the  left  hand  of  the 
satyr"  (Newton). 

Bust  of  Diana. — Her  hair  is  bound  with  a  diadem  and 
tied  in  a  knot  at  the  top  of  the  head.  The  face  betokens 
"  chaste  severity  and  virgin  sweetness." 

Venus. — Found  in  an  ancient  bath  at  Ostia  in  1775.  Her 
hair  is  bound  by  several  fillets.  On  her  feet  are  sandals  tied 
round  the  instep.  The  arms  are  modern,  and  there  is  no 
authority  for  their  present  action.  This  is  one  of  several 
statues  restored  for  Townley  by  Nollekens,  whose  biographer 
(J.  T.  Smith)  lets  us  into  the  secret  of  how  such  things  are 
done  : — ■ 

£J  Mr.  Townley  desired  Mr.  Nollekens  to  send  for  his  small  Venus  in 
order  to  model  a  pair  of  arms  to  it.  That  gentleman  also  wished  him 
to  try  them  in  various  positions,  such  as  holding  a  dove,  the  beak  of 
which  might  touch  her  lips  ;  entwining  a  wreath  ;  or  looking  at  the 
eye  of  a  serpent.  Strange  to  tell,  I  stood  to  Mr.  Nollekens  for  all 
the  various  positions  he  could  devise  for  the  arms,  and  after  six 
changes  the  present  ones  were  carved "  {Nollekens  and  his  Times^ 
1828,  i.  184). 

Youthful  Satyr. — A  very  graceful  figure,  found  at  Antium. 
"  He  probably  held  up  a  jug  in  his  right  hand  to  pour  into  a 
bowl  held  in  the  left."  Formerly  in  the  Augusteum,  Dresden, 
from  which  museum  it  wras  obtained  in  exchange  for  various 
casts  in  1838. 

A  Laughing  Faun. — From  the  Macarani  Palace,  Rome. 
The  lower  part  of  the  legs,  the  arms,  and  the  trunk  supporting 
the  left  side  of  the  statue  are  modern  restorations.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  these  restorations  are  in  all  respects  correct. 
"  The  strain  and  tension  of  all  the  muscles  round  the  knees 
prove  that  the  figure  was  represented  on  tiptoe,  looking  eagerly 
at  some  agreeable  object,  which  would  account  for  the 
momentary  attitude  and  expression  given  to  the  countenance  " 
(Ellis).  The  right  arm  with  the  pipe  hardly  accords  with  this 
motive.  The  Faun  wears  the  skin  of  a  deer,  the  legs  of  which 
are  tied  across  the  left  shoulder.  In  his  left  hand  he  holds 
the  pedum  or  short  crook. 


THE  THIRD  GR^CO-ROMAN  ROOM  61 


Paniscus,  or  Youthful  Pan. — Roman  works,  found  in  1775 
in  the  villa  of  Antoninus  Pius,  at  Civita  Lavinia.  The  pointed 
ears  and  small  horns  show  that  it  represents  the  human  type 
of  Pan,  who  is  more  commonly  represented  with  the  goat's 
legs.  Both  are  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  sculptor, 
Marcus  Cossutius  Cerdo,  a  freedman.  "  The  letters  are  of 
the  first  century  A.D.,  and  the  style  of  the  sculpture  is  that  of 
the  so-called  school  of  Pasiteles,  an  artist  working  at  the  close 
of  the  Roman  Republic"  {Guide  to  the  Department). 

Terminal  Figure  of  Midas.  —  Otherwise  called  Pan,  but 
the  figure  differs  from  any  known  type  of  that  deity.  Midas 
was  the  inventor  of  the  plagiaulos,  or  flute.  The  action  of 
breathing  into  the  instrument  is  well  expressed.  This  figure, 
probably  executed  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  was  found  at 
Civita  Lavinia  in  1775.  These  termini  (or  hermas)  were 
columns  surmounted  with  the  heads  of  deities.  The  custom  of 
so  representing  Hermes  was  so  common  at  Athens  that  the 
name  became  generic,  being  applied  to  all  figures  of  the  kind, 
though  the  heads  were  of  other  divinities  or  persons. 

Eoman  Portrait.  —  Probably  of  Julius  Caesar,  in  black 
basalt,  found  in  Egypt. 

Torso  of  Venus. — Fragment,  of  very  fine  execution,  from  a 
statue  which  was  shattered  in  the  fire  at  Richmond  House, 
1 79 1.  The  Empress  of  Russia  was  at  that  time  in  negotiation 
for  its  purchase. 

We  next  come  to  an  archaistic  head  of  Dionysus,  and 
near  it  are  several  other  busts  and  statues  in  the  same  style. 
In  all  the  arts  there  are  times  when  the  imitation  of  early 
work  becomes  a  fashion.  Just  as  in  our  days  there  are  many 
amateurs  of  painting  who  give  all  their  admiration  to  "  the 
primitives,"  so  at  Rome  in  the  first  century  there  were  many 
connoisseurs  who  admired  the  earliest  style  of  Greek  sculpture, 
stiff  and  formal  though  it  was.  This  taste  may  in  part  have 
been  a  reaction  against  the  over  softness  and  smoothness  of 
late  Grasco-Roman  sculpture  ;  in  part,  perhaps,  it  was  affecta- 
tion. It  was  to  meet  this  taste  that  statues  such  as  these 
before  us  were  executed — in  deliberate  imitation  of  the  archaic 
style.  This  archaic  style  will  become  familiar  to  us  in  the 
next  rooms. 

Among  the  archaistic  imitations  here  is  a  full-size  figure  of 
Diana,  in  which  something  of  the  grand  style  may  be  seen. 
In  her  left  hand  she  held  a  small  stag  as  her  symbol.  Com- 


62  THE  THIRD  GRALCO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


pare  this  imitation  of  the  archaic  Diana  with  the  Graeco- 
Roman  type  described  above,  p.  46.  There  are  also  some 
archaistic  heads  of  the  bearded  Bacchus.  The  head  of  an 
athlete  is  an  archaistic  imitation  of  a  Greek  original ;  it  is 
of  very  finished  workmanship,  but  with  stiff  little  corkscrew 
curls. 

Some  other  works  in  this  part  of  the  room  must  also  be 
noticed  : — 

A  Bacchanalian  Rout. — A  bas-relief  of  fine  workmanship 
showing  a  portion  of  a  revel  in  honour  of  Bacchus — a  frequent 
subject  in  ancient  sculpture.  In  front  is  a  maenad,  playing 
on  the  tambourine,  in  a  state  of  orgiastic  excitement.  Behind 
are  two  satyrs  ;  one  of  them  is  playing  on  the  tibia,  or  double 
flute.  His  head  is  bound  with  a  kind  of  leathern  mouthpiece, 
used  to  give  additional  force  to  the  muscles.  The  other  satyr 
holds  out  a  panther's  skin,  and  the  panther  of  Bacchus  walks 
beside.  This  marble  was  found  at  Civita  Vecchia.  Actual 
scenes  such  as  that  here  represented  were  not  unknown  in  the 
days  of  Imperial  Rome.  "  Messalina,"  writes  Tacitus  {Annals, 
xi.  31),  "more  wildly  profligate  than  ever,  was  celebrating  in 
mid-autumn  a  representation  of  the  vintage.  The  presses  were 
being  trodden  ;  the  vats  were  overflowing  ;  women  girt  with 
skins  were  dancing,  as  Bacchanals  dance  in  their  worship  or 
their  frenzy.  Messalina  with  flowing  hair  shook  the  thyrsus, 
and  Silius  at  her  side,  crowned  with  ivy  and  wearing  the 
buskin,  moved  his  head  to  some  lascivious  chorus." 

Head  of  a  Bacchante. —  Found  outside  the  Porta  San 
Pancrazio,  Rome,  1776.  The  rough  dishevelled  hair  proclaims 
her  a  Bacchante. 

Visit  of  Bacchus  to  Icarius. — This  bas-relief  is  of  great  in- 
terest, both  for  its  subject  and  its  style.  The  relief  illustrates  the 
Attic  myth,  according  to  which  Dionysus  paid  visits  to  Attic 
princes  and  presented  them  with  various  gifts.  One  of  the 
persons  so  honoured  was  Icarius,  the  hero  of  viticulture  and  of 
the  satyric  drama  (notice  the  masks  below  the  couch).  Icarius 
is  reclining  at  table,  on  which  stand  dishes  and  a  drinking  cup. 
A  female  figure,  which  was  also  on  the  couch,  is  chiselled 
away.  Before  taking  his  place  as  a  guest,  Dionysus  has  his 
sandals  loosed  by  a  satyr.  Another  satyr,  mounted  on  the 
wall,  is  decorating  the  house  with  garlands.  Behind  Dionysus 
is  his  revel  rout.  The  god  himself  is  bearded  and  venerable, 
according  to  the  older  and  Eastern  type.     So  far,  we  see  in 


V 


THE  THIRD  GRMCO- ROMAN  ROOM 


63 


the  relief  a  lively  representation  of  a  myth.  But  it  is  specially 
interesting  as  giving  us  a  delineation  of  an  Athenian  house, 
with  its  roof  of  pantiles,  its  eaves  like  inverted  battlements, 
its  pediment  or  gable-end  adorned  with  a  head  of  Medusa, 
supported  by  two  tritons,  its  rude  windows  with  a  single 
mullion  and  capitals.  With  regard  to  the  style,  the  relief 
belongs  to  the  Hellenistic  or  Alexandrian  age,  and  it  is 
essentially  pictorial  in  treatment : — 

"  The  poems  of  Theocritus  show  us  how  the  trees  and  mountains 
and  breezes  of  Sicily  were  brought  to  refresh  the  jaded  intellect  of  the 
townsmen  of  Alexandria.  The  same  desires  found  expression  in  a 
series  of  reliefs,  which  also,  with  a  strange  inconsistency,  are  the  chief 
examples  of  a  new  and  luxurious  device  for  the  decoration  of  buildings. 
These  4  pictures  in  relief,'  as  they  have  been  aptly  named,  were 
designed  as  panels  to  be  let  into  the  walls.  .  .  .  They  are  distinguished 
not  only  by  their  choice  of  subject,  but  by  a  peculiar  pictorial  treat- 
ment of  the  design,  especially  in  the  background"  (E.  Gardner, 
Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture ;  p.  439). 

Hermes. — An  archaistic  bas-relief  in  granite.  Hermes 
carries  the  caduceus  and  lyre.  Found  by  Mehemet  Ali  in 
1825,  on  the  site  of  a  temple  at  Canopus  dedicated  by  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  I.     From  the  Stowe  collection. 

At  the  end  of  the  room  are  two  important  works  : — 
Spinario. — This  is  a  marble  version  of  one  of  the  most 
famous  ancient  works  of  genre,  known  from  numerous  repro- 
ductions. The  antique  bronze  at  Rome  (Capitol  Museum)  is, 
says  Mr.  Pater,  "  delightful  in  itself,  technically  exquisite,  and 
most  interesting  in  its  history  "  : — ■ 

"  Tolerated  in  the  general  destruction  of  ancient  sculpture — like 
the  '  Wolf  of  the  Capitol,'  allowed  by  way  of  heraldic  sign,  or  like  the 
equestrian  figure  of  Marcus  Aurelius  doing  duty  as  Charlemagne — like 
those,  but  like  very  few  other  works  of  the  kind,  the  Spinario  remained, 
well  known  and  in  honour,  throughout  the  Middle  Age.  Stories  like 
that  of  Ladas  the  famous  runner,  who  died  as  he  reached  the  goal  in  a 
glorious  footrace  of  boys — the  subject  of  a  famous  work  by  Myron — 
were  told  of  the  half-grown  bronze  lad  at  the  Capitol.  Of  necessity, 
but  fatally,  he  must  pause  for  a  few  moments  in  his  course  ;  or  the 
course  is  at  length  over,  or  the  breathless  journey  with  some  all- 
important  tidings  ;  and  now,  and  not  till  now,  he  thinks  of  resting  to 
draw  from  the  sole  of  his  foot  the  cruel  thorn,  driven  into  it  as  he 
ran.  In  any  case,  there  he  still  sits  for  a  moment,  for  ever,  amid  the 
smiling  admiration  of  centuries,  in  the  agility,  in  the  perfect  naivete 
also,  as  thus  occupied,  of  his  sixteenth  year"  {Greek  Studies ,  p.  307). 


64 


THE  THIRD  GRAl  CO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


The  close  attention  with  which  the  boy  devotes  himself  to  the 
work  of  extracting  the  thorn  is  well  expressed  in  the  half- 
opened  mouth  and  the  protrusion  of  the  lower  lip.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  his  hair  does  not  hang  down  over  his  cheeks, 
as  the  bent  position  of  the  head  would  necessitate,  but  clings 
closely  to  his  skull.  This  may  be  a  piece  of  archaism,  or 
more  probably  an  artistic  license  taken  in  order  not  to  obscure 
the  face,  which  is  already  partly  concealed. 

The  statue  before  us  was  found  on  the  Esquiline,  and 
appears  to  be  a  work  of  the  Hellenistic  age.  It  represents 
(says  Helbig)  the  same  motive  as  the  Capitoline  example,  but 
with  vulgar  forms  and  in  a  completely  realistic  style.  "It 
proves  that  the  Hellenistic  art,  which  so  often  transformed 
ideal  types  into  realistic  and  especially  into  rustic  figures,  has 
done  so  in  the  case  of  the  figure  before  us.  The  fifth-century 
type  1  has  been  transmuted  into  a  genre  figure  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term,  and  represents  nothing  more  than  a  street 
Arab  picking  a  thorn  out  of  his  foot "  {Antiquities  in  Rome, 
No.  617). 

Hermes. — This  statue  was  formerly  in  the  Farnese  Palace 
at  Rome.  It  was  purchased  with  other  statues  from  the 
ex-King  of  Naples  in  1865.  The  messenger  of  the  gods  is  in 
an  attitude  of  rest ;  he  wears  the  winged  sandals  (talarid) 
on  his  feet,  and  holds  the  caduceus,  or  wand,  in  his  left  hand. 
The  brow  is  slightly  knitted,  giving  a  certain  gentle  sadness 
to  the  expression,  as  in  Wordsworth's  lines  : — 

Mild  Hermes  spake,  and  touched  her  with  his  wand 
That  calms  all  fear. 

The  statue  is  one  of  many  copies  from  some  Greek  original. 
The  expression  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  Hermes  on 
the  sculptured  column  from  Ephesus  (p.  132). 

Jupiter- Serapis. — The  polytheism  of  the  imperial  age 
introduced  many  strange  gods  to  Rome.  The  Egyptian 
Serapis  had,  however,  been  admitted  to  the  Greek  Pantheon. 
His  worship,  very  popular  at  Alexandria,  soon  spread  through 
the  Greek  and  Roman  worlds.  In  the  age  of  Hadrian  it  was 
especially  in  favour,  and  Roman  inscriptions  to  Serapis  have 
been  found  in  Britain.    In  art  his  type  partook  of  the  character 

1  It  is,  however,  much  disputed  whether  the  bronze  boy  of  the  Capitol 
is  really  an  early  version  of  a  work  of  the  age  of  Myron  or  a  modification 
of  the  theme  invented  in  the  Hellenistic  age. 


V 


THE  THIRD  GRMCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


55 


at  once  of  Zeus  and  of  Hades.  His  unfailing  attribute  is  the 
modins  upon  his  head,  thought  by  some  to  be  the  bell  or  seed- 
vessel  of  the  lotus  (Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery,  i.  313). 

Apollo  and  Victory  (774)-  —  A  votive  relief — Apollo 
receiving  a  libation  from  Victory.  For  the  subject,  see  the 
chapter  on  these  reliefs  (xiil).  The  same  subject  occurs  on 
several  reliefs.  "All  exhibit  the  same  peculiar  style,  in  which 
certain  characteristics  of  the  archaic  period  are  retained  in 
the  treatment,  probably  from  a  religious  motive,  whence  this 
style  is  called  hieratic"  (Newton). 

Ganymede. — The  beautiful  Phrygian  youth  who  was  taken 
up  to  heaven  by  an  eagle  to  be  the  cup-bearer  of  the  gods. 
Here  Ganymede  is  looking  up,  as  it  were,  to  heaven,  while 
the  eagle  prepares  to  carry  him  away. 

Female  Head. — This  head  (from  the  Castellani  collection) 
has  been  identified  as  the  poetess  Sappho,  by  a  certain 
resemblance  to  a  portrait  of  her  on  the  earlier  coins  of 
Mytilene  (her  birthplace).  "The  deep  skull  and  the  vigorous 
features  betoken  an  unusual  amount  of  feeling,  will-power,  and 
capacity.  The  expression  of  severity  is  softened  by  the 
languishing  look  of  the  almond-shaped  eyes.  The  massive 
chin  and  the  full  under-lip  reveal  a  strongly  sensuous  nature  " 
(Helbig,  No.  789). 

Actason. — A  statue  of  the  young  hunter  who,  because  he 
had  boasted  that  he  excelled  Diana  in  the  chase,  or,  according 
to  another  version,  because  he  had  seen  the  goddess  when 
her  garments  were  laid  aside,  was  turned  into  a  stag  and 
devoured  by  his  dogs.  The  moment  of  transformation  is  here 
represented  :  the  horns  of  a  stag  are  already  sprouting  from 
his  head.     Found  at  the  villa  of  Antoninus  Pius,  1774. 

Mithraic  Group. — The  subject  of  this  group  has  already 
been  explained,  in  connection  with  a  similar  piece  of  sculpture 
in  the  Hall  of  Inscriptions  (see  p.  14). 

Jupiter. — "  Seated  figure  of  the  Infernal  Jupiter.  He  is 
on  a  throne,  on  the  right  of  which  is  an  eagle,  on  the  left 
Cerberus.  The  combination  of  these  symbols  indicates  that 
in  this  statue  the  Olympic  and  Chthonian  divinities  are  united 
in  one  type.  Such  mixed  types  were  common  in  late  Roman 
art"  (Newton). 

Head  Of  a  Barbarian. — This  fine  head,  in  which  feelings 
of  rage,  disappointment,  and  revenge  may  be  perceived,  was 
found  in  Trajan's  Forum.     It  has  been  variously  supposed  to 

F 


66 


THE  THIRD  GRAlCO-ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


be  Arminius,  the  celebrated  German  chief  who  was  conquered 
by  Germanicus  ;  his  son  Thumelicus ;  or  the  British  chief 
Caractacus.  The  countenance  is  remarkable  for  the  low  fore- 
head, and  the  beard  is  shaved,  all  but  the  moustache,  as  Caesar 
notes  to  have  been  the  case  with  the  ancient  Britons. 

The  Apotheosis  of  Homer. — This  relief,  though  much 
restored  and  in  some  ways  not  artistic,  is  full  of  interesting 
matter.  The  scene  is  laid  on  Mount  Parnassus.  Zeus,  seated 
on  the  summit,  has  granted  the  petition  of  the  Muses,  and  the 
apotheosis  itself  is  taking  place  in  the  lowest  tier,  in  which  the 
figures  are  inscribed  with  their  names.  The  capitals  of  the 
pillars  are  visible  above  the  curtain  which  is  stretched  across 
them  as  a  background.  The  poet  is  seated  on  the  lowest  tier, 
in  the  traditional  attitude  of  Zeus,  on  a  throne,  with  a  scroll  in 
one  hand  and  a  sceptre  in  the  other.  He  is  not  "  the  blind 
old  man  of  Scio's  rocky  isle,"  such  as  he  is  represented  in 
busts  (see  p.  47),  but  appears  in  all  the  freshness  of  immortal 
youth.  In  front  of  his  footstool  lies  a  roll  with  a  frog  at  one 
end  and  a  mouse  at  the  other,  representing  the  "  Battle  of 
the  Frogs  and  Mice,55  a  mock-epic  erroneously  attributed  to 
Homer.  On  the  two  sides  of  his  throne  are  small  figures  of 
the  Iliad  (holding  a  sword  as  a  sign  of  war)  and  of  the 
Odyssey  (with  the  figurehead  of  a  ship,  symbolical  of  travel). 
Behind  the  poet  are  figures  of  Time  and  the  Inhabited  World. 
The  World  wears  on  her  head  a  modius  (or  corn-measure), 
and  crowns  the  poet  with  a  chaplet.  Time  has  an  Egyptian 
cast  of  face,  typical  of  the  land  of  immemorial  monuments.  In 
his  hands  are  two  scrolls,  symbolical  perhaps  of  the  past  and 
the  future ;  or  more  probably  he  is  represented  with  long  swift 
wings  as  bearing  the  poet's  works  down  the  stream  of  time. 
Immediately  in  front  of  Homer  is  Myth,  pouring  a  libation  ; 
his  boyish  form  may  be  indicative  of  the  childlike  character  of 
fable.  Next  comes  a  flaming  altar,  behind  which  meekly 
stands,  ready  for  sacrifice,  a  Carian  ox,  with  the  hump  peculiar 
to  the  breed.  History,  of  which  Homer  was  the  source,  casts 
incense  upon  the  flame.  Next  comes  the  spirit  of  Poetry  in 
general,  raising  two  torches  on  high  ;  followed  by  Tragedy, 
stately  and  dignified,  and  the  more  sprightly  Comedy.  They 
raise  their  hands  in  praise,  for  the  germ  of  both  is  contained 
in  Homer's  poems.  The  signification  of  the  next  group  is 
more  difficult  to  decide.  Behind  are  Virtue  (who  raises  her 
hand  in  admiration) ;  Memory,  with  her  hand  to  her  mouth  ; 


v  THE  THIRD  GR^CO-ROMAN  ROOM  67 


Faith,  with  steadfast  gaze  ;  and  Wisdom,  meditating,  with  her 
hand  under  her  chin.  These  four  figures  may  signify  the 
qualities  inherent  and  combined  in  the  poet  himself — Faith 
meaning  rather  what  we  should  call  "imagination."  But  what 
is  the  child  ?  The  Greek  cfyvcris  may  mean  either  the  nature, 
i.e.  the  native  genius,  of  the  poet — afterwards  subdivided  into 
the  four  qualities  given  above,  just  as  Poetry  is  subdivided  into 
Tragedy  and  Comedy — or  it  may  mean  Nature,  in  which  case 
"  Nature,  the  type  of  all  that  is  childlike,  looks  up  with  its 
smile  into  the  face  of  Faith." 

On  the  top  of  Parnassus  is  Zeus,  by  whom  the  gift  of 
genius  is  bestowed  on  man.  He  sits  apart,  sceptre  in  hand 
and  with  the  royal  bird  at  his  feet.  He  is  signifying  his 
pleasure  to  Melpomene,  the  sweet  singer,  that  the  poet  shall 
receive  the  honours  of  apotheosis.  Next  to  her  is  Thalia, 
who  hurries  down  the  hill  to  convey  the  news  to  the  other 
Muses.  In  the  next  row  Euterpe  points  with  her  double  flute 
to  the  artist's  name  inscribed  beneath  the  throne  oi  Zeus  (see 
below).  Erato  holds  a  small  lyre.  Calliope,  the  beautiful- 
voiced,  with  uplifted  hand,  is  reciting  the  works  of  Homer 
to  Clio,  the  Muse  of  epic  poetry.  Below  (on  the  left)  are 
Terpsichore,  the  Muse  of  choral  song,  and  Urania,  the 
heavenly,  with  a  globe.  Next  comes  Polyhymnia,  in  an 
attitude  of  inspiration,  listening  to  the  strains  of  Apollo.  He 
is  clad  in  long  flowing  robes  and  plays  the  lyre,  as  Citharcedus 
(see  p.  45).  He  stands  outside  the  Corycian  grotto.  His 
bow  and  quiver  lie  upon  the  omphalos,  or  navel  of  the  earth. 
A  priestess,  whose  smaller  size  denotes  her  more  human 
character,  holds  in  her  hand  the  cup  of  libation. 

There  remains  to  be  explained  the  tall  figure  on  the  pedestal, 
with  a  tripod  behind  him,  who  appears  to  be  unconnected  with 
the  rest  of  the  picture.  Some  suppose  him  to  represent  Hesiod 
or  Orpheus.  Another  theory  is  that  the  relief  formed  one  of 
a  series  of  tablets  made  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  for  the  use  of 
schools,  and  that  the  figure  represents  some  deified  emperor, 
seated  on  Parnassus  among  the  gods  and  muses.  The 
suggestion  of  Goethe  is,  however,  more  probable.  According 
to  this,  the  whole  work  is  a  votive  tablet,  made  to  commemorate 
the  victory  of  a  poet  who  had  won  a  tripod  as  a  prize  for  a 
poem  in  honour  of  Homer,  and  the  figure  on  the  pedestal 
represents  the  victorious  poet  himself.  The  tablet  was  found 
at  Bovillae,  twenty  miles  from  Rome,  among  the  ruins  of  the 


68  THE  THIRD  GRALCO- ROMAN  ROOM  chap. 


villa  of  the  Emperor  Claudius.  It  was  bought  from  the 
Colonna  family  in  1819  for  ^1000. 

The  artist  was  Archelaus,  son  of  Apollonius,  of  Priene 
in  Caria,  and  the  work  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
in  the  time  of  Tiberius.  It  is  full  of  ingenious  allegory 
and  imaginative  ideas.  But  the  execution  is  not  always  very 
refined,  and  the  unity  of  time  which  is  essential  to  sculpture  is 
violated.  Zeus  is  giving  orders  above  for  the  apotheosis  which  is 
actually  taking  place  below.  "  The  sculptor  has  tried  to  write 
a  story  in  compartments  of  marble  " — a  return  to  an  archaic 
artlessness  (W.  C.  Perry,  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  pp.  606- 
610,  and  an  article  by  H.  W.  Nevinson  in  the  Magazine  of  Art, 
June  1898). 

Cupid  Asleep. — Or  perhaps  a  personification  of  the  god  of 
sleep  as  a  winged  infant  in  deep  slumber.  This  marble,  found 
at  Tarsus,  is  a  very  poetical  piece.  In  his  hand  the  child  has 
a  bunch  of  poppies,  the  symbol  of  sleep.  His  head  rests  on 
a  jar,  in  the  mouth  of  which  a  pipe  has  been  put.  This  shows 
that  the  statue  served  as  a  fountain.  The  water  gently  flow- 
ing under  the  head  of  the  figure  is  suggestive  of  the  calm, 
deep  sleep  of  infancy. 

Head  of  Eros. — This  charming  head  was  discovered  in  the 
Temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Paphos,  Cyprus,  in  1887.  The  upper 
ridge  of  teeth  showing  through  the  half-open  mouth,  the  faint 
smile  of  the  half-shut  eyes,  and  the  rounded  modelling  of  the 
rest  of  the  head  are  noticeable.  The  sculptor's  desire  to 
render  the  lively  expression  of  childhood  with  truth  to  nature 
leads  to  a  half-conscious  smile  (Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies? 
x.  164,  218;  xi.  105).  By  some  authorities  it  is  believed 
to  be  an  original  Greek  work  of  the  earlier  times.  More 
probably,  however,  it  belongs  to  the  Plellenistic  or  the  Graeco- 
Roman  period,  in  which  children  began  to  be  a  favourite 
theme  with  sculptors.  To  the  earlier  Greek  sculptors  the 
immature  forms  of  childhood  seemed  to  present  no  attraction, 
and  when  they  rendered  children  at  all,  they  made  no  attempt 
to  realise  the  truth  of  nature.2  The  child  in  the  Hermes  of 
Praxiteles  (p.  145)  is  roughed  out  as  a  mere  accessory, 

1  Afterwards  referred  to  in  this  book  under  the  abbreviation  J.H.S. 

2  "If  you  will  overpass  quickly  in  your  own  minds  what  you  remember 
of  the  treasures  of  Greek  antiquity,  you  will  find  that,  among  them  all,  you 
can  get  no  notion  of  what  a  Greek  little  girl  was  like.  Matronly  Tunos, 
and  tremendous  Demeters,  and  Gorgonian  Minervas,  as  many  as  you 


V 


THE  THIRD  GRAlCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


69 


Centaur  carrying  off  a  Female  Figure. — This  bas-relief 
should  be  compared  with  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon,  on 
which  similar  subjects  are  represented  in  a  different  style. 
Here  we  may  see  much  that  is  spirited  and  picturesaue  ;  in 
the  metopes,  greater  simplicity  and  severity. 

Heroic  Head. — From  the  Payne  Knight  collection.  A 
work  of  the  Pergamene  school  (see  above,  Ch.  IV.). 

Standing  Discobolus. — This  beautiful  statue,  a  favourite 
model  for  art  students,  exists  in  several  copies  —  another  of 
which,  found  in  1792  on  the  Via  Appia,  is  in  the  Vatican 
Museum  (Sala  della  Biga).  The  athlete  is  here  represented 
in  the  attitude  immediately  preceding  that  of  the .  Discobolus 
of  Myron  (p.  49).  He  is  just  taking  up  his  position,  measur- 
ing the  ground  with  his  eye  and  feeling  it  with  his  advanced 
foot.  This  activity,  at  once  physical  and  mental,  is  expressed 
by  the  artist  with  admirable  clearness.  With  the  quoit  borne 
for  a  moment  in  the  left  hand  so  as  not  to  weary  the  right, 
the  player  presses  his  right  foot  slightly  against  the  ground,  as 
though  to  test  at  once  its  firmness  and  the  elasticity  of  his 
own  limbs.  He  moves  the  fingers  of  his  right  hand,  as  if 
testing  their  strength  and  pliancy,  on  which  his  fate  depends. 
The  forward  inclination  of  the  head  is  in  unison  with  the 
simple  motive  of  the  whole  figure.  "  This  charming  statue 
affords  an  excellent  example  of  the  type  of  the  well-born  Greek 
youth  formed  to  strength  and  harmonious  beauty  by  '  the 
grace-giving  PalcestraJ  and  the  face  wears  the  simple  frank 
expression  to  which  we  are  accustomed  in  the  cella  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon.  It  is  probably  an  excellent  copy  of  some 
celebrated  original  from  the  best  period  of  Attic  art55  (Perry's 
Catalogue  of  Casts,  No.  82  ;  Upcott,  p.  59  ;  Helbig,  No.  331). 

Head  of  an  Amazon  (503). — This  beautiful  head  is 
believed  to  be  a  copy  from  the  famous  statue  of  an  Amazon 
which  Polyclitus  executed  for  the  Temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus  : — 

"The  treatment  of  the  hair,  with  its  flicker  of  light  and  shade, 
unsuitable  for  marble,  shows  that  it  has  been  copied  from  a  bronze 
original.  .  .  .  The  shape  of  the  head,  high  in  the  crown,  flat  on  the 

please  ;  but  for  my  own  part,  always  speaking  as  a  Goth,  I  had  much 
rather  have  had  some  idea  of  the  Spartan  Helen  dabbling  with  Castor  and 
Pollux  in  the  Eurotas,  none  of  them  over  ten  years  old  "  (Ruskm,  The 
Art  of  England,  p.  96).  In  the  figurines  of  Tanagra  those  who  share 
Mr.  Ruskin's  preferences  will  find  ample  satisfaction  (see  Ch.  xxvii.). 


7o 


THE  THIRD  GRMCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


sides  and  on  the  cheeks,  but  massive  and  long  in  the  front  aspect,  was 
adopted  by  Polykleitos,  if  not  created  by  him.  The  expression  is  that 
of  a  wounded  Amazon — not  such  an  expression  as  might  be  discovered 
in  this  or  that  feature,  in  the  mouth  or  the  eyes,  but  one  which 
pervades  the  whole  face,  and  belongs  to  the  order  of  ideal  creations 
that  defy  analysis,  but  yet  haunt  the  spectator  as  perfect  types" 
(Murray,  Greek  Sculpture^  i.  319). 

Furtwangler,  however,  reads  a  somewhat  different  expres- 
sion into  the  Polyclitan  type  of  Amazon,  which,  he  thinks, 
sacrificed  truth  and  simplicity  to  beauty  and  elegance.  The 
former  qualities  he  sees  rather  in  the  type  of  Amazon  as 
created  by  Cresilas,  and  existing  in  the  statue  in  the  Capitoline 
Museum  at  Rome  : — 

"Both  heads,  in  accordance  with  the  general  style  of  the  fifth 
century,  show  nothing  of  the  contraction  of  certain  muscles  caused  by 
pain  ;  they  try  rather  to  express  the  suffering  only  through  the  general 
bearing.  Yet  here  there  is  a  difference.  The  Polykleitan  head,  apart 
from  the  statue,  has  absolutely  no  indication  of  suffering"  {Master- 
pieces■,  p.  136). 

A  Dacian  Prisoner  (about  107  a.d.). — From  the  Palace 
of  Trajan  at  Ramleh  near  Alexandria. 

Two  Youths  on  Horseback  (780). — The  simplicity  of  the 
treatment  in  the  sculpture  and  the  general  character  both  of 
the  horses  and  of  their  types  indicate  that  this  relief  is  derived 
from  some  Greek  original  of  the  best  period.  The  horses  are 
small  and  compact,  like  those  on  the  Parthenon  frieze. 

Erato. — A  statuette  of  Erato  (the  lovely),  the  muse  of  love 
poetry,  seated  on  a  rock  and  playing  on  a  lyre. 

Head  of  Atys. — A  head  in  which  the  youthful  beauty  of 
the  two  sexes  is  blended.  This  makes  it  appropriate  to  Atys, 
the  beautiful  Phrygian  shepherd  whose  strange  story  is  told  by 
Pausanias.  The  head-dress  is  a  variety  of  the  Phrygian  cap. 
"  In  taste  and  finished  skill,  this  head  has  few  rivals  "  (Ellis). 
Found  at  Rome,  in  the  Villa  Palombara. 

A  Barbarian  Captive. — On  a  colossal  scale,  but  not  so 
expressive  as  the  similar  heads  previously  described. 

"Clytie." — This  beautiful  and  celebrated  bust  was  one  of 
the  most  treasured  possessions  of  Mr.  Townley,  who  used 
jocosely  to  call  it  his  wife.  He  had  purchased  it  in  1772  at 
Naples  from  the  Laurenzano  family.  It  is  in  the  finest  con- 
dition, the  only  modern  restorations  being  two  leaves  of  the 
flower.     During  the  Gordon  riots  in  1780,  Mr.  Townley,  as  a 


V 


THE  THIRD  GRsECO-ROMAN  ROOM  71 


Roman  Catholic,  feared  an  attack  upon  his  house  in  Park 
Street,  and  withdrew  in  haste.  It  is  related  that  he  had 
secured  his  cabinet  of  gems,  and  was  taking,  as  he  feared,  a 
last  view  of  his  marbles,  when  he  seized  the  Clytie  and  con- 
veyed it  to  his  carriage — a  tale  which  recalls  the  stratagem 
whereby  Phryne  made  Praxiteles  select  those  of  his  works 
which  he  most  prized.  Mr.  Townley  named  this  head  Clytie, 
because  the  bust  rests  on  the  calyx  of  a  flower,  which  he 
supposed  to  be  the  sunflower  into  which  Clytie  was  changed. 
Other  attributions,  founded  on  classical  floral  fables,  have  been 
suggested.  Heads  issuing  from  the  calyx  of  a  flower  are, 
however,  frequent  on  Greek  vases,  and  in  a  sepulchral  stele 
found  at  Athens  a  female  bust  is  represented  rising  out  of  the 
floral  decoration  which  forms  the  usual  ornament  of  this  class  of 
monument  in  Attica.  The  motive,  therefore,  is  probably  funereal. 
The  bust  itself  is  evidently  the  portrait  of  a  Roman  lady  of  the 
Augustan  age.  The  type  is  more  refined  and  the  expression 
more  highly  wrought  than  is  usual.  The  forehead  is  low, 
which,  as  we  learn  from  Horace,  was  then  thought  a  special 
characteristic  of  a  beautiful  face  (Newton).  "  It  may  perhaps 
be  the  head  of  Antonia,  daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  and  mother 
of  Germanicus."    (See  Huebner's  Bildmss  einer  Romerin.) 

Youth  holding  a  Horse. — This  beautiful  bas-relief  is  in 
the  style  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  ;  it  is  probably  an  imitation 
executed  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  in  whose  villa  at  Tivoli  it  was 
found  by  Gavin  Hamilton.  The  boy  is  represented  holding  the 
rein,  which  was  formerly  of  metal,  as  the  holes  for  its  attachment 
indicate. 

Cupid  bending  a,  Bow. — There  are  many  repetitions  of  this 
figure,  presumably  founded  on  some  famous  original.  On  the 
stump  by  the  side  is  the  skin  of  a  lion  ;  and  as  the  bow  is 
somewhat  disproportionately  large,  it  has  been  supposed  that 
Cupid  is  here  occupied  not  with  his  own  bow,  but  with  that  of 
Hercules,  which  he  had  purloined  from  the  demigod,  along 
with  the  lion's  skin  and  club.     (See  below.) 

[The  Greek  conception  of  Eros  (Cupid),  which  has  entered 
so  largely  into  the  art  and  literature  of  subsequent  ages  and 
peoples,  was  a  winged  god,  personifying  the  power  of  Love 
over  the  heart  of  man.  The  poet  Anacreon  described  him  as 
"  a  young  child  with  wings,  bow  and  quiver."  These  attributes 
were  always  given  to  him,  but  in  Greek  art  two  stages  may  be 
distinguished.     (1)  At  first,  Eros  is  represented  as  a  beautiful 


72 


THE  THIRD  GRMCO-ROMAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


youth,  and  generally  in  close  attendance  on  his  mother, 
Aphrodite  (Venus),  from  whom  he  is,  as  it  were,  an  emanation 
and  whose  inestimable  charm  he  personifies.  In  archaic  reliefs 
Eros  rides  in  a  chariot  at  Aphrodite's  side.  On  the  frieze  ot 
the  Parthenon  he  stands  near  his  mother,  a  slender  boy,  and 
looks  at  the  procession  (p.  184).  In  the  Eros  of  Praxiteles,  of 
which  the  so-called  "genius  of  the  Vatican"  ("the  armless 
Vatican  Cupid"  of  Mr.  Arnold's  poem)  may  be  a  reminiscence, 
the  charm  is  that  of  adolescence — of  a  young  boy  in  the  first 
bloom  of  life.  In  another  group  of  statues,  attributed  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  same  sculpture,  Eros,  somewhat  younger,  is 
represented  stretching  a  bow  :  this  is  the  type  now  before  us. 
(2)  But,  later,  Eros  appears  as  a  little  wanton  boy,  and  his 
personality  becomes  divided  into  several  little  loves  {erotes). 
In  Greek  vases  we  shall  see  these  winged  figures  appearing 
like  familiar  spirits  in  innumerable  scenes  both  of  mythology 
and  of  domestic  life.  On  Greek  bronzes  Ave  shall  see  them 
fluttering  round  Aphrodite  and  helping  to  support  the  mirror 
(p.  431).  Every  visitor  to  Naples  will  remember  the  painting 
from  Pompeii  of  the  vendor  of  loves,  who  are  kept  in  a  cage. 
In  sculpture,  Eros  becomes  younger  than  heretofore — a  baby, 
almost,  instead  of  a  boy.  It  is  under  this  chubby  and  baby- 
like form  that  Eros  (Cupid)  generally  appears  in  works  of  the 
Hellenistic  and  Roman  schools.  The  sleeping  Cupid,  described 
below,  is  of  this  later  type.] 

The  statuette  before  us  was  found  by  Gavin  Hamilton  in 
1776  at  Castello  di  Guido,  the  ancient  Lorium,  where 
Antoninus  Pius  died  and  his  wife  Faustina  had  a  villa.  The 
body  and  wings  were  found  enclosed  in  an  amphora,  on  which 
account  the  surface  of  these  parts  is  in  very  fine  condition. 
The  other  parts  were  lying  in  the  earth  close  by.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  precautions  employed  to  save  the  statue, 
and  the  haste  with  which  they  were  taken  (there  being  no 
time  to  find  a  vase  large  enough  to  hold  the  marble  entire), 
point  to  a  sudden  incursion  or  dread  of  Christian  iconoclasts 
(see  Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery,  i.  210). 

Endymion  sleeping  on  Mount  Latmos. — On  his  head  is 
the  petasus,  or  hat  with  low  crown  and  broad  rim,  tied  under 
the  chin ;  on  his  feet  are  sandals  laced  up  high  on  the 
foot. 

Cupid  bending  ilis  Bow. — This  marble  belonged  to  Burke, 
and  was  purchased  at  the  sale  of  his  collections.     It  had  been 


THE  THIRD  GRAL CO-R OMA N  ROOM  73 


procured  for  him  at  Rome  by  the  painter  Barry,  who  for  five 
years  was  maintained  abroad  by  Burke  to  study  art. 

Hercules  and  the  Stag. — One  of  the  labours  of  Hercules 
was  to  bring  alive  to  Eurystheus  a  stag  famous  for  its  incredible 
swiftness,  golden  horns,  and  brazen  feet.  In  this  bas-relief  the 
hero  is  shown  in  the  moment  of  triumph.  He  has  seized  the 
stag  by  the  antlers,  and  is  forcing  it  down  by  the  pressure  of 
his  left  knee.  "The  treatment  of  the  hair  and  beard  and  the 
general  style  of  the  sculpture  make  it  probable  that  in  this 
relief  we  have  either  an  archaic  work  which  has  been  partially 
retouched  in  modern  times,  or  such  a  pseudo-archaic  imitation 
as  would  be  executed  in  the  time  of  Hadrian  "  (Newton). 

Venus. — Torso  of  a  small  statue  of  Venus  stooping  to  fasten 
her  sandal.  This  torso,  very  finely  modelled,  was  purchased 
at  Rome  from  Cavaceppi,  the  sculptor,  in  whose  possession  it 
had  been  for  many  years.  Mr.  Townley  considered  it  one  of 
the  gems  of  his  collection. 

Cupid  sleeping,  with  Attributes  of  Hercules. — He  lies  on 
a  lion's  skin  ;  in  front  of  him  is  a  club,  and  behind  him,  bows 
and  arrows  in  a  bow-case — all  attributes  of  Hercules.  Two 
lizards  are  crawling  on  the  lion's  skin.  The  introduction  of 
the  lizard  in  compositions  of  this  kind  has  received  various 
interpretations.  Some  suggest  the  supposed  efficacy  of  the 
lizard  in  love-charms  (to  this  day  there  is  no  commoner  form 
of  jewelled  ornament)  ;  others,  the  fact  that  the  lizard  spends 
a  great  part  of  the  year  in  sleep. 

£3T  From  the  far  end  of  the  Third  Grceco-Roman  Room,  a  stair- 
case descends  to  the  Grceco-Rovian  Basement. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  GR^ECO-ROMAN  BASEMENT 

Where  dead  men  hang 
Their  mute  thoughts  on  the  mute  walls  around. 

In  this  basement  are  arranged  Etruscan  sarcophagi,  ancient 
mosaics,  and  figures  and  reliefs  of  the  Grasco-Roman  period, 
which  are  described  by  the  authorities  of  the  Museum  as  u  of 
inferior  merit."  Nevertheless  many  of  them  are  of  consider- 
able interest  and  beauty.  The  fact  is,  the  British  Museum 
is  so  rich  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  and  so  cramped 
for  space  in  which  properly  to  exhibit  them,  that  collections 
which  would  be  the  pride  of  many  another  museum  are  here 
consigned  to  basements  and  cellars.  The  larger  part  of  this 
basement  is  not  open  to  the  general  public  without  special 
permission.  In  the  following  notes  we  deal  only  with  such 
objects  as  are  accessible  to  all  visitors.  Going  round  the 
room  from  left  to  right,  we  notice  first : — 

An  Ancient  Bath-chair. — Found  in  the  Antonine  Baths 
at  Rome.  In  the  centre  of  the  seat  is  a  hollow  space  in  the 
form  of  an  extended  horse-shoe,  serving  a  double  use,  either 
for  water  to  be  poured  upon  the  person  sitting  in  it,  or  to 
receive  steam  or  vapour  from  beneath.  It  is  curious  that  a 
precise  description  of  this  kind  of  chair,  with  an  explanation 
of  the  purposes,  medicinal  and  other,  to  which  it  may  be  put, 
has  come  down  to  us  in  a  letter  from  King  Theodoric  to  an 
architect.  On  each  side  of  the  seat  a  wheel  is  worked  in 
relief,  in  imitation  no  doubt  of  such  wheel-chairs  as  were  at 
that  time  executed  in  wood,  resembling  in  some  degree  the 
bath-chairs  of  to-day  (Ellis,  The  Tozvnley  Gallery,  ii.  308). 

Statue  of  Venus. — A  copy  of  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  by 
Praxiteles  (see  p.  43).  "  The  present  example  is  in  many 
respects  poor,  but  the  torso  retains  something  of  the  style  of 

74 


chap,  vi       THE  GRALCO-ROMAN  BASEMENT 


75 


Praxiteles,  while  the  rendering  of  the  hair  seems  fairly  true  to 
the  original,  as  is  also  the  drapery,  held  out  by  the  left  hand 
and  falling  over  a  vase  on  the  ground "  {British  Museum 
Return,  1899,  P-  60).  This  figure  was  found  in  Athens  in 
181 1,  acquired  there  by  Lord  Broughton  (Hobhouse),  and 
sent  home  by  Lord  Byron. 

An  Altar  to  Apollo. — On  public  festivals  the  Greek  and 
Roman  altars  were  usually  hung  with  wreaths,  whence  in  later 
times,  when  they  were  for  the  most  part  made  of  stone  or 
marble,  festoons  were  often  sculptured  upon  them.  Here  a 
raven  is  resting  upon  a  festoon  of  laurel,  and  on  each  of  the 
sides  a  laurel,  Apollo's  tree,  is  represented. 

In  the  first  recess  there  is  a  charming  head  of  a  youth. 
The  fragment  is  not  in  good  condition,  but  exhibits  the  fine 
style  of  the  school  of  Praxiteles. 

"  Grotta  Dipinta." — A  dark  recess  has  been  fitted  up  to 
resemble  an  Etruscan  tomb.  The  paintings  are  copies.  The 
sarcophagus  is  the  actual  one  found  in  the  tomb  here  repre- 
sented. The  Etruscan  tombs  were  generally  hewn  in  the 
rock,  and  sometimes  included  several  chambers  connected 
with  each  other,  as  in  the  famous  Tomb  of  the  Volumnii,  with 
which  every  visitor  to  Perugia  is  familiar.  In  many  cases  the 
walls  were  richly  decorated  with  paintings.  In  the  chambers 
were  placed  the  sarcophagi  and  urns  containing  the  remains 
of  the  dead,  who  were  accompanied  in  their  resting-place  by 
presents  of  numerous  painted  vases,  bronzes,  and  other  objects. 
The  vases  stood  on  the  floor  or  were  arranged  on  shelves,  and 
as  the  Etruscan  tombs  were  spacious  and  strongly  constructed, 
enormous  numbers  of  vases  have  come  down  to  us  in  fairly 
good  preservation.  The  tomb  here  represented  is  one  of  those 
excavated  by  Prince  Borghese  at  Bomarzo,  an  Etruscan  site 
near  Viterbo.  It  is  known  as  the  Grotta  Dipinta,  and  is  thus 
described  from  personal  observation  by  Dennis  : — 

''We  are  in  a  chamber  whose  walls,  gaily  painted,  are  alive  with 
sea-horses  snorting  and  plunging,  water-snakes  uprearing  their  crests 
and  gliding  along  in  slimy  folds,  dolphins  sporting  as  in  their  native 
element.  .  .  .  These  are  symbols  frequently  found  in  Etruscan  tombs, 
either  depicted  on  the  walls  or  sculptured  on  sarcophagi  and  urns. 
They  are  generally  regarded  as  emblematic  of  the  passage  of  the  soul 
from  one  state  of  existence  to  another,  an  opinion  confirmed  by  the 
frequent  representation  of  boys  riding  on  their  backs.  This  view  is, 
moreover,  borne  out  by  their  amphibious  character — horse  and  fish, 


76 


THE  GRJF,  CO- R OMA N  BASEMENT  chap. 


snake  and  fish, — evidently  referring  to  a  two-fold  state  of  existence. 
The  dolphins,  which  form  a  border  round  the  apartment,  painted 
alternately  black  and  red,  are  a  common  sepulchral  ornament,  and  are 
supposed  to  have  a  similar  symbolical  reference,  though  they  have  also 
been  considered  as  emblematical  of  the  maritime  power  of  the 
Etruscans,  the  sea-kings  of  antiquity.  The  rolling  border  beneath 
them  represents  the  waves  in  which  they  are  supposed  to  be  sporting  " 
{Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etrtiria,  1883,  i.  168). 

On  the  right  are  two  painted  heads.  The  one  nearest  to 
us,  with  fixed  stare  and  the  hair  standing  out  as  if  electrified, 
may  represent  Typhon  or  the  spirit  of  Destruction.  The 
old  man's  head  on  the  same  wall  may  be  Charun  (the  minister 
of  Death).  The  head  in  the  centre  of  the  other  wall  is  prob- 
ably the  portrait  of  the  Etruscan  for  whom  the  sarcophagus 
was  constructed.  "  Next  to  the  Typhon  head  is  a  large  jar, 
sketched  on  the  wall,  out  of  which  two  serpents  with  forked 
tongues  are  rising.  The  demons  or  genii  of  Etruscan 
mythology  are  commonly  represented  brandishing  these 
reptiles  in  their  hands,  or  with  them  bound  round  their  brows 
or  waists,  or  sometimes,  as  in  this  case,  having  them  by  their 
side.  That  snakes  were  also  made  use  of  by  the  Etruscan 
priests  and  soothsayers,  as  by  the  Egyptian,  to  establish  their 
credit  for  superior  powers  in  the  minds  of  the  people  may  be 
learned  from  both  history  and  sepulchral  monuments,  and  it  is 
possible  that  those  used  in  the  service  of  the  temples  were 
kept  in  such  jars  as  this"  (Dennis,  ibid.  pp.  168-170). 

In  this  tomb  was  found  the  curious  sarcophagus  which  we 
now  see  before  us.  It  is  of  temple  shape  with  a  pair  of 
serpents  in  knotted  coils  on  the  roof,  and  "  it  appears  highly 
probable,  from  this  and  other  adornments  of  the  sarcophagus, 
as  well  as  from  the  serpent-jar  painted  on  the  wall,  that  this 
was  the  sepulchre  of  some  augur  or  aruspex  skilled  in  the 
mysteries  of  the  Etruscan  Discipline  and  in  interpreting  the 
will  of  heaven.  His  name,  we  learn  from  the  sarcophagus, 
was  Vel  Urinates,  a  family  name  met  with  in  other  parts  of 
Etruria  "  (Dennis,  I.e.,  where  also  a  detailed  description  of  the 
sarcophagus  will  be  found). 

Continuing  along  the  wall,  we  notice  : — 

Two  Small  Statues  of  Fishermen. — In  one  the  fisherman 
carries  his  bucket  of  fish  on  his  left  arm  ;  he  wears  a  sailor's 
bonnet ;  a  dolphin  serves  as  a  support  to  the  figure.  In  the 
other  the  brawny  fisherman  rests  his  bucket  on  the  stem  of  a 


VI 


THE  GRMCO-ROMAN  BASEMENT 


77 


tree.  He  holds  out  a  small  fish  in  his  right  hand,  and  his 
mouth  is  open,  as  if  he  were  calling  out  his  wares.  The  con- 
ception is  spirited  and  the  sculpture  fairly  executed.  Statues 
of  fishermen  are  often  met  with.  They  probably  ornamented 
the  banks  of  fishponds  which  were  a  marked  feature  of  Roman 
luxury. 

Next  to  this  fisherman  is  a  comic  actor  (found  at  Rome, 
1 773)5  probably  representing  a  slave  taking  refuge  at  an  altar. 
The  actor's  face  is  covered  with  a  comic  mask  ;  the  mouth 
was  left  wide  open  for  the  free  transmission  of  the  voice. 

In  the  recess  here  we  catch  glimpses  of  Etruscan  sarco- 
phagi. There  is  something  very  weird  in  the  collections  of 
these  old  Etruscans  lying  for  ever  in  their  tombs  in  melancholy 
rows  in  all  the  museums  of  Europe,  where  "  dead  men  hang 
their  mute  thoughts  on  the  mute  wails  around  "  : — 

"  I  must  say  I  was  almost  terrified  at  the  figures  when  I  first  saw 
them,  for  by  the  dim  light  there  appeared  so  much  dignity  in  their 
attitudes,  and  severe  majesty  in  their  countenances,  that  I  fancied  they 
seemed  to  reprove  our  intrusion  upon  their  solemn  and  sacred  rest. 
There  they  lay,  not  with  a  look  of  death,  but  as  if  they  had  a  tale  to 
tell,  if  there  was  any  one  present  willing  to  listen  and  worthy  to  under- 
stand. .  .  .  They  looked,  indeed,  as  if  they  felt  that  they  were  in  a 
strange  country,  cold,  comfortless,  and  far  from  home  "  (Mrs.  Hamilton 
Gray's  Sepulchres  of  Etruria,  pp.  6,  12). 

Among  the  statues  which  may  be  discerned  in  the  doubtful 
gloom  beyond  is  one  of  a  youthful  Bacchus,  found  in  the 
temple  of  that  god  at  Cyrene,  and  remarkable  for  a  certain 
effeminate  beauty.  Next  to  it,  also  from  Cyrene,  is  a  female 
figure — probably  a  portrait  of  a  queen  of  the  Ptolemaic 
dynasty.  Several  queens  of  that  dynasty  are  represented 
on  their  coins  as  wearing  diadem  and  veil,  as  in  this  statue. 
£'  Though  the  figure  has  rather  an  imposing  effect  at  a  distance, 
near  inspection  shows  that  it  is  very  coarsely  executed.  The 
proportions  are  very  clumsy.  It  was  found  in  some  ruins  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  "  (Smith  and  Porcher, 
P-  9  5). 

Returning  to  the  walls  of  the  public  room,  we  may  next 
notice  a  very  curious  figure  of  a  tumbler.  He  is  of  Ethiopian 
type,  with  thick  lips  and  woolly  hair.  He  is  performing  on  the 
back  of  a  tame  crocodile.  Strabo  gives  an  account  of  a  tame 
crocodile  which  he  saw  at  Arsinoe  in  Egypt.  The  animal 
allowed  the  priests  to  open  his  mouth  and  stuff  it  full  of  good 


THE  GRAZ  CO- ROMAN  BASEMENT  chap. 


things,  after  which  he  would  jump  into  the  adjoining  piece  of 
water  and  swim  about  merrily.    This  piece  comes  from  Rome. 

A  votive  altar,  sacred  to  Bacchus.  In  the  front  is  Silenus 
riding  on  a  panther,  with  the  thyrsus  in  his  hand  and  above 
him  the  castanets.  This  altar  was  purchased  at  Rome  in  1 7  7 1 
from  Piranesi. 

The  heroic  head  here  exhibited  is  much  worn,  and  the 
"Sappho"  is  but  a  feeble  copy  of  a  Greek  original. 

We  may  next  notice  some  statues  from  Cyrene.  One  is  of 
the  nymph  Cyrene  herself  strangling  a  lion  (see  below).  The 
figure  of  Jupiter  Amnion  also  comes  from  Cyrene.  This  is  a 
type  rare  in  sculpture,  but  the  head  is  common  on  coins  of 
Cyrene  (see  Ch.  xxm.  IV.  C  40). 

Through  the  next  recess  we  can  catch  a  glimpse  of  some 
more  Etruscan  sarcophagi.  On  the  walls  here  are  two  in- 
teresting reliefs  : — 

On  one  side  a  bas-relief  from  the  Townley  collection  repre- 
senting the  arms  of  the  Dacians  and  Sarmatians,  similar  to 
those  represented  on  the  pedestal  of  Trajan's  column  at  Rome, 
which  are  said  to  have  been  copied  from  the  originals  brought 
to  Rome  by  that  Emperor  and  displayed  in  his  triumph. 
Pausanias  (i.  21.  5),  describing  a  Sarmatian  coat  of  mail 
suspended  in  the  Temple  of  ^Esculapius  at  Athens,  says : 
"  Any  one  who  looks  at  it  will  say  that  the  barbarians  are  not 
less  skilful  craftsmen  than  the  Greeks." 

Opposite  is  a  relief  (No.  790)  showing  Cyren&  in  the  act  of 
Strangling  a  lion  while,  to  commemorate  her  triumph,  a  crown 
is  held  over  her  head  by  Libya.  Below  is  an  inscription  in 
Greek  which  may  be  thus  translated  : — 

"  Here,  over  the  architrave,  Carpos,  making  this  dedication  in 
token  of  great  hospitality,  has  placed  Cyrene.  mother  of  cities,  slayer 
of  lions.  Libya,  who  has  the  glory  of  being  a  third  continent,  herself 
crowns  her." 

The  bas-relief  was  found  on  the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Venus 
at  Cyrene  and  may  have  been  a  metope.  According  to  one 
legend,  Cyrene  was  the  daughter  of  Hypseus,  King  of  the 
Lapithae,  in  Thessaly,  whose  flocks  she  guarded  against  wild 
beasts.  Apollo,  seeing  her  slay  a  lion  in  the  valley  of  Pelion, 
became  enamoured  of  her,  and  carried  her  off  to  the  parts  of 
Libya  which  afterwards  bore  her  name.  According  to  another 
legend,  Eurypylus,  King  of  Libya,  promised  a  portion  of  his 


VI 


THE  GRyE  CO- ROMAN  BASEMENT 


79 


kingdom  to  the  person  who  would  slay  a  lion  then  dreaded  for 
his  ravages,  and  Cyrene  performed  this  exploit  (Smith  and 
Porcher,  p.  98).  Cyrene  was  the  mother-city  of  the  Cyrenaica, 
the  country  bounded  in  old  times  by  Egypt  on  the  east  and 
Carthage  on  the  west.  It  was  founded  by  Greek  settlers  in 
631  B.C.,  and  was  the  most  important  Hellenic  colony  in 
Africa.  Several  of  the  Athenian  vases  in  the  Museum  come 
from  the  Cyrenaica.  In  legends  such  as  are  referred  to  in  this 
sculptured  bas-relief,  the  ancients  symbolised  the  subjection 
of  the  Dark  Continent  to  civilisation.  The  English,  who  are 
the  modern  founders  of  cities  and  slayers  of  lions,  may  take 
some  special  interest  in  such  records.  The  museums  of  future 
millenniums  will  perhaps  unearth  similar  records  of  English 
and  Dutch  colonisation  in  wild  Africa — such  as  the  sculptured 
lions  which  Mr.  Barnato  gave  to  guard  Mr.  Kruger's  house,  or 
the  grandiose  monument  which  Cecil  Rhodes  set  up  on  the 
Shangani  River  to  record  the  last  stand  of  Major  Wilson  and 
his  comrades. 

Among  other  pieces  in  this  part  of  the  room  we  may 
notice  : — 

A  console  (bracket)  formed  by  a  double  volute,  the  scrolls 
of  which  turn  in  different  directions.  The  lower  one  serves 
as  a  pedestal  to  a  small  winged  figure  of  Victory  holding  a 
wreath.  The  figure  has  been  so  elaborately  hollowed  out 
between  the  two  volutes  as,  with  the  exception  of  the  feet  and 
wings,  to  stand  perfectly  detached.  This  marble,  found  at 
Frascati,  near  Rome,  was  perhaps  the  keystone  of  a  triumphal 
arch.  A  somewhat  rude  bas-relief,  representing  Priam  in  an 
attitude  of  supplication  asking  Achilles  for  the  body  of  his 
son  Hector.  A  small  statue  of  Fortune,  who  bears  a  corn- 
measure  upon  her  head.  Her  right  hand  holds  a  rudder,  the 
lower  part  of  which  rests  upon  a  globe,  whilst  the  left  arm 
supports  a  cornucopia  filled  with  fruits.  This  and  the  corn- 
measure  symbolise  the  abundance  which  Fortune  confers, 
while  the  rudder  and  globe  mark  her  as  the  sovereign  directress 
of  human  affairs. 

Through  the  next  recess  we  may  notice  an  ancient  Roman 
wheel  for  raising  water.  This  was  found  at  Rio  Tinto,  in 
Spain,  showing  that  that  famous  mine  was  known  to  the 
Romans  and  worked  by  them.  The  wheel  was  found  in  1886, 
imbedded  in  the  north  lode,  as  shown  in  the  drawing  exhibited 
here. 


So 


THE  GRALCO-ROMAN  BASEMENT  chap. 


Among  the  bas-reliefs  hung  here  are  : — 

iEsculapius. — His  right  hand  rests  on  his  hip,  and  under  his 
left  arm  is  a  staff,  round  which  is  coiled  a  serpent.  This  is  the 
almost  invariable  accompaniment  of  yEsculapius  (see  p.  431), 
though  the  youthful  face  and  figure  are  unlike  the  usual  repre- 
sentations of  that  god.  He  is  generally  shown  as  Zeus-like 
and  bearded  (see  p.  1 93).  But  if  the  face  is  the  face  of  Apollo, 
the  staff  is  the  staff  of  IEsculapius.  It  is  known  that  Scopas 
introduced  a  youthful  type  of  the  god  of  healing,  and  this 
statue — of  a  much  later  date  (probably  the  time  of  Hadrian)  — 
is  of  interest  as  introducing  us  to  an  unfamiliar  type  (W.  Wroth 
'm  J.H.S.  iv.  46). 

A  bas-relief  representing  a  COW  drinking  from  a  stone 
trough  while  suckling  her  calf.  This  subject  seems  to  have 
been  a  favourite  one  amongst  the  ancients.  It  often  occurs  on 
coins  (see  Ch.  xxiii.  I.  B  18),  in  which  cases  it  was  perhaps 
a  symbol  of  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  of  the  pasture  which 
it  afforded  for  cattle.  Opposite  is  a  representation  of  Luna, 
the  goddess  of  the  moon,  surrounded  by  the  signs  of  the 
Zodiac. 

The  small  sculptures  arranged  along  the  following  wall 
come  from  Cyrene. 

In  the  next  recess  is  another  model  of  a  painted  Etruscan 
tomb  : — 

The  "  Campanari  Tomb  "  at  Vulci.  —  The  tomb  here 
reproduced  was  found  at  Vulci  in  1833  by  Campanari.  The 
tomb  itself  was  destroyed,  but  Campanari,  in  the  process  of 
excavation,  had  drawings  made  of  it.  From  these  drawings, 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  the  present  imitation  has 
been  constructed.  In  1837  Campanari  held  an  exhibition  of 
his  Etruscan  antiquities  in  Pall  Mall.  They  were  arranged 
so  as  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  actual  tombs.  It  is  Campanari's 
idea  which  the  authorities  of  the  British  Museum  have  carried 
out  on  a  small  scale  in  this  room  : — 

"  Within,  on  the  opposite  wall,  sat,  on  an  elegant  curule  chair  or 
throne,  a  king  arrayed  in  Tyrian  purple,  with  crown  on  his  head  and 
long  sceptre  in  his  hand,  tipt  by  a  lotus-flower.  Before  him  stood 
his  queen,  in  long  chiton,  mantle,  and  veil.  This  pair  in  all  prob- 
ability represented  the  king  and  queen  of  the  Shades,  Hades  and 
Persephone,  or,  as  the  Etruscans  called  them,  Aite  and  Phersipnei. 
Behind  the  throne  stood  three  draped  male  figures,  whose  venerable 
aspect  seemed  to  mark  them  as  the  judges  of  the  dead- — Minos,  ^Eacus, 


VI 


THE  GRjECO-ROMAN  BASEMENT  Si 


and  Rhadamanthus.  On  either  hand  was  a  procession  of  figures,  of 
both  sexes,  going  towards  the  Throne,  supposed  to  be  souls  proceed- 
ing to  Judgment,  though  there  was  nothing  in  dress,  appearance,  or 
attributes  to  mark  them  as  of  the  lower  world.  The  group  on  each 
side  of  the  throne  was  very  similar  ;  in  fact  it  has  been  considered  the 
same  family — in  one  case  going  to  judgment,  in  the  other  entering  the 
abodes  of  the  blessed." 

On  the  outer  wall  of  the  tomb,  on  one  side  of  the  door, 
stood  the  figure  of  Charun,  and  the  sepulchre  may  thus  have 
been  intended  to  represent  the  lower  world — Charun  mounts 
guard  at  the  entrance,  the  King  of  Hades  sits  on  his  throne 
within : — ■ 

"The  style  of  art  was  more  advanced  than  in  any  of  the  tombs  of 
Tarquinii.  The  paintings  were  quite  Roman  in  character,  and  could 
hardly  be  earlier  than  the  frescoes  of  Pompeii,  which  they  resembled 
in  freedom  of  design,  truth  and  nature  of  the  attitudes,  and  mastery 
over  those  difficulties  which  in  every  land  attend  the  early  stages  of 
art.  Yet  the  Charun  who  stood  sentinel  over  the  tomb  was  in  a  very 
different  and  more  archaic  style.  He  may  have  been  painted  at  the 
first  formation  of  the  sepulchre,  and  the  other  figures  added  at  the 
time  of  Roman  domination.  Another  feature  of  late  date  was  the 
massive  column  of  peperino  supporting  the  ceiling,  with  a  remarkable 
capital  of  the  composite  order,  having  heads,  male  and  female,  between 
the  volutes"  (Dennis,  i.  pp.  448,  466,  481). 

The  two  crouching  lions  now  placed  inside  the  entrance 
originally  flanked  the  tomb  on  the  outside. 

On  the  walls  here  are  a  bas-relief  with  a  figure  of  Priapus 
and  two  geese,  birds  sacred  to  that  god.  Here  also  is  a 
collection  of  ancient  masks  in  sculpture.  The  most  interesting 
is  the  mask  of  Bacchus,  on  the  top  of  which  a  loop  of  metal 
remains,  by  which  it  appears  to  have  been  suspended  : — ■ 

"  Whether  this  mask  was  ever  actually  suspended  in  the  manner 
which  will  presently  be  described,  or  only  made  in  imitation  of  those 
of  terra-cotta,  the  bark  of  trees,  or  some  lighter  material,  which 
were  more  generally  used,  seems  doubtful.  Faces  of  Bacchus  of  this 
latter  kind  (oscilla)  were  hung  on  trees  that  they  might  turn  with  the 
wind  in  order  to  spread  fertility  every  way.  Several  are  shown  thus 
suspended  in  ancient  gems,  and  Virgil  alludes  to  the  practice  in  his 
Georgics  (ii.  292) — 

Where'er  the  god  his  gracious  front  inclines, 
There  plenty  gushes  from  the  loaded  vines." 

(See  Ellis,  ii.  72,  and  Conington's  Virgil,  I.e.).  In  the  Fourth  Vase 
Room  there  is  a  painting  of  a  mask  thus  hanging  from  a  vine  (on 
vase  No,  F.  179  ;  see  p.  397). 

G 


82 


THE  GRsECO- ROMAN  BASEMENT 


CHAP. 


Turning  now  to  the  end  wall,  we  notice  in  the  centre  an 
interesting  mosaic.  This  was  part  of  the  pavement  in  a 
Roman  villa  at  Halicarnassus,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Sir 
Charles  Newton  (see  Ch.  XIV.  p.  257).  The  mosaic  represents 
Aphrodite  rising  from  the  sea,  seated  in  a  large  shell,  and 
supported  by  two  Tritons.  She  holds  a  mirror  in  one  hand, 
and  wrings  a  tress  of  hair  with  the  other.  The  subject 
is  familiar  to  all  picture- lovers  from  Botticelli's  picture  at 
Florence.  In  the  centre  of  one  of  the  passages  was  an 
inscription  within  a  laurel  wreath — "  Health,  Life,  Joy,  Peace, 
Cheerfulness,  Hope,"  in  black  on  a  white  ground  —  a  very 
pleasant  inscription  for  the  eyes  of  the  owner  of  this  villa  to 
rest  on  as  he  paced  up  and  down  the  corridor.  This  piece 
hangs  on  a  side  wall  of  the  room. 

The  other  mosaics  here  include  some  of  minor  interest 
from  Carthage  :  chequer  patterns  (bequeathed  by  Sir  William 
Temple),  in  which  the  maker's  aim  has  been  to  give  a  deceptive 
appearance  of  actual  relief ;  representations  of  boys  boxing  and 
of  Hercules  slaying  the  dragon  in  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides 
(presented  by  Lord  Aldenham) ;  and  one  of  a  fallen  horseman 
on  a  truck  (from  the  Pourtales  collection).  This  piece  was, 
no  doubt,  part  of  a  scene  in  a  circus.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
expression  both  in  the  man  and  in  the  horse,  and  the  colouring 
is  agreeable.  (For  other  mosaics  and  for  general  remarks  on 
the  subject  see  Ch.  xiv. 

On  either  side  of  the  large  mosaic  is  a  group  of  Victory 
sacrificing  a  bull  (from  the  Townley  collection,  found  in  the 
ruins  of  the  villa  of  Antoninus  Pius).  This  is  a  very  common 
subject  in  ancient  art,  owing  to  the  custom  of  sacrificing  a  bull 
in  honour  of  a  victory.  Two  types  (with  intermediate  varia- 
tions) may  be  distinguished.  In  the  earlier  type  Victory 
stands  erect  with  one  knee  on  the  bull,  which  she  stabs ;  she 
is  draped  and  feminine  :  that  is  the  type  here.  In  the  later 
type  she  is  undraped  and  androgynous.  She  kneels  beside  the 
bull,  the  knife  hanging  purposeless  in  her  hand  (Cecil  Smith  in 
J.H.S.  vii.  276). 

Here  also  is  a  relief  representing  a  bull-fight.  Two  male 
figures  attack  a  bull,  who  rushes  on  the  spear  with  which  one 
of  the  assailants  has  pierced  his  breast. 

On  the  wall-spaces  between  the  windows  we  may  notice, 
besides  some  more  mosaics,  a  table-leg  in  porphyry.  This 
fragment   has   a   curious  little  history.     "  The  upper  part, 


THE  GRAiCO- ROMAN  BASEMENT  83 


including  the  head,  was  discovered  at  the  depth  of  about  2  5  feet 
in  the  excavation  made  in  the  Forum  under  the  Palatine  Hill 
in  1772,  and  was  purchased,  with  other  fragments,  by  Vinelli, 
a  mason  at  Rome,  who  soon  recollected  that  nearly  thirty  years 
before,  among  another  parcel  of  fragments  he  had  then 
bought,  there  was  a  piece  of  a  panther's  leg,  with  its  foot,  in 
porphyry.  It  was  at  last  found  among  the  rubbish,  and  when 
it  was  applied  to  the  upper  part  which  he  had  recently 
obtained,  the  fractures  exactly  fitted,  so  that  the  junction  was 
almost  imperceptible,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  two  parts 
belonged  to  each  other"  (Ellis,  The  Townley  Gallery*  ii.  92). 

Portrait  of  a  boy  in  the  form  of  a  term  ;  for  the  singular 
form  of  these  figures  see  Herodotus  ii.  51.  Term  of  a 
Hermaphrodite  found  in  1774  near  the  Lake  of  Nemi. 

Fragment  of  a  pedestal :  the  central  part  is  composed  of 
the  head  and  neck  of  a  lion  rising  from  the  stem  of  a  plant, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  expanded  like  the  lotus.  On  the  fore- 
head are  the  horns  of  a  goat. 

Altar  dedicated  by  Callistus  to  Silvanus,  the  rustic  deity 
who  presided  over  woods.  A  small  statue  of  Hercules  in 
advanced  age  sitting  upon  a  rock.  His  left  hand  holds  the 
club  ;  his  right  three  apples.     These  are  modern  restorations. 

In  the  last  window  are  some  Roman  sundials ;  also  a 
fragment  of  a  relief  (No.  815),  in  a  very  fine  style,  showing 
four  heads  of  horses  in  rapid  movement.  In  front  of  the 
horses  is  the  edge  of  a  mantle.  A  comparison  of  this  fragment 
(from  the  Pourtales  collection)  with  a  perfect  relief  in  the 
Lisbon  Museum  shows  that  it  belonged  to  a  group  in  which  a 
man  was  represented  running  in  front  of  a  four-horsed  chariot. 
Our  fragment  (so  far  as  it  goes)  is  precisely  similar  to  the 
Lisbon  relief,  and  both  must  have  been  taken  from  some 
common  original  (see  Bulletin  de  Correspondance  Hellenique* 
published  by  the  French  School  of  Athens,  1892,  p.  337,  where 
reproductions  of  both  reliefs  are  given). 

On  the  same  wall  are  several  disks,  ornamented  on  either 
side  with  subjects  in  relief,  such  as  Silenus  and  a  satyr, 
Bacchus  and  his  panther.  Disks  of  this  kind  were  usually 
pierced  with  two  holes  in  the  upper  margin,  and  we  know  from 
Pompeian  paintings  that  they  were  suspended  in  the  air 
between  columns  ;  or,  mounted  on  central  pivots,  they  served 
as  revolving  shutters  for  ventilators. 

In  the  middle  of  the  room  we  may  notice  a  basin  of  dark 


84 


THE  GRAICO- ROMAN  BASEMENT      chap,  vi 


granite.  This  kind  of  basin  was  used  anciently  in  temples  to 
contain  the  holy  water  necessary  for  the  purification  of  those 
who  sought  admittance  to  the  sacrifices.  They  were  also  used 
in  the  baths.  This  specimen  was  formerly  in  the  collection  of 
Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden.  A  marble  urn  of  Eppia,  infant 
daughter  of  Marcus  ;  found  at  Ephesus.  A  marble  sarco- 
phagus, inscribed  in  Greek  and  Latin  with  the  name  Pannychos, 
his  wife  Pithane,  and  his  daughter  ;  from  Ephesus  (see  Wood's 
Ephesus,  p.  126).  A  marble  sarcophagus,  inscribed  with  the 
name  Anassa,  wife  or  daughter  of  Apollonius  (Wood's  Ephesus, 
p.  125).  These  sarcophagi  are  ornamented  with  rams'  heads 
and  festoons. 

On  another  marble  is  a  representation  of  a  parting  scene, 

with  an  elegy  in  Latin  verse.  A  husband  is  taking  leave  of 
his  wife,  who  has  predeceased  him.  The  Latin  verses  are  rude 
in  style,  but  are  eloquent  of  the  man's  love  (see  Corpus  Inscrip, 
Lat.  i.  No.  1011). 

A  lead  anchor,  inscribed  in  Greek  with  the  name  of  the 
ship  "  Jove  the  Highest  "  ;  found  off  the  coast  of  Cyrene. 

Two  Romano-Egyptian  altars. — On  one  side  of  the  first 
altar  is  Apis,  bearing  a  star  upon  the  centre  of  his  body ;  on 
the  other  side  two  hippopotami  among  the  reeds  of  the  Nile. 
At  the  back  a  figure  of  Autumn  with  a  sickle.  In  front  a 
priestess  kneeling. 

Marble  urn  of  Metras  (from  Ephesus). — The  words  6 
SyjfMos  inscribed  within  an  olive  chaplet  show  that  the  person 
who  was  here  inurned  was  honoured  with  a  public  funeral. 
The  label  is  inscribed  "  Metras  Tryphon,  son  of  Moiragenes." 
The  date  is  about  180  A.D.  Above  the  label  is  the  representa- 
tion of  a  keyhole. 

8£T  Asce?zding  the  stairs  and  leaving  the  Third  Grceco- Roman 
Room,  we  pass  into  the  Room  of  Archaic  Greek  Sculpture, 


CHAPTER  VII 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE 

Give  these,  I  exhort  you,  their  guerdon  and  glory 
For  daring  so  much,  before  they  well  did  it. 

The  first  of  the  new,  in  our  race's  story, 

Beats  the  last  of  the  old  ;  'tis  no  idle  quiddit. 

Robert  Browning. 

"  For  pushing  on  in  their  strength  from  such  things  as  these,  the  great 
Phidias  revealed  Zeus,  and  Polycleitus  wrought  out  Hera,  and 
Myron  was  praised,  and  Praxiteles  marvelled  at  ;  therefore  are 
these  men  worshipped  with  the  gods." — Lucian. 

The  sculptures  and  casts  here  collected  belong  to  the  dawn  of 
Greek  art.  The  date  of  the  Parthenon  is  about  450  B.C.  Of 
the  sculptures  in  this  room  the  latest  are  fifty  years  earlier ; 
the  oldest  at  least  one  hundred  years  earlier.  The  interest  of 
these  works  is  to  a  large  extent  historical  rather  than  artistic. 
They  are  valuable  not  so  much  for  what  they  are  in  them- 
selves as  for  their  indication  of  what  Greek  art  was  destined  to 
become,  and  their  explanation  of  the  stages  through  which  it 
passed  on  the  road  to  perfection.  The  visitor  should  note,  as 
the  Guide  to  the  Exhibition  Galleries  (1896)  suggests,  the 
following  landmarks  : — 

"Among  the  oldest  works  are  purely  decorative  patterns  (as  those 
from  Mycenae),  worked  with  the  precision  that  comes  of  long  tradition. 
The  next  step  was  towards  the  rendering  of  figure  subjects,  and  here 
the  artist  is  seen  struggling  with  imperfect  training  and  incomplete 
mastery  of  the  mechanical  difficulties.  Nature  is  copied  in  a  naive 
and  direct  but  somewhat  gross  manner.  (See  the  sculptures  of 
Branchidse  and  Selinus. )  More  rapid  progress  is  made  with  the  forms 
of  animals  than  with  those  of  human  beings.  (See  the  friezes  from 
Xanthos.)  In  attempting  to  avoid  grossness  the  artist  is  occasionally 
too  minute,  and  somewhat  affected  in  the  rendering  of  the  mouth,  the 
hair,  and  the  finer  drapery.    In  aiming  at  truth  in  his  study  of  the 

85 


86 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


figure,  he  makes  his  work  too  pronouncedly  anatomical.  (See  the 
pediments  of  /Egina. ) 

"It  should  be  noted  further,"  as  Sir  Edward  Poynter  has 
remarked,  "  that  the  free  treatment  of  the  limbs  precedes  in  the 
development  of  art  the  natural  rendering  of  the  head.  Of  this 
the  ^Eginetan  sculptures  are  a  good  example.  The  heads  of 
the  ^Eginetan  warriors  are  curiously  destitute  of  life  and  in- 
dividuality, as  compared  with  the  limbs  and  bodies"  (J.H.S. 
vii.  193). 

To  this  statement  of  particular  characteristics  a  few  general 
remarks  on  the  spirit  of  Greek  art,  manifest  even  in  the  days 
of  its  infancy,  may  be  added.  An  appreciation  of  that  spirit 
— in  its  love  of  veracity,  its  aversion  from  what  is  inhuman 
and  monstrous — will  enhance  our  interest  in  studying  these 
efforts  of  men  who  "  dared  so  much  before  they  well  did  it "  : — 

"Childish  though  it  may  be,  early  Greek  art  is  alike  sincere  and 
vividly  imaginative.  The  actual  work  is  that  of  infancy  ;  the  thoughts, 
in  their  visionary  simplicity,  are  also  the  thoughts  of  infancy,  but  in 
their  solemn  virtue  they  are  the  thoughts  of  men.  .  .  .  From  all  vain 
and  mean  decoration  —  all  weak  and  monstrous  error — the  Greeks 
rescue  the  forms  of  man  and  beast,  and  sculpture  them  in  the  naked- 
ness of  their  true  flesh,  and  with  the  fire  of  their  living  soul.  Dis- 
tinctively from  other  races,  this  is  the  work  of  the  Greek,  to  give 
health  to  what  was  diseased,  and  chastisement  to  what  was  untrue. 
So  far  as  this  is  found  in  any  other  school  hereafter,  it  belongs  to 
them  by  inheritance  from  the  Greeks,  or  invests  them  with  the  brother- 
hood of  the  Greek.  And  this  is  the  deep  meaning  of  the  myth  of 
Daedalus  as  the  giver  of  motion  to  statues.  The  literal  change  from 
the  binding  together  of  the  feet  to  their  separation,  and  the  other 
modifications  of  action  which  took  place,  either  in  progressive  skill  or 
often  as  the  mere  consequence  of  the  transition  from  wood  to  stone 
(a  figure  carved  out  of  one  wooden  log  must  necessarily  have  its  feet 
near  each  other  and  hands  at  its  sides),  these  literal  changes  are  as 
nothing,  in  the  Greek  fable,  as  compared  to  the  bestowing  of  apparent 
life.  The  figures  of  monstrous  gods  in  Indian  temples  have  their 
legs  separate  enough,  but  they  are  infinitely  more  dead  than  the  rude 
figures  of  Branchidse  sitting  with  their  hands  on  their  knees.  ...  Of 
course  every  nation's  character  is  connected  with  that  of  others  sur- 
rounding or  preceding  it,  and  in  the  best  Greek  work  you  will  find 
some  things  that  are  still  false  or  fanciful  ;  but  whatever  in  it  is  false 
or  fanciful  is  not  the  Greek  part  of  it ;  it  is  the  Phoenician,  or  Egyptian, 
or  Pelasgian  part.  The  essential  Hellenic  stamp  is  veracity.  Eastern 
nations  drew  their  heroes  with  eight  legs,  but  the  Greeks  drew  them 
with  two.  Egyptians  drew  their  deities  with  cats'  heads,  but  the 
Greeks  drew  them  with  men's  ;  and  out  of  all  fallacy,  disproportion, 


vn        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  87 


and  indefiniteness  they  were  day  by  day  resolvedly  withdrawing  and 
exalting  themselves  into  restricted  and  demonstrable  truth  "  (Ruskin, 
Aratra  Pentelici,  §§  82,  200,  202). 

Not  beauty  but  rightness  was,  says  Ruskin,  the  essential 
characteristic  of  Greek  art.  Sir  Edward  Poynter  remarks  in 
this  connection  that  the  slow  development  of  the  sense  of 
beauty  is  "one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  an  art  of 
which  beauty  became  finally  the  most  conspicuous  feature.  In 
the  earlier  specimens  of  Greek  sculpture  there  is  absolutely  no 
trace  of  it  in  any  form.  The  idea  to  be  expressed  held  the 
first  place  in  the  artist's  mind.  His  object  was  to  honour  the 
gods,  to  revere  the  dead,  to  record  and  glorify  the  deeds  of 
heroes.  Beauty  came  gradually  into  Greek  art  not  from 
conscious  search,  but  from  improved  technique  and  the  desire 
to  give  vitality  to  the  marble"  (J.H.S.  vii.  193). 


Bearing  these  general  points  in  mind,  we  now  pass  to  an 
examination  in  detail  of  the  principal  monuments  of  antiquity 
exhibited  in  this  room.    We  shall  examine  them  in  the  follow- 


ing  order  : 

j. 

Fragments  from  Mycenae, 

about 

I  IOO  B.C. 

2. 

Metopes  of  Selinus  (casts), 

6lO  B.C. 

3- 

Sculptures  from  Branchidae, 

550  B.C. 

4- 

Sculptures  from  Naucratis, 

before 

550  B.C. 

5- 

The  Xanthian  Marbles, 

about 

550  B.C. 

6. 

The  Archaic  Temple  of  Ephesus,  ,, 

550  B.C. 

7- 

The  Temple  of  ^Egina  (casts), 

500  B.C. 

8. 

The  Temple  of  Olympia  (casts) 

460  B.C. 

9- 

Archaic  "Apollo"  Statues. 

10. 

The  Charioteer  from  Delphi  (cast),  ,, 

470  B.C. 

1 1. 

Miscellaneous  Sculptures. 

1.  Fragments  from 

MYCEN/E 

The  earliest  Greek  work  here  (on  the  right  of  the  door  lead- 
ing into  the  Ante-room)  comes  from  Mycenae,  and  brings  with 
it  memories  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all  modern  researches  in 
the  field  of  classical  antiquities.  Every  one  knows  the  name 
of  Agamemnon.  Perhaps  it  is  not  so  generally  known  that 
"  the  king  of  men  "  lived,  according  to  tradition,  in  a  town  of 
Argolis  called  Mycenae.  Of  this  town  — "  the  wide-wayed 
city,  rich  in  gold,"  Homer  calls  it — considerable  ruins  exist 


88         ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


above  ground.  Of  the  citadel  of  the  princes  of  Mycenae, 
Cyclopean  walls  remain  and  the  entrance  gate.  This  "  Lion 
Gate  "  is  an  almost  square  opening,  formed  by  two  uprights, 
on  which  rests  an  enormous  stone  lintel.  Above  this  is  a 
triangular  space  closed  by  a  slab  of  basalt,  on  which  are  carved 
two  lions  heraldically  opposed,  whose  paws  rest  upon  an  altar 
surmounted  by  a  column.  This  slab,  which  still  stands  in  its 
original  position,  is  well  known  as  one  of  the  earliest  pieces  of 
Greek  sculpture.  We  shall  often  see  the  same  heraldic 
arrangement  of  lions  and  other  animals  on  early  Greek  vases. 
It  is  an  arrangement  characteristic  of  a  very  early  stage  of  art, 
and,  like  all  patterns  and  ornaments,  had  once  a  natural 
meaning.  A  device  of  two  lions  amicably  confronted  would  be 
absurd.  A  device  of  one  lion,  as  a  symbol  of  the  courage  that 
defends  a  citadel,  was  sensible,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
two  lions  had  their  origin  in  the  early  and  childlike  stage  of 
artistic  development,  when  the  artist  thus  sought,  without  the 
aid  of  perspective,  to  show  both  sides  of  an  animal  at  the 
same  time  (see  an  interesting  paper  by  A.  S.  Murray  in  J.H.S. 
ii.  319,  and  cf.  note  on  a  Greek  vase  below,  at  p.  296). 
Below  the  citadel  of  Mycenae  extended  the  lower  town,  and 
there,  too,  remains  of  Cyclopean  buildings  exist.  Of  these  the 
most  remarkable  is  a  large  chamber-tomb  to  which  the  name 
"  The  Treasury  of  Atrens "  is  given.  The  walls  of  it  were 
stripped  by  a  Turkish  governor  ;  some  fragments  of  the  doorway 
(Nos.  1-4)  are  here  before  us.  Pausanias,  the  Greek  antiquary, 
who  visited  the  ruins  in  about  the  year  150  A.D.,  says  : — 

'  'That  Perseus  was  the  founder  of  Mycenae  is  known  to  every 
Greek.  .  .  .  Parts  of  the  circuit  wall  are  still  left,  including  the  gate, 
which  is  surmounted  by  lions.  These  are  said  to  be  the  work  of  the 
Cyclopes.  .  .  .  There  are  underground  buildings  of  Atreus  and  his 
children,  where  their  treasures  were  kept.  There  is  a  grave  of  Atreus, 
and  graves  of  all  those  who  on  their  return  from  Troy  with  Agamemnon 
were  murdered  by  ^Egisthus  after  a  banquet  which  he  gave  them. 
The  tomb  of  Cassandra  is  disputed  ;  the  Lacedaemonians  of  Amyclse 
claim  that  it  is  there.  Another  tomb  is  that  of  Agamemnon  "  (ii.  15, 
4;  16,  4,  5)- 

It  is  to  this  statement  of  Pausanias  that  we  owe  the  famous 
discoveries  of  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Mycenae,  which  opened  up  a 
new  era  in  Greek  history.  He  was  determined  to  find  the 
tomb  of  Agamemnon.  He  began  his  excavations  in  1874,  and 
two  years  later  he  telegraphed  to  the  King  of  Greece  :  "  I  have 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  89 


the  greatest  pleasure  in  announcing  to  your  Majesty  that  I 
have  discovered  the  tombs  which  tradition,  according  to 
Pausanias,  pointed  out  as  the  graves  of  Agamemnon,  Cas- 
sandra, Eurymedon,  and  their  companions."  The  tombs  of 
princes  Dr.  Schliemann  had  undoubtedly  discovered  ;  the  to7nb 
of  Agamemnon  he  resolved  one  of  them  should  be.  The 
reader  will  notice,  among  the  Mycenaean  fragments  here 
collected,  a  slab  of  red  marble  with  a  rosette  cut  in  two  and 
separated  by  a  sort  of  triglyph.  This  slab,  presented  to  the 
Museum  in  1900  by  Mr.  Godfrey  Durlacher,  was  found  in  a 
shop  in  Margaret  Street,  W.  It  was  probably  brought  to 
England  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  comes  from  the 
facade  of  "the  tomb  of  Agamemnon,"  for  it  corresponds 
precisely  with  two  other  pieces  discovered  by  Schliemann  and 
now  in  the  Museum  at  Athens.  Schliemann's  excavations, 
continued  by  other  archaeologists,  have  on  the  whole  tended  to 
confirm,  in  general  lines,  the  statements  of  Pausanias.  It  is 
now  clear  that  the  plain  of  Argolis — with  the  cities  of  Tiryns, 
Argos,  and  Mycenae — was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  civilisa- 
tion in  Greece.  Remains  of  this  u  Mycenaean  age,"  as  it  is 
called,  have  since  been  found  in  many  other  places,  and  it  is 
possible  that  the  Island  of  Crete  (in  which  so  many  wonderful 
discoveries  have  been  made)  was  a  centre  from  which  Mycenaean 
civilisation  spread.  The  date  commonly  assigned  to  such 
remains  is  1 600-1 100  B.C.,  and  one  theory  is  that  this  old 
civilisation  was  swept  away  by  the  Dorian  invasion.  But 
another  view  now  supported  by  some  authorities  is  that 
Mycenaean  art  extends  to  a  very  much  later  date  and  in 
unbroken  development.1  In  other  parts  of  the  Museum  we 
shall  see  many  objects  belonging  to  the  Mycenaean  age  which 
have  been  unearthed  from  tombs.  Here  we  have  architectural 
fragments  which  may  be  authentic  memorials  of  the  prehistoric 
dynasties  celebrated  in  the  Homeric  poems.  Nos.  1,  2,  5, 
and  6  were  procured  by  Lord  Elgin ;  Nos.  3  and  4  were 
presented  by  the  Institute  of  British  Architects  in  1843.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  ornamentation  on  the  fragments 
before  us  is  purely  decorative,  consisting  of  bands  of  the  wave 
pattern.  This  ornamentation  resembles  that  on  the  earliest 
Greek  vases.  Nos.  5  and  6  are  fragments  of  reliefs,  showing 
lions  and  the  legs  of  a  bull  respectively. 

No.  2 1 7  (on  the  floor  below) — a  fragment  of  a  lion-relief — 
1  For  other  references  to  the  "  Mycenaean  question  "  see  pp.  289,  559. 


9° 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


also  comes  from  Mycenae,  but  appears  to  belong  to  a  later 
period. 

2.  Metopes1  of  Selinus  (Casts) 

We  now  pass  to  the  casts  (high  up  on  the  east  wall)  from 
the  temples  of  Selinus,  on  the  west  coast  of  Sicily.  The  ruins 
of  these  temples,  which  lie  in  stupendous  heaps,  are  among 
the  most  extraordinary  in  Europe.  The  original  sculptures, 
from  which  the  casts  before  us  were  taken,  were  excavated  in 
1823  by  two  English  architects,  Messrs.  Angell  and  Harris, 
the  latter  of  whom  died  of  malarial  fever  contracted  during 
the  excavations.  Mr.  Angell  endeavoured  through  Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  the  British  Minister  at  Naples,  to  obtain  leave  to  re- 
move the  sculptures  to  the  British  Museum.  The  Neapolitan 
Government  insisted,  however,  on  their  being  sent  to  the 
Museum  at  Palermo.  Afterwards,  on  the  representations  of 
Mr.  Canning,  these  casts  were  presented  to  the  British 
Museum.  They  are  of  great  interest,  as  reproducing  the 
earliest  specimens  of  Greek  sculpture  extant,  if  we  except  the 
celebrated  lions  over  the  gate  of  Mycenae.  The  history  of 
Selinus — the  parsley  city — so  called  from  the  wild  parsley  2 
which  still  grows  abundantly  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  is  well 
known,  and  the  date  of  the  monuments  can  therefore  be  fixed 
with  precision.  The  city,  a  colony  from  Megara  Hyblaea  on 
the  east  coast  of  Sicily,  was  founded  about  628  B.C.  The 
metopes  (135,  136,  137)  belonged  to  the  oldest  of  the  temples 
discovered  among  the  ruins,  and  their  date  therefore  is  the 
end  of  the  seventh  century.  They  show  us  the  first  attempt  on 
the  part  of  a  sculptor  to  enlarge  and  to  translate  into  stone  the 
mythological  scenes  with  which  he  was  already  familiar  in  bronze 
reliefs  and  other  decorative  work.  From  purely  decorative 
work  (as  in  the  remains  from  Mycenae)  sculpture  now  proceeds 
towards  the  rendering  of  figure  subjects.  The  artist  is  seen 
struggling  with  imperfect  training  and  incomplete  mastery. 

No.  135  is  especially  interesting.  It  is  very  quaint  in  itself, 
and  a  detailed  examination  of  it  will  introduce  us  to  several 
characteristics  of  archaic  art.  The  subject  is  the  slaying  of 
the  Gorgon  Medusa  by  the  hero  Perseus  in  the  presence  of 
an  attendant  goddess.     The  Gorgon  is  already  in  her  death 

1  For  an  explanation  of  this  term  see  p.  169. 
2  Or  celery  ?    See  on  this  subject  a  note  on  the  coins  of  Selinus,  p.  504. 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  91 


anguish.  With  the  left  hand  Perseus  seizes  her  by  the  hair  ; 
with  the  sword  in  his  right  he  is  in  the  act  of  cutting  off  her 
head.  We  may  notice  in  this  rude  but  vigorous  sculpture 
many  points  of  interest  in  the  evolution  of  Greek  art.  ( 1 )  The 
Gorgon  is  one  of  those  monstrous  forms  which  Greek  art 
borrowed  from  the  East.  Here  there  is  no  attempt  to  soften 
down  the  hideous  or  refine  the  grotesque  ;  this  was  a  task 
reserved  for  the  future.  The  beautiful  head  of  Medusa  in  the 
Villa  Ludovisi  at  Rome  (see  cast  No.  190  in  the  South 
Kensington  collection)  should  be  compared  with  this  early 
work.  It  will  be  seen  that  "  the  altogether  grotesque  and 
savage  type  of  the  archaic  Medusa  was  in  the  end  greatly 
modified.  The  face  was  no  longer  hideously  distorted,  as  in 
this  metope.  In  the  Ludovisi  head  the  feeling  which  it  pro- 
duced by  its  mingled  expression  of  agony  and  defiant  pride, 
although  extremely  painful,  is  one  of  compassion  for  a  being 
in  whom  we  see  such  an  infinite  capacity  for  suffering " 
(Perry).  A  comparison  between  the  earliest  and  the  latest 
type  of  Medusa  shows  us  how  far  Greek  art  had  to  travel 
on  the  road  to  perfection.  (2)  Next  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  figures  move  to  the  right,  but  their  faces  turn  full,  facing 
the  spectator.  It  is  just  so  that  a  child  draws  a  man  walking. 
We  have  before  us  a  specimen  of  Greek  art  in  its  childhood. 
(3)  The  faces  are  similarly  characteristic.  "  The  artist  has 
tried  hard  to  make  them  live.  He  only  succeeds  in  producing 
a  friendly  grin.  Perseus  looks  so  kindly  as  he  performs  his 
ghastly  deed,  and  Athene  so  good-humouredly  indifferent  to 
her  protege's  performance,  that  it  is  impossible  to  help  feeling 
drawn  to  the  odd,  friendly  pair."  The  stereotyped  smile  is 
very  characteristic  of  early  Greek  art.  It  was  a  long  time 
before  the  sculptors  mastered  the  art  of  expression.  We  shall 
meet  with  the  same  smile  in  the  casts  from  ^Egina.  (4) 
The  treatment  of  the  hair  is  another  matter  in  which  Greek 
taste  and  Greek  art  had  much  to  learn  : — 

"A  Greek  style  of  doing  the  hair  suggests  to  most  people— for  a 
woman — the  close-gathered  severely  simple  knot ;  for  a  man — the 
short,  crisp  curls  of  the  athlete.  Such  was  the  fashion  of  the  fourth 
century  B.C.,  though  even  then,  for  a  woman  at  least,  elaborate 
artificial  hair-dressing,  curling  tongs,  crimping  pins,  false  hair,  dyed 
hair  were  never  unknown  in  real  life,  even  if  for  a  time  discredited  by 
art.  But  we  are  now  in  the  seventh  century,  and  men  of  that  date, 
conspicuously  athletes,  wore  their  hair  long,  and  plastered  and  plaited 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


it  into  shapes  whose  ugliness  would  do  credit  to  the  fancy  of  a  savage. 
We  see  the  crimped  formal  hair  of  Perseus  appearing  in  a  row  of  knobs 
beneath  his  close  cap,  the  invisible  cap  given  him  by  the  Graiae.  Some- 
thing must  be  'allowed  for  the  incapacity  of  the  artist  struggling  with 
that  most  beautiful  and  difficult  of  subjects,  human  hair  ;  but  much  is 
to  be  attributed  to  ungainly  fashions  which  the  Greek  shared  with  the 
Assyrian  and  the  Egyptian.  The  effort  after  personal  adornment 
almost  always  issues  at  first  in  distorted  ugliness  ;  to  be  natural  grace- 
fully is  the  last  fine  flower  of  civilisation  "  (J.  E.  Harrison). 

The  visitor  interested  in  such  matters  could  make  a  most 
instructive  collection  of  fashions  in  hairdressing  from  speci- 
mens in  the  Museum.  (5)  Another  characteristic  of  Greek  art 
in  its  perfection  is  its  fondness  for  the  type  of  slender  and 
beautiful  youth — the  gracilis  puer  of  Horace.  The  sculptors 
tended  to  elongate  the  type  of  the  body  ;  to  make  each  limb 
finer,  and  the  whole  build  more  slender.  But  this  also  was  a 
matter  of  long  development.  In  the  sculpture  now  before  us 
the  forms  are  thick,  clumsy,  gross.  These  same  stumpy  forms 
will  be  noticed  in  the  iEginetan  sculptures,  and  even  in  the 
much  later  Phigalian  frieze  (Ch.  XIII.).  (6)  We  may  notice 
in  this  metope  another  characteristic  of  early  art.  It  will  be 
observed  that  under  her  right  arm  the  Medusa  clasps  a  tiny 
horse.  This  is  the  horse  Pegasus,  who  wras  fabled  to  have 
sprung  from  her  blood.  The  artist  has  attempted  to  compress 
into  one  picture  two  consecutive  moments — her  death  and 
the  moment  after,  when  Pegasus  springs  to  life.  The  sculptor 
is  still  in  the  epic  stage  ;  he  wants  to  tell  the  whole  story, 
incident  after  incident.  In  the  perfect  time,  sculpture  becomes 
dramatic ;  it  chooses  a  single  moment,  and  enshrines  it  in 
the  cold  marble  for  ever.  (7)  In  drawing  out  the  character- 
istics of  this  early  specimen  of  Greek  art  we  have  necessarily 
noted  chiefly  its  defects.  Yet  it  contains  within  it  the  germ 
of  development,  for  it  is  natural  and  sincere  : — "  The  man 
who  sculptured  this  metope  believed  his  story,  and  tried  his 
best  to  tell  it.  He  brought  his  own  mind  to  bear  on  the  work, 
and  hence  it  still  has  for  us  a  certain  freshness  and  charm." 
(See,  further,  the  very  interesting  chapter  on  "  The  Metopes 
of  Selinus"  in  Miss  Jane  Harrison's  admirable  Introductory 
Studies  in  Greek  Art.) 

No.  136  shows  the  same  characteristics.  The  subject  is 
Hercules  and  the  Cercopes.  These  worthies  were  caught  by 
the  god  in  an  attempt  to  rob  him,  whereon  he  fastened  them 


VII 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


93 


to  his  bow  by  their  knees  and  ankles,  and  carried  them  across 
his  shoulder  with  their  heads  downwards. 

No.  137 — a  chariot — shows  much  greater  skill : — 

"  The  full-face  chariot  is  a  common  type  of  early  bronze  relief ;  but 
the  translation  into  stone  was  in  this  case  peculiarly  difficult.  It  is 
contrived  first  by  giving  the  relief  much  greater  depth,  about  twice  as 
great  as  in  the  other  metopes.  Then  the  fore-parts  of  the  horses  are 
completely  cut  out  in  the  round,  while  the  hind-legs,  the  chariot,  and 
the  charioteer  are  in  relief  on  the  background.  Thus  the  bodies  of 
the  horses  are  practically  omitted  ;  but  when  seen  from  in  front,  at  a 
distance,  the  effect  of  the  foreshortening  is  by  no  means  unsuccessful. 
In  details,  too,  the  work  seems  better  than  in  the  other  metopes.  The 
eyes,  both  of  the  horses  and  of  the  charioteer,  are  convex,  and  the  lids 
are  clearly  marked  ;  his  ears  are  better  shaped,  and  do  not  project  like 
those  of  Perseus  "  (E.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture^  p.  145). 

3.  Sculptures  from  Branchid^ 

Some  further  characteristics  of  early  art  will  be  noted  in 
the  series  of  sculptures  from  Branchidae  arranged  along  the 
west  wall  of  this  room.  These  sculptures — the  date  of  which 
is  supposed  to  be  between  580  and  520  B.C. — were  discovered 
by  Chandler  in  176$,  and  removed  by  Sir  C.  Newton  in  1858. 
They  stood  so  as  to  form  an  avenue  on  the  Sacred  Way 
leading  from  the  sea-shore  to  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo 
at  Didyma  (near  Miletus  in  Asia  Minor),  which  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  priestly  clan  of  the  Branchidse,  whose  name  came 
to  denote  the  place  itself.  The  temple  was  destroyed  by 
Darius  about  496  B.C.  : — 

"  Could  these  old  headless  figures  speak,  they  might  tell  us  some- 
thing more  interesting  than  the  bare  fact  of  their  dedication  inscribed 
on  the  marble,  for  through  this  very  avenue  may  have  passed  the 
envoys  sent  by  Croesus  to  consult  the  most  famous  of  Asiatic  oracles  ; 
and  the  sacrilegious  Persian  band  which  plundered  and  burnt  the  first 
temple  of  Branchidse,  and  carried  off  the  statue  of  the  god  to  Susiana, 
must  have  seen  these  very  figures,  and  may  have  spared  them  as  too 
insignificant  for  the  vengeance  of  the  Great  King"  (Newton's  Travels 
and  Discoveries  in  the  Levant ',  ii.  157). 

The  statues  were  dedicatory  offerings  made  to  Apollo  by 
the  persons  represented.  On  one  of  them  (No.  14)  is  this 
inscription  :  "  I  am  Chares,  son  of  Kleisis,  ruler  of  Teichioussa 
(probably  one  of  the  local  tyrants  who  were  established  after 


94 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


the  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  Crcesus)  ;  the  property  of 
Apollo."  Another  (No.  10)  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the 
artist :  "  Endemos  made  me  "  : — - 

1 '  These  primitive  records  addressing  all  future  generations  of  men 
with  a  genial  simplicity  affect  the  mind  more  than  the  elaborate  and 
pompous  phrases  with  which  the  inscriptions  of  the  Roman  period 
seek  to  immortalise  obscure  individuals  "  {ibid.  ii.  151 ). 

From  the  artistic  point  of  view  these  sculptures  are  inter- 
esting :  (1)  "because  they  exhibit  the  process  by  which  the 
grotesque  coarseness  of  primitive  work  tends  towards  the  stiff 
and  formal  refinement  that  marks  the  later  stage  of  archaic 
art ;; ;  (2)  as  among  the  earliest  portrait  statues  in  Greek  art  ; 
and  (3)  as  exhibiting  traces  of  Egyptian  influence.  With 
regard  to  the  first  point  note  especially  the  female  figure  with 
hands  on  her  knees  (No.  16) : — ■ 

"  In  attempting  to  indicate  the  legs  with  greater  detail  than  his 
predecessors,  the  artist  has  rendered  them  as  if  they  were  nude  ;  but 
in  naturalness  and  freedom  this  statue  is  conspicuously  the  most 
advanced  of  the  series  "  (A.  H.  Smith,  Catalogue  of  Greek  Sculpture^ 
vol.  i.). 

On  the  other  points  Newton  has  some  interesting  remarks : — 

"  The  statue  (of  Chares)  is  probably  the  most  ancient  extant 
example  in  Greek  art  of  the  portrait  statue.  We  may  assume  that  in 
these  early  attempts  at  portraiture  no  exact  rendering  of  the  features 
and  expression  could  have  been  accomplished,  though  such  works 
might  serve  to  record  the  general  character  and  proportions  of  the  figure ; 
the  person  represented  must  have  been  identified  by  the  inscription  or  by 
distinctive  symbols  very  much  more  than  by  the  work  of  the  sculptor. 
The  statues  were  intended  to  be  dedicated  in  some  temple  ;  it  was 
not  till  a  much  later  period  that  portraits  were  executed  for  private 
individuals"  (Travels,  ii.  152). 

£<  In  the  type  and  attitude  of  all  these  statues,  and  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  drapery,  there  is  much  which  reminds  us  of  Egyptian 
sculpture.  The  arms  are  placed  close  to  the  sides,  the  palms  of  the 
hands  resting  on  the  knees  ;  the  shoulders  are  very  broad  ;  the  folds 
of  drapery  are  expressed  by  painted  stripes  and  channelings,  arranged 
in  a  formal  composition  of  vertical  and  oblique  lines.  At  first  sight 
the  sculpture  appears  ruder  than  it  really  is ;  for  the  main  points  in 
the  anatomy  are  indicated,  however  slightly,  without  the  accumulation 
and  exaggeration  of  details  so  general  in  Assyrian  and  early  Greek 
art.  This  subdued  treatment  of  the  anatomy  gives  breadth  and 
repose  to  these  figures,  and  suggests  the  idea  that  they  were  executed 
by  artists  who  had  studied  in  Egypt"  {ibid.  ii.  153,  154). 


vii         ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  95 


The  figures  are  all  seated  in  chairs.  As  these  were 
doubtless  imitated  from  chairs  in  wood,  they  are  curious  as 
examples  of  the  furniture  of  a  very  early  period. 

In  addition  to  these  portrait  statues,  Newton  found  a 
sphinx  and  a  lion.  The  latter  (No.  1 7)  is  interesting  both  for 
itself  and  for  an  inscription  along  the  animal's  back.  "The 
lion,  which  is  couching,  is  rudely  sculptured,  but  with  a  certain 
normal  grandeur  of  conception.  The  repose  of  the  folded 
fore-paws  is  very  characteristic  of  the  animal."  The  inscription 
records  that  "  the  sons  of  Orion,  the  governor,  Thales,  Pasicles, 
Hegesander,  Eubios,  and  Anaxileos,  dedicated  these  statues 
as  a  tithe  to  Apollo." 

A  few  other  sculptures  from  Branchidae  have  come  to  the 
Museum  from  other  excavations.  We  may  notice  (in  the 
north-west  corner  of  this  room)  a  beardless  male  head  from  an 
archaic  statue  (No.  19),  and  (in  the  north-east  corner)  a  relief 
with  figures  moving  in  a  dance  (No.  21).  This  is  "a  work  of 
the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  and  important  as  one  of  the 
earliest  examples  of  the  stratified  arrangement  of  figures,  so 
that  one  figure  is  partially  covered  by  another,  as  in  the  case 
of  horsemen  in  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  "  (Perry). 


4.  Sculptures  from  Naucratis 

We  have  mentioned  in  the  case  of  the  figures  from  Bran- 
chidae  traces  of  Egyptian  influence.  We  now  pass  to  sculp- 
tures from  a  Greek  settlement  in  Egypt  itself  (glass  case  at 
east  end  of  north  wall).  The  discovery  of  the  buried  city 
of  Naucratis,  which  was  unearthed  in  1884,  presents  some 
curious  and  interesting  points  : — 

"  Some  years  ago  the  discovery  was  made  that  the  earth  from  a 
mound  in  the  Delta — that  is  to  say,  from  the  site  of  an  ancient  city — 
forms  an  excellent  top-dressing  to  spread  over  the  fields ;  and  the 
knowledge  of  this  fact  spread  all  over  the  fertile  districts  and  led  to 
the  digging  away  of  all  the  mounds  they  contain.  Within,  all  these 
mounds  now  present  the  appearance  of  a  sponge  or  a  dry  honeycomb, 
for  many  of  the  walls  and  most  of  the  street  lines  have  been  left  as 
useless,  while  the  mud  that  surrounded  them  has  been  carried  away. 
At  the  proper  season  for  the  work,  in  the  spring  months,  hundreds  of 
men  fill  the  mounds,  and  teams  of  donkeys  and  camels  bear  to  the 
fields  the  earth  that  is  dug  out  "  (Egyptian  Exploration  Fund's  pub- 
lications :  Naucratis)  ii.  16). 


96 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


Arab  dealers  rescued  the  antiquities  that  were  unearthed, 
and  it  was  from  a  hint  thus  derived  that  Professor  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie,  who  was  working  for  the  Egyptian  Exploration 
Fund,  was  led  to  discover  the  site  of  Naucratis.  The  city, 
situated  on  the  westernmost  or  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
nearly  midway  between  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  was  a  Greek 
settlement  which  had  risen  to  great  prosperity  under  Amasis, 
King  of  Egypt  (564-526  B.C.)  : — 

"  Amasis,  says  Herodotus,  was  a  Philhellene,  and  besides  other 
proofs  of  friendship  he  granted  the  city  of  Naucratis  for  those  of  the 
Greeks  who  came  to  Egypt  to  dwell  in,  and  to  those  who  did  not 
desire  to  stay,  but  who  made  voyages  thither,  he  granted  portions  of 
land  to  set  up  altars  and  make  sacred  enclosures  for  their  gods.  In 
old  times  Naucratis  alone  was  an  open  trading- place,  and  no  other 
place  in  Egypt  ;  and  if  any  one  came  to  any  other  of  the  Nile  mouths 
he  was  compelled  to  swear  that  he  came  not  thither  of  his  own  will, 
and  when  he  had  thus  sworn  his  innocence  he  had  to  sail  with  his 
ship  to  the  Canopic  mouth  ;  thus  highly  was  Naucratis  privileged  " 
(ii.  178,  179). 

From  the  same  passage  in  Herodotus  and  from  other 
references  in  classical  literature  it  was  known  that  Naucratis 
was  (1)  a  busy  commercial  emporium;  (2)  that  it  contained 
a  great  enclosure  used  by  all  the  Greeks,  and  also  separate 
temples  to  (3)  Apollo,  (4)  Hera,  (5)  Aphrodite,  and  (6)  Zeus. 
During  the  first  season's  excavations,  remains  were  discovered 
by  Mr.  Petrie  of  (1),  (2),  and  (3);  during  a  second  season 
(1885-86)  Mr.  E.  Gardner  discovered  (4)  and  (5),  as  well 'as 
traces  of  another  temple  and  the  cemetery.  The  architectural 
remains  were  very  scanty ;  probably  much  of  the  earlier 
temples  was  built  of  mud  bricks,  and  crumbling  marble  is,  as 
we  have  seen,  sought  for  by  the  native  diggers.  These 
architectural  fragments  are  No.  100  (on  the  floor  in  the  north- 
east corner  of  this  room)  and  Nos.  101  and  102  (in  the  lower 
shelves  of  the  adjoining  glass  case).  There  were  also  dis- 
covered inscriptions  (including  a  decree  of  the  city),  coins  of 
the  city,  weights  and  measures,  vases,  a  large  number  of 
scarabs  and  of  the  moulds  used  for  making  them,  and  the 
statuettes  now  before  us.  The  whole  of  the  collections  were 
presented  to  the  British  Museum,  and  we  shall  meet  with  some 
of  them  in  other  rooms  (for  vases  from  Naucratis  see  pp.  303, 
334?  3 3 8).  Mr.  Gardner,  in  the  course  of  an  interesting 
description  of  the  excavations,  records  that  the  work-people 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  97 


if  they  were  not  alive  to  the  archaeological  interest  of  their 
work,  at  any  rate  appreciated  greatly  its  material  rewards. 
Their  unfeigned  rejoicing  found  spontaneous  expression  in  a 
picturesque  ceremony  : — 

44  When  the  signal  of  sunset  had  been  given,  the  people,  instead  of 
hurrying  away  to  their  homes,  formed  themselves  every  night  into  a 
kind  of  festal  procession  ;  they  had  what  the  Arabs  called  a  fantasiyeh  ; 
this  one  was  regularly  known  as  the  fantasiyeh  of  the  potsherds. 
Several  of  the  girls  selected  by  the  overseer  raised  upon  their  heads 
the  baskets  containing  the  potsherds  and  other  small  antiquities  found 
during  the  day  and  led  off  the  procession  ;  at  their  head  went  a  piper, 
who  came  to  meet  them  from  the  village.  The  procession,  thanks  to 
the  flowing  Arab  dress,  really  had  an  impressive  effect "  [Naucratis, 
ii.  18). 

With  regard  to  the  date  of  the  temples  discovered,  it  has 
been  discussed  whether  the  words  of  Herodotus  quoted  above 
prove  that  Amasis  was  the  first  to  allow  the  Greeks  to  live  at 
Naucratis,  or  whether  (as  Strabo  asserts)  it  is  probable  that 
some  Greeks  were  settled  there  already.  The  balance  of 
evidence  seems  to  incline  to  the  latter  theory,  and  the  remains 
may  therefore  be  dated  from  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  downwards. 

Passing  now  to  examine  the  statuettes,  we  may  notice 
generally  that  they  closely  resemble  the  Grasco- Phoenician 
statuettes  discovered  in  Cyprus  (see  Chs.  xv.,  xxvii.).  This 
resemblance  is  in  accord,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  with  a 
story  told  by  Athenaeus.  These  rude  and  early  works  are 
therefore  of  great  interest  to  students  of  evolution  in  Greek 
art.  The  saying  of  Brunn  should  be  borne  in  mind  :  "  From 
the  Phoenicians  the  Greeks  borrowed  only  the  alphabet  of  art, 
as  they  did  also  of  letters  ;  in  both  alike  they  spoke  from  the 
first  in  their  own  language.'5  In  the  nude  male  statuettes  here 
before  us  we  see  the  original  type  which  led  up  through  the 
Apollo  statues  (presently  to  be  described)  to  the  perfect 
athletes  of  the  great  period  in  Greek  art.  The  seated  figures 
which  we  have  seen  on  a  large  scale  in  the  sculptures  from 
Branchidae  were  also  a  permanent  type.  No.  127  shows 
another  type  :  a  female  figure  enthroned  with  a  naked  boy 
at  her  breast.  In  this  representation,  probably  of  I  sis  and 
Osiris,  we  see  the  germ  which  ultimately  developed  into  the 
Madonna  and  bambino  of  Christian  art.  Equally  interesting  is 
the  figure  of  the  Hunter,  No.  118  (in  a  glass  case,  now  in  the 

H 


93 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap0 


Ante-room).  Here  we  may  recognise  the  early  type  of  "  the 
Good  Shepherd,"  as  we  see  it  in  the  catacombs  of  Rome. 

On  the  technical  side  of  the  matter  Mr.  E.  Gardner  makes 
an  interesting  observation  : — 

"  It  is  instructive  to  observe  how  far  the  art  of  statuary  lags  behind  the 
sister-art  of  vase  painting.  While  there  are  many  vases  from  Naucratis 
that  for  beauty  of  decorative  effect  have  never  been  surpassed,  no 
statuette  has  ever  been  found  which  shows  more  than  a  small  advance 
upon  the  models  from  which  it  was  derived  "  [Naucratis ,  ii.  59). 

The  statuettes  came  for  the  most  part  from  the  temples  of 
Apollo  and  Aphrodite  respectively.  Sometimes  they  represented 
the  dedicator,  sometimes  the  god  to  whom  they  were  dedicated. 
The  Hunter,  already  mentioned,  was  found  in  the  temple  of 
Aphrodite.  In  his  hands  he  holds  his  bow  and  hunting-knife  : 
over  his  shoulders  are  slung  two  hares  and  two  young  boars. 
An.  inscription  on  the  thigh  (now  illegible)  recorded  that 
"  Kallias  dedicated  "  it — a  thank-offering,  we  may  suppose,  for 
success  in  the  chase.  As  an  illustration  of  statuettes  represent- 
ing the  deity  to  whom  they  were  dedicated  we  may  cite  a 
pretty  story  from  the  Greek  litterateur  Athenaeus,  himself  a 
native  of  Naucratis,  who  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  a.d.  :— 

<c  In  the  23rd  olympiad.  Herostratus,  a  fellow-citizen  of  ours,  was  on 
a  journey,  and  having  sailed  round  many  lands,  he  touched  also  at 
Paphos  in  Cyprus.  There  he  bought  a  statuette  of  Aphrodite,  a  span 
high,  of  archaic  style,  and  went  off  with  it  to  Naucratis.  Now  when 
the  ship  was  near  Egypt  a  storm  suddenly  came  on,  and  they  could 
not  see  whereabouts  they  were  ;  so  all  of  them  took  refuge  by  the 
image  of  Aphrodite,  praying  her  to  save  them.  And  the  goddess,  with 
her  wonted  favour  to  the  people  of  Naucratis,  suddenly  filled  all  the 
region  about  her  with  green  myrtle,  and  made  the  ship  full  of  the 
sweetest  odour,  when  the  crew  had  now  given  up  hope  in  their  severe 
sickness.  They  were  at  once  freely  relieved,  and  the  sun  shone 
forth  ;  so  they  made  out  their  landmarks  and  reached  Naucratis. 
Then  Herostratus,  rushing  from  the  ship  with  the  image,  and  also 
with  the  green  myrtle  boughs  that  had  suddenly  come  forth,  dedicated 
them  in  the  temple  of  Aphrodite.  And  having  sacrificed  to  the 
goddess,  and  dedicated  the  image  to  her,  he  called  his  friends  and 
relations  to  a  banquet  in  the  temple  itself,  and  gave  to  each  of  them 
also  a  garland  of  myrtle,  to  which  he  thereupon  gave  the  name  of 
Naucratite"  [Deipnosophistce,  xv.  18). 

Any  one  of  these  female  statuettes  from  the  temple  of 
Aphrodite  may  conceivably  be  the  very  image  which  Herostratus 


VII 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


99 


thus  dedicated.  Between  the  rudeness  of  the  image  and  the 
poetic  fancy  of  the  story  preserved  in  Athenaeus  how  wide  an 
interval !  Herein,  again,  we  may  note  a  general  characteristic 
of  early  art : — 

"  The  inconsistency  between  an  Homeric  description  of  a  piece 
of  furniture  or  armour  and  the  actual  rudeness  of  any  piece  of  art 
approximating,  within  even  three  or  four  centuries,  to  the  Homeric 
period  is  so  great  that  we  at  first  cannot  recognise  the  art  as  elucidatory 
of,  or  in  any  way  related  to,  the  poetic  language.  You  will  find, 
however,  exactly  the  same  kind  of  discrepancy  between  early  sculpture 
and  the  languages  of  deed  and  thought  in  the  second  birth  and 
childhood  of  the  world  under  Christianity.  The  same  fair  thoughts 
and  bright  imaginations  arise  again ;  and,  similarly,  the  fancy  is 
content  with  the  rudest  symbols  by  which  they  can  be  formalised  to 
the  eye  "  (Ruskin,  Aratra  Pentelici,  §§  78,  79). 

The  glass  case  containing  the  statuettes  from  Naucratis 
contains  also  sculptures  (Nos.  52-75)  in  limestone,  found  at 
Camirus  and  Lindus  in  Rhodes.  The  most  interesting  among 
them  are  those  which  again  indicate  the  connection  in  ancient 
times  between  Rhodes  and  Egypt.  No.  70 — a  sphinx — is  a 
pseudo-Egyptian  work.  No.  75  is  the  Egyptian  ram-headed 
deity,  Knef. 

5.  The  Xanthian  Marbles 

The  series  of  sculptures  which  we  have  next  to  examine 
were  discovered  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows  at  Xanthus  in  Lycia. 
The  people  of  Lycia  (over  against  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  in 
Asia  Minor)  were  of  non-Hellenic  race,  but  the  sculptures  of 
Xanthus  were  distinctly  Greek.  The  monuments  in  this  room 
illustrate  incidentally  the  wide  dispersion  of  Greek  civilisation, 
embracing  as  they  do  Sicily  in  the  west  and  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  in  the  east.  The  Xanthian  Marbles  are  among  the  most 
important  monuments  in  the  British  Museum.  The  history  of 
their  discovery  is  interesting  : — , 

In  1838  Fellows  first  explored  the  country,  and  the  account  of 
his  discoveries  attracted  much  interest  among  the  learned.  In  the 
spring  of  1839  Lord  Palmerston  applied  to  the  Sultan  for  a  firman 
authorising  the  removal  of  the  works  of  art,  and  in  the  autumn  Fellows 
set  out  on  a  second  expedition.  He  made  fresh  explorations  and 
discoveries,  but  the  firman  was  not  forthcoming — the  Porte  objecting 
to  the  extent  and  generality  of  the  demand.    On  this  second  expedition 


IOO 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


Fellows  was  accompanied  by  the  late  Sir  George  Scharf,  then  a  young 
artist,  afterwards  so  well  known  as  keeper  of  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery.  Scharf s  drawings  are  preserved  in  the  Museum.  In  1841 
it  was  reported  from  Constantinople  that  the  firman  was  granted,  and 
Fellows  set  out  on  his  third  expedition.  The  British  Government  was 
to  provide  him  with  the  necessary  funds  and  assistance  from  H.M. 
ships.  Fellows  gave  his  own  services  gratuitously.  On  his  arrival  in 
the  East  he  found  many  and  great  difficulties  which  he  surmounted 
with  characteristic  energy  and  resource.  Among  other  things  there 
was  no  firman,  but  only  an  informal  letter.  The  British  Ambassador's 
requests  had  included  permission  to  remove  marbles  from  the  Castle  of 
Budrum  (Halicarnassus).1  This  seemed  to  Fellows  an  unreasonable 
request,  and  he  repaired  to  Constantinople  to  see  if  its  withdrawal 
would  smooth  the  way  to  Xanthus.  This  move  was  successful,  and 
ultimately  permission  was  granted  "in  consequence  of  the  sincere 
friendship  existing  between  the  two  Governments,"  for  the  removal  of 
the  antiquities  if  they  should  be  found  "  lying  down  here  and  there  and 
of  no  use."  Even  then  there  was  a  further  difficulty,  for  the  ruins  of 
Xanthus  turned  out  to  be  just  outside  the  province  of  the  Pasha  to  whom 
the  firman  was  addressed.  The  proper  Pasha,  however,  consented, 
saying  that  "  the  Queen  of  England  was  good,  the  Sultan  was  good,  and 
that  we  were  all  brothers,  and  that  we  might  take  what  we  liked."  At 
Christmastide  1 84 1  Fellows  and  his  party  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Xanthus  and  made  their  way  in  boats  up  the  turbid  stream  to  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city.  Here  they  pitched  their  tents,  the  British 
sailors  playing  cricket  by  day  and  wolves  and  jackals  howling  around 
them  by  night.  The  immediate  object  of  the  expedition  was  to 
remove  the  monuments  previously  discovered  by  Fellows — namely,  the 
Harpy  tomb,  the  Horse  tomb,  and  some  fragments  of  a  frieze  built 
into  the  walls  of  the  ancient  Acropolis.  But  in  the  course  of  the 
excavations  many  more  discoveries  were  made  and  additional  marbles 
were  removed.  The  pleasure  and  excitement  of  these  discoveries  were 
entered  into,  says  Fellows,  even  by  the  sailors,  "'who  often  forgot  the 
dinner-hour  or  worked  after  dusk  to  finish  the  getting  out  of  a  statue  ; 
indeed  great  care  was  needed  to  prevent  their  being  in  too  much  haste 
to  raise  up  the  figures,  for  while  the  marble  was  saturated  with  the 
moisture  of  the  earth  the  slightest  blow  chipped  off  the  light  folds  of 
the  drapery  ;  these  hardened  as  they  dried  in  the  air."  Unfortunately 
the  work  involved  some  loss  of  life  ;  a  boat  capsized  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  and  two  of  the  sailors  who  could  not  swim  were  drowned. 
The  greater  part  of  the  stones  excavated  by  Fellows  were  removed 
to  England  in  1842  ;  the  remainder  and  some  additional  casts'  and 
sculptures  were  removed  in  the  following  year  (Sir  Charles  Fellows, 
Excursion  in  Asia  Minor,  1839  ;  Discoveries  in  Lycia,  1841  ;  The 
Xanthian  Marbles ,  1843  ;  Account  of  the  Ionic  Trophy  Monument, 
1848). 


1  See  Ch.  xn. 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  101 


In  this  room  are  placed  the  more  archaic  of  the  Xanthian 
Marbles.  The  others  are  in  the  Nereid  Room  (Ch.  XI.)  and 
the  Mausoleum  Room  (Ch.  xii.). 

The  oldest  of  the  Xanthian  Marbles  are  the  large  tombs  at 
the  west  end  of  this  room. 

The  Lion  Tomb  (80). — This  tomb  was  found  by  Fellows 
standing  on,  and  at  one  end  overhanging,  a  tall  shaft,  made  of 
a  single  block  of  coarse  limestone.  The  lid  of  the  tomb  is 
missing.  This  is  believed  to  be  the  oldest  of  the  Xanthian 
monuments,  and  to  represent  Lycian  sculpture  before  the 
Ionian  influence  had  begun  to  make  itself  felt  : — 

"  The  animals  are  in  high  relief  and  gross  of  form  and  sentiment. 
On  each  side  of  the  tomb  is  a  narrow  frieze,  with  low  flat  relief, 
indicating  in  the  proportions,  attitudes,  and  costumes  of  the  figures  an 
exceedingly  early  condition  of  sculpture.  On  one  side  is  a  man 
killing  a  lion  as  a  matter  of  form,  not  at  all  as  a  realisation  of  the 
fact.  On  the  other  are  a  mounted  horseman,  and  turned  away  from 
him  a  foot  soldier  with  a  huge  shield  and  enormous  crest "  (Murray's 
History  of  Greek  Sculpture i.  127). 

The  Harpy  Tomb  (94). — This  famous  monument  is  later 
in  date  than  the  one  we  have  just  examined.  The  Lion  Tomb 
shows  Lycian  sculpture  before  the  Greek  influence  ;  the  Harpy 
Tomb,  the  Ionian  School  of  Asia  Minor,  characterised  by  "  a 
certain  voluptuousness  of  form  and  languor  of  expression  "  : — 

"The  Lycians,"  says  Mr.  Pater,  "were  not  a  Greek  people;  but 
as  happened  even  with  '  barbarians '  dwelling  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  they  became  lovers  of  the  Hellenic  culture,  and  Xanthus,  their 
capital,  as  may  be  judged  from  the  beauty  of  its  ruins,  managed  to 
have  a  considerable  portion  in  Greek  art,  though  infusing  it  with  a 
certain  Asiatic  colour.  The  frugally  designed  frieze  of  the  Harpy 
Tomb,  in  the  lowest  possible  relief,  might  fairly  be  placed  between 
the  monuments  of  Assyria  and  those  primitive  Greek  works  among 
which  it  now  actually  stands.  The  stiffly-ranged  figures  in  any  other 
than  strictly  archaic  work  would  seem  affected.  But  what  an  under- 
current of  refined  sentiment,  presumably  not  Asiatic,  not  'barbaric,' 
lifting  those  who  felt  thus  about  death  so  early  into  the  main  stream  of 
Greek  humanity,  and  to  a  level  of  visible  refinement  in  execution 
duly  expressive  of  it  !  "  (Greek  Studies,  p.  287). 

The  tomb,  found  near  the  theatre  at  Xanthus,  was  first 
discovered  by  Fellows  on  19th  April  1838.  It  was  again  seen 
by  him  and  described  in  1840,  and  two  years  later  was 
removed  under  his  directions  to  the  British  Museum  : — 


102 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


"The  Harpy  Tomb,"  he  says,  4 'consisted  of  a  square  shaft  in  one 
block,  weighing  about  80  tons,  its  height  17  feet,  placed  upon  a  base 
rising  on  one  side  6  feet  from  the  ground,  on  the  other  but  little  above 
the  level  of  the  earth.  Around  the  sides  of  the  top  of  the  shaft  were 
ranged  the  bas-reliefs  in  white  marble,  about  3  feet  3  inches  high  ;  upon 
these  rested  a  capstone,  apparently  a  series  of  stones,  one  projecting  over 
the  other;  but  these  are  cut  in  one  block,  probably  15  to  20  tons 
in  weight.  Within  the  top  of  the  shaft  was  hollowed  out  a  chamber, 
which,  with  the  bas-relief  sides,  was  7  feet  6  inches  high  and  7  feet 
square"  (Fellows,  Asia  Minor  and  Lycia,  pp.  173,  340,  438). 

The  date  of  the  monument  is  probably  prior  to  the  sack  of 
Xanthus  by  the  Persians  under  Harpagus  in  546  B.C.  The 
precise  subject  of  the  bas-reliefs  has  been  much  debated,  but 
the  key-note  of  the  composition  is  clear  enough.  On  every 
side  we  see  winged  creatures  with  human  faces  carrying  off  the 
little  souls  of  the  dead.  The  "  Harpy'5  Tomb  is  not  correctly 
so  called.  Harpies  in  Greek  art  are  winged  figures  of  women, 
and  are  spirits  of  wrath  and  destruction.  The  birds  with 
human  heads  are  Sirens,  the  gentle  messengers  of  death.  As 
such  they  appear  on  the  later  funeral  monuments  and  vases 
(see  pp.  342,  708).  The  little  figures  here  being  carried  off 
by  the  Sirens  show  no  sense  of  dismay  ;  they  are  carried  very 
tenderly,  and  seem  in  their  turn  to  "  yearn  towards  those 
kindly  nurses  as  they  pass  on  their  way  to  a  new  world "  1 
(Pater's  Greek  Studies,  p.  289,  and  Cecil  Smith  in  J.H.S. 
xiii.  103).  The  small  stature  of  the  figures  who  are  being 
carried  off  does  not  prove  them  infants,  but  "  only  new-born 
into  that  other  life,  and  contrasts  their  helplessness  with  the 
powers,  the  great  presences,  now  around  them."  On  some 
of  the  Greek  vases  the  souls  of  the  dead  are  represented  in 
the  same  way,  and  the  same  symbolism  is  familiar  in  mediaeval 
pictures  and  monuments.  In  Westminster  Abbey,  for  instance, 
on  the  monument  of  Aymer  de  Valence  (in  the  Chapel  of  the 
Kings),  the  soul  of  the  deceased,  a  small  figure  wrapped  in  a 
mantle,  is  supported  by  two  angels.  The  crouching  figure  on 
the  north  side  of  the  monument  before  us  represents  perhaps 
the  bereaved  person  who  erected  it,  and  at  any  rate  suggests 
the  grief  of  the  survivors.  The  motive  of  the  rest  of  the  bas- 
reliefs  appears  to  be  the  contrast  between  the  beauty  of  life 
and  growth  and  their  sudden  collapse  in  death  : — 

1  The  same  idea  has  been  employed  by  Mr.  Watts  in  his  picture  of 
"The  Messenger,"  now  at  the  Tate  Gallery  (see  my  Handbook  to  the 
National  Gallery,  vol.  ii.  No.  1646). 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  103 


On  the  west  side  is  the  opening  to  the  chamber  within.  Facing  each 
other,  at  either  end,  sit  two  goddesses  always  associated  in  the  Greek 
mind  with  the  fertile  beauty  and  decay  of  Nature.  On  the  left  Demeter, 
large  in  form  and  lonely ;  on  the  right  her  daughter  Persephone, 
youthful  in  figure  and  receiving  the  attention  of  three  other  women 
(perhaps  the  Graces),  who  bring  her  rich  fruits  and  flowers  as  tokens  of 
the  ripeness  of  Nature,  which  in  person  they  also  display.  Above  the 
opening  is  a  scene  calculated  to  carry  the  mind  to  fertile  pasture-lands 
— a  cow  suckling  her  calf. 

On  the  north  side  the  sculptor  shows  us  yet  more  directly  the 
connection  between  daily  life  and  death.  A  warrior  is  laying  aside  his 
arms,  handing  his  helmet  to  the  seated  judge  of  the  dead,  under  whose 
throne  sulks  a  bear,  while  on  either  side  flies  a  Harpy  on  her  fatal 
occupation. 

On  the  south  side  are  again  these  Harpies.  A  woman  with  pro- 
pitiatory gifts  approaches  the  female  judge,  Persephone.  The  hen  here 
matches  the  cock,  which,  on  the  east  side,  as  often  in  sepulchral  reliefs, 
is  offered  by  a  suppliant  to  the  god  of  the  lower  world. 

On  the  east  side  we  may  note  further  that  the  young  man  is 
accompanied  by  his  dog,  who  looks  wistfully  up  at  him  : — 

He  asks  no  angel's  wing,  no  seraph's  fire, 
But  thinks,  admitted  to  that  equal  sky, 
His  faithful  dog  shall  bear  him  company. 

Behind  the  enthroned  god  are  again  draped  figures  bearing  ripe 
fruits. 

Mr.  Pater,  in  a  beautiful  passage,  gives  a  somewhat  different 
interpretation  of  the  sculptures  : — 

"  A  cow,  far  enough  from  Myron's  illusive  animal,  suckles  her  calf. 
She  is  one  of  almost  any  number  of  artistic  symbols  of  new  birth,  of 
the  renewal  of  life,  drawn  from  a  world  which  is,  after  all,  so  full  of  it. 
On  one  side  sits  enthroned,  as  some  have  thought,  the  Goddess  of 
Death  ;  on  the  opposite  side  the  Goddess  of  Life,  with  her  flowers 
and  fruit.  Towards  her  three  young  maidens  are  advancing — were 
they  still  alive  thus,  graceful,  virginal,  with  their  long,  plaited  hair, 
and  long,  delicately  folded  tunics,  looking  forward  to  carry  on  their 
race  into  the  future  ?  Presented  severally,  on  the  other  sides  of  the 
dark  hollow  within,  three  male  persons — a  young  man,  an  old  man, 
and  a  boy — seem  to  be  bringing  home,  somewhat  wearily,  to  their 
*  long  home,'  the  young  man,  his  armour,  the  boy  and  the  old  man, 
like  old  Socrates,  the  mortuary  cock,  as  they  approach  some  shadowy, 
ancient  deity  of  the  tomb,  or  it  may  be  the  throned  impersonation  of 
their  *  fathers  of  old'  "  {Greek  Sttidies,  p.  289). 

Whatever  may  be  the  precise  signification  of  the  sculptures, 
it  will  be  generally  admitted,  as  Mr.  Pater  says,  that  "  the 
designer  was  possessed  of  some  tranquillising  second  thoughts 


104 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


concerning  death,  which  may  well  have  had  their  value  for 
mourners  ;  and  he  has  expressed  those  thoughts,  if  lispingly, 
yet  with  no  faults  of  commission,  with  a  befitting  grace,  and,  in 
truth,  at  some  points,  with  something  already  of  a  really 
Hellenic  definition  and  vigour." 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  chamber  enclosed  by  these 
representations  of  Death  and  Judgment  was  used  in  early 
Christian  times  as  the  cell  of  an  anchorite — perhaps  a  disciple 
of  Simeon  Stylites,  a  dweller  in  funeral  stelae  such  as  this. 
"The  traces  of  the  religious  paintings  and  monograms  of  this 
holy  man  still  remain,"  says  Fellows,  "upon  the  backs  of  the 
marble  of  the  bas-reliefs." 

Frieze  of  Animals  and  Satyrs  (81). — On  the  whole  we 
may  say  of  the  Harpy  Tomb  that  while  it  is  "in  a  severely 
archaic  style,  it  shows  already  a  light  touch  of  grace  "  (Welcker). 
We  now  turn  to  the  north  wall,  where  there  is  a  frieze  of 
animals  and  satyrs,  found  by  Fellows  built  into  the  walls  of 
the  Acropolis  at  Xanthus.  In  this  the  Greek  influence,  work- 
ing upon  an  Assyrian  model,  is  again  discernible. 

Below  the  satyr  frieze  is  a  frieze  of  cocks  and  hens  (82), 
also  found  by  Fellows  built  into  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis  of 
Xanthus.  In  this  we  may  notice  very  careful  and  successful 
study  from  nature. 

We  may  here  interpose  a  reference  to  some  sculptures 
from  Lydia  (on  the  ledge  above  the  Xanthian  frieze,  north- 
east corner  of  the  room), — two  reliefs  (Nos.  22,  23),  which 
may  have  been  part  of  a  hunting  scene  on  the  walls  of  a 
funeral  chamber.  They  were  found  by  Mr.  George  Dennis  in 
1882  in  one  of  the  mounds  at  Ben  Tepe,  near  the  site  of  the 
famous  city  of  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia.  It  is  possible  that 
in  No.  22  we  have  a  representation  of  the  famous  Lydian 
horsemen  described  by  Herodotus,  whom  Cyrus,  King  of 
Persia,  defeated  by  means  of  his  camels.  "There  was  at  this 
time  no  nation  in  Asia  more  courageous  or  more  stout  in 
battle  than  the  Lydian,  and  they  fought  on  horseback,  carrying 
long  spears,  the  men  being  excellent  in  horsemanship  f  (i.  79, 
80).  The  subject  of  the  other  relief  (23)  is  three  deer 
grazing. 

On  the  opposite  wall  (south),  in  the  centre,  is  another  frieze 
from  Xanthus,  a  frieze  of  chariots  (86).  It  was  found  by- 
Fellows  inserted  in  a  wall  of  late  date  on  the  Acropolis  of 
Xanthus.      The  frieze  probably  belonged  to  a  tomb,  and 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  105 


represented  a  funeral  procession.  The  human  figures  resemble 
in  style  the  Harpy  Tomb.  But  though  the  artistic  style  is 
Greek,  there  is  a  strong  Oriental  influence,  as  Fellows  observed, 
in  the  horses  and  their  trappings.  The  upright  crest  on  the 
head  of  the  horse  in  the  fourth  group,  and  the  way  in  which 
the  horses'  tails  are  tied,  resemble  the  reliefs  of  horses  from 
Persepolis. 

On  either  side  of  the  frieze  just  described  are  slabs  from 
other  friezes  or  gable  ends  of  tombs  (87-93).  No-  87,  a  slab 
from  a  frieze,  shows  the  foot  of  a  dead  person  who  has  been 
laid  out  on  a  bier.  On  several  of  the  older  fragments  there 
are  Sphinxes,  in  which  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  artistic 
spirit  of  Greece  refining  forms  derived  from  Oriental  art. 

The  Sphinx  on  No.  90  was,  "  when  first  discovered  in  1840, 
brilliantly  coloured,  as  is  recorded  in  a  drawing  by  Scharf. 
The  ground  of  the  relief  was  bright  blue,  the  feathers  were 
red,  black,  blue,  and  white.  The  hair  was  yellow,  and  the 
tcenia  (fillet)  was  painted  with  a  white  pattern  on  a  red 
ground"  {Catalogue  of  Sculpture,  i.  52). 

On  the  floor  below  the  frieze  and  other  reliefs  just  described 
are  further  fragments  from  Xanthus.  Of  these  the  most 
interesting  is  No.  95,  a  fragment  (perhaps  from  a  lintel),  with 
remains  of  two  dancing  figures  H  executed  with  very  great 
refinement  and  beauty.5' 

6.  The  Archaic  Temple  of  Ephesus 

In  the  east  end  of  the  room  are  sculptures  from  the  archaic 
temple  of  Artemis  (Diana)  at  Ephesus,  which  were  found  in 
1872-74  under  the  foundations  of  the  later  temple.  Into  the 
story  of  the  excavations  we  shall  enter  more  fully  when  we  come 
to  the  remains  of  the  later  temple  in  the  Ephesus  Room 
(Ch.  ix.).  The  earlier  temple,  of  which  the  remains  are  here 
before  us,  was  built  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C., 
when  Croesus,  King  of  Lydia,  presented  "  the  golden  cows  and 
the  greater  number  of  the  pillars  of  the  temple"  (Herod,  i.  92). 
This  statement  of  Herodotus  has  been  confirmed  in  the  course 
of  the  excavations,  for  on  one  of  the  pillars  in  this  room  is  an 
inscription  recording  (if  the  restoration  be  correct)  that  "  King 
Crcesus  dedicated"  it  (see  below).  In  356  B.C.,  on  the  same 
night  on  which  Alexander  the  Great  was  born,  the  temple  was 
burned  down  by  an  incendiary  named  Herostratus,  wishing 


io6 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


to  immortalise  himself,  if  even  by  a  monstrous  crime.  The 
Ephesians  at  once  set  themselves  to  reconstruct  it  on  a  yet 
more  splendid  scale  ;  and  now  in  the  British  Museum  we  have 
remains  of  both  edifices — remains  which  show  that  in  several 
important  particulars,  and  especially  in  its  sculptured  columns, 
the  later  edifice  was  copied  from  its  predecessor,  but  which 
show  also  in  a  very  interesting  way  the  progress  of  art  during 
the  intervals. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  archaic  Ephesian  remains  are  (i) 
the  pieces  from  the  cornice  of  the  temple  (No.  46),  and  (2)  the 
base  of  a  sculptured  column  (No.  29),  ingeniously  put  together 
and  conjecturally  restored  by  Dr.  Murray.  Both  cornice  and 
column  present  interesting  and  unusual  features.  In  the  cornice 
the  spaces  between  the  lions'  heads  (which  carried  off  the  rain) 
are  occupied  not  by  floral  ornaments,  as  in  the  later  temple  and 
in  Greek  architecture  generally,  but  by  delicately- sculptured 
groups.  (This  arrangement  may  throw  some  light  on  the 
origin  of  metopes  ;  see  Murray's  History  of  Greek  Sculpture, 
i.  ch.  v.)  In  the  restored  column,  underneath  the  sculptures, 
are  the  fragments  of  the  inscription  by  Crcesus,  referred  to 
above  [Ba(crtAe^s)  Kp(otcros)  dv^OrjKev)].  The  sculptured  part, 
together  with  the  moulding  above  and  the  base -mouldings, 
formed  as  it  were  a  pedestal  supporting  a  fluted  column  above 
it.  An  Ionic  capital  from  one  of  these  columns  is  placed 
opposite.  With  regard  to  the  fragments  of  sculpture  Dr. 
Murray  says  : — - 

(The  male  figure.)  '  'The  lips  are  full  and  strikingly  sensuous,  as 
are  also  the  large  projecting  eyes,  which  no  eyebrows  overshadow. 
The  cheeks  are  full  and  fleshy,  and  the  chin  projects.  That  the 
strongly  marked  sensuousness  of  expression  here  referred  to  was  a 
characteristic  of  the  early  sculpture  of  Asia  Minor  would  in  itself  be 
probable  from  what  is  known  of  Greek  settlements  there,  and  it  is 
confirmed  by  the  recurrence  of  the  same  features  in  sculptures  from 
other  parts  of  this  coast.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  reliefs 
of  the  Harpy  Tomb,  which,  though  unquestionably  later  in  date,  still 
preserve  the  full  swollen  lips  and  large  forward  eyes  "  {History  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  i.  116). 

There  are  remains  of  colour  both  on  the  column  and  on  the 
cornice  ;  in  the  latter  the  reds  and  blues  are  in  parts  quite 
brilliant  (see  the  fragments  preserved  in  the  glass  cases  on 
either  side  of  the  door).  This  many-colouredness  (ftolychromy) 
of  ancient  art  is  one  of  its  characteristics  which  most  startle 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  107 


the  modern  student  at  first  sight,  or  rather  on  first  hearing. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  colour  is  so  evanescent,  and  that 
no  reliefs  or  statues  show  any  great  traces  of  it,  we  have  all 
been  accustomed  to  suppose  that  Greek  sculpture,  whether  as 
architectural  adornment  or  in  isolated  statues,  was  distinguished 
by  colourless  purity,  and  relied  on  nothing  but  perfection  of 
form  and  the  play  of  light  and  shade  on  cold  marble.  But 
this  is  not  so.  "  It  seems  clear,"  as  Miss  Harrison  well  says, 
"that  whenever  a  nation  lives  under  a  cloudless  sky,  with 
constant  brilliant  sunshine,  they  instinctively  seek  to  give  their 
national  art  a  life  and  glow  that  shall  accord  with  its  atmo- 
spheric surroundings."  Every  traveller  in  Italy  must  have 
noticed  this  fact.  It  is  only  in  our  cheerless  North  that  dead 
white  or  cold  gray  are  felt  to  be  the  appropriate  hues.  In  old 
times  the  Greek  temples  were  painted — especially  the  reliefs 
on  the  friezes,  on  which  (being  high  above  the  eye  and  often 
in  very  confined  spaces)  the  details  were  thus  made  to  stand 
out  more  brilliantly.  In  the  case  of  the  early  metopes  from 
Selinus,  vestiges  of  colour  remaining  when  they  were  first 
unearthed  show  that  the  background  was  painted  red,  and  that 
yellow  and  blue  were  used  in  picking  out  details  of  drapery 
and  armour.  The  Medusa's  eyes  were  also  painted  red.  On 
the  sculptures  from  ^Egina,  which  we  have  next  to  examine, 
traces  of  brilliant  colour  remained  —  red,  blue,  and  gilding. 
These  served  to  distinguish  and  heighten  the  effect  of  several 
parts  otherwise  inanimate.  The  restored  pediments  in  this 
room  have  been  partially  decorated  in  accordance  with  the 
indications  noted  by  Cockerell  at  the  time  of  their  discovery. 
On  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  the  colours  quickly  disappeared. 
No  traces  of  colour  remain  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon, 
which  for  so  many  centuries  was  exposed  to  neglect  and  to  the 
atmosphere  ;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  similarly 
treated.  On  the  remains  of  the  Mausoleum,  which  had  been 
buried,  traces  of  colour  were  abundant.  Mr.  Watts,  R.A., 
who  was  present  at  some  of  the  discoveries,  said,  in  reply  to 
Mr.  Westmacott,  who  had  raised  doubts  on  the  point  :  "  Mr. 
Westmacott  cannot  understand  that  colour  which  had  been 
preserved  for  2000  years  should  have  entirely  disappeared  in 
the  few  months  occupied  in  the  transmission  of  the  sculptures 
from  Asia  Minor  to  England  ;  but  I  can  state  from  positive 
experience  that  colour  on  some  of  the  fragments — which,  when 
the  sculpture  was  first  taken  out  of  the  ground,  was  as  perfect 


io8 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


as  if  painted  but  a  few  weeks — entirely  disappeared  in  the 
course  of  two  or  three  hours."  We  now  know  from  the  dis- 
covery of  archaic  statues  dug  up  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens 
that  single  statues  were  also  painted.  Occasionally  the  flesh 
was  tinted  ;  more  commonly,  the  hair  and  decorative  details. 
Professor  Lanciani  recorded  a  few  years  ago  that  of  the 
numerous  statues  excavated  under  his  direction  at  Rome,  one- 
half  showed  traces'  of  colour  at  the  time  when  they  were  first 
brought  to  light.  (The  general  reader  may  be  referred  on 
this  subject  to  Prof.  E.  Gardner's  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture, 
pp.  28-32,  and  an  article  entitled  "  Did  the  Greeks  paint  their 
Sculptures  ? ,;  in  the  Century  Magazine  for  April  1892.) 

7.  The  Temple  of  ^gina  (Casts) 

The  sculptures  which  we  next  examine  are  from  the  Temple 
of  Athena 1  at  ^Egina  ;  they  belong  to  the  latest  stage  of  archaic 
Greek  art,  and  are  the  most  important  extant  works  of  that 
period.     They  are  represented  in  our  Museum  by  casts  only. 

In  the  autumn  of  18 10  there  happened  to  be  assembled  at  Athens 
several  gentlemen  interested  in  Greek  art,  of  whom  Byron  was  one,  and 
they  agreed  to  embark  on  a  series  of  excavations.  Their  discoveries 
were  very  important.  The  marbles  of  ^Egina  revealed  for  the  first 
time  the  archaic  sculpture  of  Greece  ;  those  of  Phigalia  enriched  the 
learned  world  with  important  works  by  a  contemporary  of  the  great 
Phidias  (see  Chap.  xni.). 

These  were  the  early,'  romantic,  and  dangerous  days  of  archaeo- 
logical study.  There  were  no  schools  of  antiquities  at  Athens  ;  no 
scholarships  at  the  universities  to  encourage  the  study  ;  and  digging 
was  not  organised  into  a  long  vacation  pastime.  Of  the  seven 
persons  referred  to  above,  three  died  in  Greece  ;  two  served  a  term 
of  captivity  with  pirates,  and  two  suffered  seriously  from  fever.  In 
April  181 1  four  of  them  set  out  for  the  island  of  /Egina,  after  an 
evening  spent  with  Byron  in  ' 4  pouring  out  libations  in  propitiation  of 
his  homeward  voyage  to  England."  The  party  consisted  of  Mr.  C.  R. 
Cockerell  and  Mr.  Foster,  English  architects  ;  Herr  Linckh,  of 
Wurtemburg ;  and  Baron  Hallen  of  Hallenstein,  architect  to  the 
King  of  Bavaria.  They  found  the  temple  partly  buried  under  a  field 
of  barley,  and  at  some  distance  below  they  came  upon  the  sculptures, 
of  which  the  casts  are  before  us  in  this  room.     Having  "  squared  "  the 

1  So  it  has  long  been  called ;  but  ' '  an  inscription  discovered  in  the 
excavations  of  1901  makes  it  probable  that  the  patron  deity  of  the  temple 
was  a  local  goddess,  Aphaia,  having  affinities  with  Artemis  "  (Guide  to  the 
Department^  2nd  ed. ,  p.  10). 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  109 


headmen  of  the  island  by  a  sum  of  money,  the  explorers  removed  the 
sculptures  to  Athens,  and  afterwards  for  greater  security  to  Zante. 
The  treasure-trove  was  the  joint  property  of  the  four  explorers,  and  as 
two  were  English  and  two  German,  international  complications  arose 
from  the  dual  control.  Mr.  Gaily  Knight  and  another  English  gentle- 
man, who  happened  to  be  in  Athens  when  the  marbles  arrived  there, 
offered  to  buy  out  the  two  Germans  for  ^"2000,  with  a  view  to 
presenting  the  marbles  to  the  British  Museum.  But  the  Germans, 
fired  with  an  equally  honourable  ambition  on  behalf  of  the  Museum  at 
Munich,  declined  the  offer.  The  British  Government  next  appeared 
on  the  scene  with  an  offer  of  ^6000  for  the  marbles,  and  a  man-of-war 
was  sent  to  remove  them.  This  offer  also  was  refused,  but  the  British 
captain  was  asked  to  remove  the  marbles  to  Malta  for  greater  security, 
as  an  attack  by  the  French  on  the  island  of  Zante  was  at  this  time 
feared.  As  the  only  way  out  of  the  deadlock  caused  by  the  dual 
control  the  four  explorers  decided  to  put  the  marbles  up  to  auction, 
advertising  first  the  fact  in  the  newspapers  of  all  the  European 
countries.  The  British  Government,  understanding  that  the  auction 
would  be  held  at  Malta,  where  the  goods  had  been  deposited, 
instructed  the  Governor  to  bid  ^"8000  for  them,  and  Mr.  Combe, 
keeper  of  the  antiquities  at  the  Museum,  was  sent  out  to  Malta. 
There  he  waited  till  some  time  after  the  date  announced  for  the 
auction,  but  no  auction  was  held.  Meanwhile  the  marbles  had  been 
sold  by  auction  at  Zante  to  the  King  of  Bavaria  for  ^6000,  the  only- 
bid  there  forthcoming.  The  two  English  explorers  were  deeply 
chagrined  at  the  prize  being  thus  lost  to  their  country,  but  it  was  too 
late  to  repair  the  misunderstanding,  and  the  marbles  went  to  Munich, 
where  they  may  now  be  seen  in  the  Glyptothek.1 

The  sculptures  thus  recovered  from  the  soil  of  ^Egina  were 
set  up  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  of  the  Greeks  over 
the  Persians  at  Salamis  in  480  B.C.,  in  which  ^Egina  took  a 
distinguished  part.  According  to  the  usual  practice  of  Greek 
art,  the  monument  recorded  not  the  actual  victory  of  the  day, 
but  the  mythical  exploits  in  earlier  ages  of  the  national  heroes. 
These  were  in  JEg'ma.  the  ^acidas,  who  marched  twice 
against  Troy,  once  in  the  time  of  Hercules,  and  again  as 
allies  of  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus.  Each  pediment  thus 
represents  a  battle  of  Greeks  and  Trojans  over  the  body  of 
a  fallen  warrior ;  the  east  pediment  represents  the  earlier 
struggle,  the  west  the  latter.     The  figure  of  the  goddess 

1  The  transaction  caused  as  many  suspicions  and  insinuations  as  if  it 
had  been  a  case  of  a  Chinese  concession.  The  real  facts,  as  summarised 
above,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  Select  Committee  on  the  British 
Museum,  1835,  Q.  1528-1541,  and  C.  R.  Cockerell's  Temples  at  Ai gin  a 
and  Bassce,  i860. 


no        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


Athena  occupies  the  centre  of  both  pediments,  as  witness  and 
arbiter  of  the  struggle. 

On  the  north  wall  is  the  western  pediment.  The  subject 
is  the  struggle  between  the  Greek  and  Trojan  heroes  for  the 
body  of  Patroclus,  as  described  by  Homer  (Iliad  xvii.). 
Beginning  at  the  left  hand,  we  have  first  a  wounded  Greek 
drawing  an  arrow  from  his  right  breast ;  a  Greek  advancing 
with  spear  ;  a  Greek  archer  kneeling  ;  and  then  the  prostrate 
Patroclus  : — 

* '  This  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  figures  of  the  western  pediment. 
He  is -falling  to  the  ground,  but  props  himself  for  the  moment  on  his 
right  hand,  which  held  his  sword.  His  hair,  which  is  neatly  arranged 
in  curls  like  small  shells  round  his  brow,  is  confined  by  a  band.  The 
helmet  is  somewhat  pushed  back  from  the  head  so  as  to  show  the 
carefully  executed  locks  of  hair  beneath  it.  It  differs  from  the  other 
figures  of  the  western  pediment  in  having  the  veins  of  the  right  arm 
clearly  indicated.  The  gentle  smile  on  the  lips  betrays  no  uneasiness  " 
(Perry). 

The  goddess  stands  in  the  centre,  motionless  and  apparently 
uninterested.  She  is  fully  armed  and  wears  her  cegis.  Then 
come  a  kneeling  Trojan  ;  a  warrior  advancing  with  shield 
extended,  perhaps  tineas  ;  the  Trojan  prince,  Paris  ;  and  a 
wounded  Trojan. 

On  the  opposite  wall  is  the  eastern  pediment,  represent- 
ing a  battle  in  the  war  which  Telamon  of  ^Lgina,  aided  by 
Hercules,  waged  against  Laomodon,  King  of  Troy.  Begin- 
ning on  the  left,  we  see  first  a  dying  Trojan,  supporting 
himself  by  his  shield  : — ■ 

He  leans  upon  his  hand,  his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death  but  conquers  agony. 

After  the  dying  Trojan  is  a  warrior,  perhaps  Telamon  ; 
then,  a  fallen  warrior ;  Athena ;  the  figure  of  a  youth  leaning 
forward  to  draw  away  his  fallen  comrade  ;  and  at  the  end 
Hercules,  drawing  his  bow,  with  a  lion's  skin  on  his  head. 

With  regard  to  the  style  of  these  sculptures,  they  mark,  as 
we  have  said,  the  culmination  of  the  archaic  period.  The 
technical  excellence  of  the  work  is  praised  by  Overbeck,  who 
notices  in  it  "  an  application  of  all  known  instruments  of 
sculpture  ;  the  delicate  calculation  of  weight  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  several  parts  allowing  the  artist  to  dispense  with 
all  artificial  supports,  and  to  set  his  figures,  with  all  their 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE        1 1 1 


complex  motions,  and  yet  with  plinths  only  three  inches  thick, 
into  the  basis  of  the  gable  ;  the  bold  use  of  the  chisel,  which 
wrought  the  shield,  on  the  freely-held  arm,  down  to  a  thickness 
of  scarcely  three  inches  ;  the  fineness  of  the  execution,  even 
in  parts  of  the  work  invisible  to  an  ordinary  spectator,  in  the 
diligent  finishing  of  which  the  only  motive  of  the  artist  was  to 
satisfy  his  own  conviction  as  to  the  nature  of  good  sculpture." 
With  regard  to  the  composition,  there  is  remarkable  unity  and 
concentration  of  design  :  figures  of  fallen  warriors  fill  up  the 
angles  ;  while  the  combatants,  or  their  efforts,  are  all  directed 
towards  the  centre,  which  is  occupied  by  a  figure  of  the 
goddess.  But  the  unity  of  the  design  is  somewhat  stiff  and 
formal :  "  Effects  of  this  we  may  note  not  merely  in  the  sim- 
plicity, or  monotony  even,  of  the  whole  composition,  and  in 
the  exact  and  formal  correspondence  of  one  gable  to  the 
other,  but  in  the  simple  readiness  with  which  the  designer 
makes  the  two  second  spearmen  kneel,  against  the  probability 
of  the  thing,  so  as  just  to  fill  the  space  he  has  to  compose  in." 
We  shall  see,  when  we  come  to  the  pediments  of  the  Par- 
thenon, how  Phidias,  while  true  to  the  laws  and  traditions  of 
symmetry  in  design,  yet  introduced  elements  of  variety  and 
diversity.  In  the  next  place,  we  may  notice  how  much  more 
satisfactory  the  ^Eginetan  sculptures  are  in  rendering  the  body 
than  the  face.  The  bodies  are  those  of  athletes  in  perfect 
training ;  indeed,  in  his  striving  after  truth,  the  artist  has 
made  his  figures  too  pronouncedly  anatomical.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  faces  are  for  the  most  part  expressionless,  This  is 
a  point  emphasised  by  Ruskin  : — 

"  Look  carefully  in  the  British  Museum  at  the  casts  from  the  statues 
in  the  pediment  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva  at  yfLgina.  You  have  there 
Greek  work  of  definite  date — about  600  B.C.,  certainly  before  580 — of 
the  purest  kind  ;  and  you  have  the  representation  of  a  noble  ideal 
subject,  the  combats  of  the  ^Eacidae  at  Troy,  with  Athena  herself 
looking  on.  But  there  is  no  attempt  whatever  to  represent  expression 
in  the  features,  none  to  give  complexity  of  action  or  gesture  ;  there  is 
no  struggling,  no  anxiety,  no  visible  temporary  exertion  of  muscles. 
There  are  fallen  figures,  one  pulling  a  lance  out  of  his  wound,  and 
others  in  attitudes  of  attack  and  defence  :  several  kneeling  to  draw 
their  bows.  But  all  inflict  and  suffer,  conquer  or  expire,  with  the 
same  smile"  {Aratra  Pentelici,  §  191).  "When  I  was  in  Venice  in 
1880,  the  authorities  of  the  Academy  did  me  the  grace  of  taking  down 
my  two  pet  pictures  of  St.  Ursula,  and  putting  them  into  a  quiet  room 
for  me  to  copy.     Now  in  this  quiet  room  where  I  was  allowed  to 


H2        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


paint,  there  were  a  series  of  casts  from  the  yEgina  marbles,  which  I 
never  had  seen  conveniently  before  ;  and  so,  on  my  right  hand  and 
left,  I  had,  all  clay  long,  the  best  pre-Praxitelite  Classic  art,  and  the 
best  pre-Raphaelite  Gothic  art,  and  could  turn  to  this  side,  or  that, 
in  an  instant,  to  enjoy  either  :  which  I  could  do,  in  each  case,  with 
my  whole  heart  ;  only  on  this  condition,  that  if  I  was  to  admire  St. 
Ursula,  it  was  necessary  on  the  whole  to  be  content  with  her  face, 
and  not  to  be  too  critical  or  curious  about  her  elbows  ;  but  in  the 
/Egina  marbles,  one's  principal  attention  had  to  be  given  to  the  knees 
and  elbows,  while  no  ardent  sympathies  were  excited  by  the  fixed 
smile  upon  the  face  "  (The  Art  of  England \  1884,  P-  91)- 

In  this  "  ^Eginetan  smile,"  as  it  has  been  called,  we  see  the 
conventional  expression  of  archaic  art.1  In  the  figures  of  the 
eastern  pediment,  however,  there  is  somewhat  more  expression 
of  emotion  ;  some  critics  have  supposed,  therefore,  that  this 
pediment  is  later  in  date  than  the  other.  The  impassive 
immobility  of  the  statue  of  Athena  is,  on  the  other  hand,  very 
strongly  marked  ;  and  this,  added  to  the  archaic  details  of  her 
drapery,  suggests  that  the  sculptor  adopted  a  traditional  type 
of  temple-image.  Lastly,  it  may  be  noted  as  characteristic  of 
the  early  work  here  before  us  that  "  the  profiles  are  still  not 
yet  of  the  fully-developed  Greek  type,  but  have  a  somewhat 
strong  prominence  of  nose  and  chin,  as  in  Etruscan  design  in 
the  early  sculpture  of  Cyprus,  and  in  the  earlier  Greek  vases  ; 
and  the  general  proportions  of  the  body  in  relation  to  the 
shoulders  are  still  somewhat  archaically  slim."  In  all  these 
respects  Mr.  Pater  bids  us  find  in  the  ^ginetan  sculptures,  as 
in  the  work  of  the  earlier  Renaissance,  the  charm  of  naivete*, 
"  in  the  freshness  of  spirit  which  finds  power  and  interest  in 
simple  motives  of  feeling,  and  in  the  freshness  of  hand  which 
has  a  sense  of  enjoyment  in  mechanical  processes  still  per- 
formed unmechanically,  in  the  spending  of  care  and  intelli- 
gence on  every  touch.  ...  In  a  sort  of  stiff  grace,  combined 
with  a  sense  of  things  bright  or  sorrowful  directly  felt,  the 
^Eginetan  workman  is,  as  it  were,  the  Chaucer  of  Greek 
sculpture"  (see  "The  Marbles  of  JEgmz"  in  Greek  Studies, 
pp.  263-282). 

1  Mr.  Pater  reads  a  certain  element  of  pathos  into  this  smile.  ' '  These 
figures  all  smile  faintly,  almost  like  the  monumental  effigies  of  the  Middle 
Age,  with  a  smile  which,  even  if  it  be  but  a  result  of  the  mere  convention- 
ality of  'An  art  still  somewhat  immature,  has  just  the  pathetic  effect  of 
Homer's  conventional  epithet  '  tender,'  when  he  speaks  of  the  flesh  of  his 
heroes"  (Greek  Studies,  p.  280). 


vii        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  113 


8.  The  Temple  of  Olympia  (Casts) 

We  now  come,  on  the  west  wall,  to  some  casts  from  Olympia 
(Nos.  190-192).  This,  as  we  all  know,  was  one  of  the  most 
famous  sites  in  Greece.  It  was  here  that  the  Olympic  games, 
the  great  national  festival  of  the  Hellenic  world,  were  held  ; 
and  here,  in  the  Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus,  that  stood  the 
famous  statue  of  the  god  which,  in  the  judgment  of  antiquity, 
passed  for  the  masterpiece  of  Phidias  and  the  most  sublime 
effort  of  Hellenic  art.  Of  this  great  work  we  have  no  trace  ; 
but  Olympia  has  yielded  to  the  excavator  other  rich  prizes  of 
art  and  archaeology.  These  prizes  are  shared  between  the 
Louvre  and  the  Museum  at  Olympia  itself,  the  credit  in  the 
latter  case  belonging  to  Germany.  In  the  British  Museum 
we  have  only  casts — three  in  this  room,  and  one  in  the 
Ephesus  Room  of  the  famous  Hermes  of  Praxiteles.  As  in 
so  many  other  cases,  the  excavations  at  Olympia  followed  in 
the  wake  of  political  events.  In  1829,  during  the  Greek  war 
of  independence,  and  immediately  after  the  battle  of  Navarino, 
the  French  Government  landed  a  body  of  troops  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  this  expedition  was  accompanied  by  a  scientific 
mission.  This  mission  discovered  and  removed  to  the  Louvre 
several  metopes  from  the  Temple  of  Zeus.  No.  190  is  a 
cast  of  one  of  these.  The  further  exploration  of  Olympia 
was  reserved  for  the  Germans.  The  distinguished  Professor 
Curtius  had  long  been  anxious  to  undertake  the  work,  and  his 
royal  pupil,  afterwards  the  Emperor  Frederick,  promised  that 
when  a  favourable  opportunity  arrived  he  would  further  the 
enterprise.  The  time  came  after  the  war  of  1870,  when  the 
German  Empire  sought  to  add  the  honours  of  peace  to  those 
of  war.  The  German  Government  granted  in  all  a  sum  of 
,£30,000  for  the  excavations,  and  the  Crown  Prince  supple- 
mented this  by  gifts  from  his  private  purse.  The  convention 
with  the  Greek  Government  authorising  the  excavations 
stipulated  that  whatever  was  found  should  be  retained  in 
Greece.  The  excavations  (1875-81)  unearthed  the  race- 
course and  the  temple,  and  discovered  many  valuable 
sculptures.  Nos.  191  and  192  are  casts  from  two  of  these 
sculptures.  The  Temple  of  Zeus  was  being  built  from  470- 
455  B.C.  The  date  of  the  metopes  (Nos.  190,  191)  is 
probably  about  460  B.C.    The  sculptor  of  them  is  unknown. 

"  Most  of  the  labours  of  Hercules,"  says  Pausanias  (v.  10.  9), 
I  *  I 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


"are  represented  at  Olympia."  The  two  metopes  here  belong 
to  this  series.  No.  190  is  Hercules  binding  the  Cretan 
bull.  The  subject  is  broadly  and  vigorously  treated.  The 
subject  of  the  other  metope  (No.  191)  is  Hercules  and 
Atlas  : — 

"In  order  to  obtain  the  wondrous  apples  of  the  Hesperides,  Hercules 
asked  Atlas  to  gather  them  for  him  in  the  famous  garden,  while  in 
exchange  he  offered  the  giant  to  relieve  him  for  a  moment  in  the 
arduous  task  of  supporting  the  world  upon  his  shoulders.  The  weight 
of  the  heavens  is  conventionally  represented  by  the  upper  part  of  the 
entablature.  The  Olympian  metope  represents  the  moment  when 
Atlas,  who  has  accepted  the  offer,  is  bringing  back  the  golden  apples 
to  the  hero.  In  the  centre  is  the  nude  figure  of  Hercules,  supporting 
with  both  uplifted  arms  the  heavens,  which  rest  upon  his  head  ;  in 
front  of  him  is  Atlas,  holding  in  each  hand  three  apples,  and  to  the 
left  one  of  the  Atlantides.  The  sculptor  of  Olympia  did  not  tell  the 
end  of  the  story.  When  Atlas  had  once  laid  down  his  burden,  he 
found  the  liberty  he  had  regained  so  sweet  that  he  proposed  to  leave 
the  world  on  the  shoulders  of  Hercules,  and  to  take  the  golden  apples 
himself  to  Eurystheus.  This,  however,  was  not  to  the  liking  of  our 
hero,  who  was  beginning  to  find  the  weight  oppressive,  and,  fortunately 
for  himself,  on  this  occasion  he  was  as  crafty  as  he  was  strong.  He 
made  a  pretence  of  accepting  the  proposal,  and  only  asked  as  a  favour 
that  he  might  make  a  comfortable  cushion  to  support  the  burden,  and 
that  meanwhile  the  giant  would  take  up  his  accustomed  post  for  a 
moment.  Atlas  imprudently  consented,  and  we  may  imagine  that,  once 
the  heavens  were  replaced  upon  his  shoulders,  the  hero  took  up  his 
apples  and  made  all  haste  to  depart "  (Diehl's  Excursions  in  Greece, 
p.  272). 

The  figures  here  are  very  noble  in  type,  while  the  scene  is 
full  of  naive  or  realistic  touches;  note,  for  instance,  "the  cushion 
which  Hercules  has  placed  on  his  shoulders  to  bear  the  weight, 
the  friendly  but  futile  help  of  the  nymph,  the  irony  with  which 
Atlas  offers  the  apples  which  Hercules  is  unable  to  take " 
(Gardner,  p.  229). 

The  figure  of  Victory  (No.  192)  is  very  beautiful  in  itself, 
and  is  of  further  interest  as  one  of  the  few  sculptures  of  which 
the  artist's  name  and  the  date  are  positively  known.  On  20th 
December  1875  a  pedestal  was  dug  up  in  the  Temple  of 
Zeus  ;  on  it  was  an  inscription  recording  that  "  Messenians 
and  Naupactians  dedicated  it  as  a  tithe  of  spoil  to  Olympian 
Zeus,"  and  that  "  Paeonius  of  Mende  made  it,  who  was  victor 
also  in  the  execution  of  the  acroteria  (or,  figures  above  the 
pediments)  of  the  temple."    On  the  following  day  the  greater 


vi         ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  115 


part  of  the  Victory  itself  was  discovered  close  to  the  pedestal. 
Our  cast  is  erected  on  a  reproduction  of  the  famous  three- 
sided  pedestal,  and  into  this  is  inserted  a  cast  of  the  inscription. 
The  victory  commemorated  was  that  gained  at  Sphacteria 
over  the  Spartans.  The  Messenians  refrained,  says  Pausanias 
(v.  26.  1),  who  records  the  inscription,  from  mentioning  the 
name  of  the  enemy  from  fear.  The  acroteria  referred  to  were, 
as  we  know  from  Pausanias,  gilded  figures  of  Victory,  and  the 
statue  may  have  been  a  replica  of  one  of  them.  The  pillar  on 
which  the  figure  stood  was,  as  here  shown,  about  20  feet  in 
height,  and  the  Goddess  of  Victory  is  thus  represented  as 
descending  from  on  high  : — 

"An  eagle  hovers  beneath  her  feet,  and  her  whole  body  is  thrown 
forward  in  glorious  motion  ;  the  left  foot  scarcely  touches  the  pedestal, 
while  the  right  still  presses  the  marble,  which  was  formerly  painted 
blue  and  represents  the  space  through  which  Victory  is  taking  her 
flight.  All  the  outlines  of  the  body  are  visible  under  the  fine 
clinging  material  of  her  robes  blown  about  by  the  wind,  and  the  long 
Doric  chiton,  leaving  the  left  leg  and  shoulder  uncovered,  swells  out 
behind  in  harmonious  folds.  Originally  her  ample  outspread  wings 
and  a  wide  mantle  floating  on  the  breeze  supported  the  statue  and 
restored  its  balance  ;  originally,  too,  the  left  arm  was  raised,  and  gave 
the  goddess  a  still  prouder  attitude,  and  the  head,  of  which  unfortu- 
nately only  the  back  remains,  completed  the  effect  of  this  wonderful 
figure"  (Diehl,  ibid.  p.  270). 

In  this  figure,  as  in  the  later  sculptures  of  the  Nereid 
monument  (Ch.  XI.),  the  drapery  is  treated  very  finely  as  a 
means  of  emphasising  the  effect  of  rapid  motion. 

9.  Archaic  " Apollo"  Statues 

We  now  examine  a  row  of  antique  statues,  which  "exhibit 
in  a  remarkable  degree  the  shortcomings  of  the  early  sculptor 
struggling  to  emancipate  his  art  from  hieratic  stiffness  and 
conventionality,  but  only  attaining  to  a  meagre  and  painful 
rendering  of  nature"  (Newton's  Essays  on  Archceology,  p.  81). 
Nevertheless  this  archaic  sculpture  has  the  seeds  of  progress 
in  it.  "  The  artist  only  represents  the  bones  and  muscles 
necessary  for  the  representation  of  active  life  ;  but  in  doing 
this  much  well  he  gives  to  Greek  art  its  systematic  and 
methodical  foundation  "  (Perry's  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture, 
p.  58).  The  nude  male  figures  of  this  style  are  generally 
called  "Apollo,"  and  it  is  known  that  some  of  them  were 


n6 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  chap. 


intended  to  represent  that  god.  But  probably  the  same  type 
was  at  this  period  made  to  serve  several  purposes.  Two 
classes  of  the  type  have  been  distinguished — the  first,  in  which 
the  hands  are  close  to  the  sides  ;  the  second,  in  which  the 
hands  are  slightly  raised,  by  a  bending  of  the  arms  at  the 
elbows.  The  figure  of  "Apollo"  (205),  believed  to  have 
come  from  Bceotia,  represents  the  earlier  type,  in  which  the 
hands  are  pressed  against  the  hips. 

The  "  Strangford "  Apollo  (206)  is  so  called  as  coming 
from  the  collection  of  Lord  Strangford.  This  belongs  to  the 
second  type  of  "Apollo"  statue,  in  which  the  arms  were  no 
longer  close  to  the  sides,  and  one  feels  at  once  a  great  advance 
on  No.  205  : — 

"  Here  we  seem  to  reach  the  limit  of  the  period  when  interest 
in  Greek  sculpture  ceases  to  be  purely  archaeological  and  becomes 
artistic  :  a  point  when  such  a  degree  of  skill  had  been  attained  by  the 
artist,  that  his  natural  instinct  for  beauty  of  form  had  power  to  display 
itself,  and  he  was  able  in  a  measure,  however  imperfectly,  to  realise 
his  ideal.  Like  the  earlier  statues  it  is  symmetrical  in  design,  and 
this  symmetry  appears  now  even  greater  from  the  loss  of  the  arms, 
which  may  have  been  differently  employed.  It  is  plain  that  they  were 
not  held  close  to  the  sides  ;  probably  they  were  bent  at  the  elbow  and 
held  forward  some  object  which  would  make  the  personality  of  the 
statue  clearer,  whether  a  god  or  hero  or  athlete  was  intended " 
(Upcott,  Introduction  to  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  14).  There  is,  too,  some 
expression  in  the  face:  "The  mouth  is  small  and  compressed,  the 
chin  pointed  and  the  cheeks  full,  giving  altogether  an  expression  of 
pleasure"  (Murray's  History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  i.  175). 

The  torso  of  a  female  figure  (No.  154),  which  stands 
between  the  two  statues  last  described,  is  of  archaic  type — 
from  the  smaller  temple  of  Rhamnus.  No.  207,  behind,  is 
the  torso  of  another  "  Apollo  " — from  Cyprus.  The  type  was, 
we  see,  widely  dispersed. 

10.  The  Charioteer  from  Delphi  (Cast) 

The  bronze  statue  of  a  charioteer — a  masterpiece  of  early 
Greek  art  and  in  nearly  perfect  preservation — is  one  of  the 
finds  which  have  rewarded  the  French  excavations  at  Delphi. 
It  was  unearthed  in  1896  ;  this  plaster  cast  was  presented  to 
our  Museum  in  1898  by  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. The  statue  seems  to  have  belonged  to  a  chariot-group, 
and  to  have  been  dedicated  at  Delphi  to  commemorate  a 


VII 


ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE 


117 


victory  in  the  games.  An  inscription  on  the  base  shows  that 
it  was  set  up  by  a  certain  Polyzelus,  who  was  probably  the 
brother  of  the  Syracusan  tyrants  Gelo  and  Hiero.  The  figure 
"  affords  an  admirable  example  of  the  transition  work  of  the 
time  of  Calamis.  His  long  Ionic  chiton  [the  characteristic 
costume  of  a  charioteer]  is  arranged  in  perfectly  simple  folds 
curved  on  the  body  and  arms,  but  falling  perpendicularly  from 
the  girdle  to  his  bare  muscular  feet,  while  the  toes,  drawn  up, 
slightly  indicate  how  he  preserved  his  balance  during  his  rapid 
course.  His  right  arm  is  still  extended  as  when  he  guided  his 
fiery  steed  to  victory,  and  his  short  hair,  though  confined 
by  a  fillet,  curls  delicately  above  his  small  ears,  and  strays 
softly  down  his  cheeks.  His  eyes,  which  in  the  cast  attract 
but  little  attention,  are  in  the  original  composed  of  coloured 
enamel "  (Wherry's  Greek  Sculpture  with  Story  and  Song, 
p.  66).  The  charioteer  fitly  concludes  our  studies  in  archaic 
Greek  art,  for  the  work  only  precedes  the  best  period  by  a 
very  short  time. 

11.  Miscellaneous  Sculptures 

But  before  leaving  this  room  and  our  studies  in  archaic- 
sculpture,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  casts  of  Attic  reliefs 
in  the  north-west,  south-east,  and  south-west  corners  of  the 
rooms.  They  are  good  examples  of  the  transitional  period. 
No.  155  (south-east  corner)  is  a  woman  mounting  a  chariot. 
The  original  (now  at  Athens)  was  found  on  the  Acropolis,  and 
may  have  been  part  of  the  frieze  of  the  early,  pre-Persian 
temple,  on  the  site  of  which  the  Parthenon  was  afterwards 
constructed  : — 

"The  designation  woman  or  goddess  is  not  undisputed,  and  there 
is  no  certain  indication  of  sex  or  rank  ;  but  the  delicacy  of  the  arms 
and  hands  and  the  general  effect  of  the  figure  seem  to  justify  it.  .  .  . 
The  folds  of  the  drapery  in  this  relief  are  still  in  the  highest  degree 
conventional  and  artificial,  and  contrast  strangely  with  the  natural  and 
gracefully  flowing  lines  of  the  nude  parts.  An  attempt  is  made  to 
distinguish  between  the  woollen  stuff  of  the  upper  garment  and  the 
linen  robe  which  is  thrown  across  her  shoulders  "  (Perry's  Catalogue  of 
Casts  at  South  Kensington,  No.  39). 

No.  156  (south-west  corner)  is  a  sepulchral  relief.  The 
original  is  in  the  Villa  Albani  at  Rome.  The  subject  was 
formerly  supposed  to  be  the  education  of  the  young  Dionysus 


n8        ROOM  OF  ARCHAIC  GREEK  SCULPTURE  ch.  vn 


by  Leucothea,  but  it  is  now  recognised  as  a  sepulchral  relief,  in 
which  "  the  deceased  is  depicted  as  a  happy  mother,  seated  in 
a  chair  and  caressing  her  little  daughter.  A  relative  or  servant 
hands  her  a  ribbon,  either  for  her  own  decoration  or  that  of  the 
child.  The  two  other  smaller  figures  are  either  older  daughters 
or  servant-maids  ;  their  outstretched  hands  seem  to  express 
their  delight  in  the  gaiety  of  the  little  one.  The  wool-basket 
below  the  chair  indicates  that  the  deceased  was  a  thrifty  and 
diligent  housekeeper"  (Helbig).  We  shall  have  a  good  deal 
to  say,  in  a  later  room  (see  Ch.  xm.),  about  the  motives  and 
characteristics  of  these  sepulchral  reliefs.  Meanwhile  we  may 
note  in  this  specimen  "  a  fine  example  of  archaic  Greek 
sculpture  at  the  stage  just  before  it  passed  to  greater  freedom, 
and  threw  off  the  restraint  which  is  still  marked  here  in  the 
stiff  draperies  and  uniform  lowness  of  relief." 

Below  this  relief  is  the  fragment  (No.  130)  of  a  foot  of  a 
colossal  statue  of  Apollo,  which  was  set  up  in  his  sacred  isle 
of  Delos  by  the  Naxians.  The  base,  which  is  still  in  situ,  is 
inscribed  with  the  words  :  "I  am  of  the  same  stone  both 
statue  and  base."  This  fragment  was  removed  from  the  now 
deserted  island  in  18 18.  (In  later  years,  1873-88,  Delos  has 
yielded  a  rich  field  to  the  excavator.  See  ch.  v.  in  M.  Diehl's 
Excursions  in  Greece.} 

We  now  turn  to  the  north-west  door,  leading  into,  the  next 
room.  On  our  left  as  we  approach  the  door  we  may  note  an 
archaic  female  head — also  of  the  sixth  century — with  hollow 
eyes  and  three  rows  of  curls,  and  yet  another  head  of  "  Apollo" 
(No.  208),  with  curious  corkscrew  curls.  It  is  supposed  that 
this  is  a  later  copy  of  an  archaic  work  in  bronze  : — 

' '  A  really  ancient  work,  or  only  archaic,  it  certainly  expresses, 
together  with  all  that  careful  patience  and  hardness  of  workmanship 
which  is  characteristic  of  an  early  age,  a  certain  Apolline  strength — a 
pride  and  dignity  in  the  features,  so  steadily  composed,  below  the  stiff, 
archaic  arrangements  of  the  long,  fillet-bound  locks.  It  is  the  exact 
expression  of  that  midway  position,  between  an  involved,  archaic  stiff- 
ness and  the  free  play  of  individual  talent,  which  is  attributed  to 
Canachus  by  the  ancients"  (Pater,  Greek  Studies,  p.  257). 

8^  The  door  out  of  this  Room,  opposite  the  one  by  which  we  entered, 
leads  to  the  Ante- Room. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 

"  The  Cnidian  shrine  had  once  another  treasure,  the  beautiful  melan- 
choly statue  of  the  seated  Demeter  of  the  uplifted  eyes.  Far  from 
the  ruins  above  the  sea,  beneath  the  scorched  seaward  wall  of 
rock  :  far  from  the  aromatic  fragrance  of  the  rock-nourished  flowers, 
from  the  bees,  from  the  playful  lizards,  Demeter  now  occupies  her 
place  in  the  great  halls  of  the  British  Museum." — Andrew  Lang. 

In  this  ante-room  the  most  notable  objects  are  two  celebrated 
statues  —  the  "  Choiseul-Gouffier  Apollo,"  on  the  left,  and 
"  Demeter/5  on  the  right. 

THE  "CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER  APOLLO" 

This  statue  (209)  is  so  called  after  the  French  Ambassador 
at  the  Porte  (see  p.  1  50),  from  whose  collection  it  was  purchased 
in  1 81 8.  The  statue  is  fine  in  itself,  and  of  interest  in  the 
historical  development  of  Greek  sculpture  as  representing  the 
culmination  of  pre-Phidian  art : — 

"  The  statue  is  that  of  a  young  man,  entirely  nude,  standing  still  in  a 
restful  attitude.  Most  early  statues  of  single  figures  in  attitudes  of  rest 
have  the  weight  poised  equally  on  both  legs ;  this  produces  an  almost  exact 
correspondence  on  each  side  of  the  body.  To  advance  one  leg  was  an 
obvious  improvement  ;  here  a  further  step  is  reached.  The  weight  is 
thrown  upon  the  right  leg,  and  while  this  consequently  curves  outwards, 
the  body  bends  slightly  the  opposite  way,  and  a  pleasant  variety  in  the 
lines  of  the  figure  is  the  result.  The  waist  is  spare;  the  chest  very 
strongly  developed  and  powerfully  thrown  forward.  It  may  be  that  this 
is  a  survival  of  the  tendency  of  early  sculptors  to  exaggerate  contrasts, 
to  make  what  is  broad  too  broad,  what  is  narrow  too  narrow.  The 
arms,  the  extremities  of  which  are  broken,  hang  downward  ;  the  left 
bends  slightly,  and  certainly  held  some  object,  of  which  there  is  an 
indication  on  the  left  leg.  On  the  shoulder  and  upper  arms  are 
strongly-marked  veins.    The  legs  are  long  and  sinewy  (they  have  been 


119 


120 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


CHAP. 


partially  restored)  ;  the  feet  are  also  long.  The  head,  set  very  erect 
upon  the  finely-developed  neck  and  throat,  is  small  in  proportion,  and 
the  face  has  a  melancholy  expression,  due  to  the  downward  turn  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  and  the  drooping  eyelids.  A  similar  expression 
recurs  frequently  on  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  ;  it  may  be  that  here 
again  no  particular  effect  of  pleasure  or  pain  was  exactly  intended,  but 
an  expression  of  some  kind,  some  feeling  of  life  and  mobility.  The 
hair  is  tied  in  a  band  made  by  a  plait  of  hair  drawn  across  the  top  of 
the  forehead  ;  below  this  cincture  fall  ringlets  artistically  disposed, 
reminding  the  beholder  of  the  days  when  the  Greeks,  even  in  war,  as 
at  Thermopylae,  took  pride  in  their  long  and  carefully-combed  hair. 
A  sense  of  severe  dignity  pervades  this  figure,  and  in  spite  of  faults  of 
proportion  and  a  want  of  suppleness  and  grace  in  the  attitude,  it  is 
strikingly  suggestive  of  reserved  power  in  rest"  (Upcott,  Introduction 
to  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  26). 

In  this  same  alcove  there  are  two  heads  which  are  clearly 
replicas  of  the  statue  just  described.  No.  210  was  found  in 
the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Cyrene  ;  No.  21 1  was  found  in  1882 
at  a  cottage  at  Ventnor,  whither  its  owner  had  doubtless  brought 
it  from  Greece.  At  Athens  ("  Apollo  on  the  Omphalos," 
National  Museum,  No.  45)  there  is  a  version  of  the  whole 
statue,  and  there  is  another  at  Rome  (Capitoline  Museum). 
It  is  clear  from  these  numerous  copies  that  the  original  was 
famous,  but  there  has  been  much  discussion  among  archaeo- 
logists as  to  the  subject  of  the  statue  and  the  school  of  art  to 
which  it  should  be  referred.  The  sculptors  commonly  sug- 
gested are  Calamis  and  Callimachus,  artists  of  the  transitionary 
period  immediately  preceding  Phidias.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  figure  is  an  Apollo  ;  though  some  have  argued 
that  it  must  be  a  pugilist,  since  "the  proportions  are  rather 
suited  to  a  patron  of  pugilism  than  to  the  leader  of  a  celestial 
orchestra."  Such  wide  differences  as  this  between  able  critics 
in  their  interpretation  of  ancient  statues  are  not  uncommon, 
and  illustrate  a  general  characteristic  of  Greek  art,  at  any  rate 
in  its  earlier  phases.  As  Ruskin  pointed  out,  Greek  art  seldom 
aims  at  the  expression  of  personal  character  ;  "  and,  continually, 
it  becomes  a  question  respecting  finished  statues,  if  without 
attributes,  Is  this  Bacchus  or  Apollo,  Zeus  or  Poseidon?" 
{Aratra  Pentelia,  §  193).  The  statue  before  us  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  early  type  of  "  Apollo  statues  "  which  we  discussed 
in  the  last  room ;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  it  exhibits  in  the 
bodily  forms  a  great  advance.  In  the  statue  which  we  have 
next  to  examine,  and  which  belongs  to  a  later  period,  we  shall 


VIII 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


121 


find  a  study  in  expression  which,  for  subtlety  and  refinement, 
recalls  the  Florentine  School. 

We  may,  however,  first  call  attention  to  the  collection  of 
small  heads  and  other  pieces  of  sculpture  in  wall-cases  in  the 
Apollo  alcove.  They  come  mostly  from  Cyrene.  One  is 
especially  fine  (1454). 

THE  DEMETER  OF  CNIDUS 

In  the  opposite  alcove  is  one  of  the  principal  treasures  of 
the  British  Museum — the  beautiful  Demeter  (1300),  from  the 
ruins  of  Cnidus,  the  little  town  in  Caria,  Asia  Minor,  famous  in 
ancient  times  for  its  statue  of  Venus  by  Praxiteles.  This  Demeter 
was  found  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  the  spring  of  1858  among 
the  ruins  of  a  small  temple  of  the  goddess.  He  first  discovered 
the  little  statue  of  Persephone,  presently  to  be  described. 
Next  he  unearthed  the  base  of  a  statue  with  an  inscription 
recording  the  dedication  of  a  temple  and  statue  to  Demeter 
and  Persephone  by  Chrysina,  wife  of  Hippocrates  and  mother 
of  Chrysogone.  A  large  number  of  antiquities  further  identify- 
ing the  place  as  a  temple  of  Demeter  surrounded  by  its  sacred 
precinct  was  found  at  the  same  time.  Some  are  in  this  alcove; 
of  the  remainder  the  most  important  are  a  standing  statue 
of  Demeter  in  the  Hall  of  Inscriptions,  and  a  statuette  of 
Persephone  in  the  Ephesus  Room.  We  shall  notice  these 
sculptures  together  here,  as  they  illustrate  in  a  deeply  interest- 
ing way  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Greek  myths  : — 

"  The  song  of  Demeter  and  her  daughter  Persephone  (Proserpine), 
whom  Aidoneus  (Pluto)  carried  away  by  the  consent  of  Zeus,  as  she 
played  apart  from  her  mother,  gathering  flowers  in  a  meadow  of  soft 
grass,  and  above  all  the  strange  flower  of  the  narcissus  which  the  earth 
brought  forth  for  the  first  time,  to  snare  the  footsteps  of  the  flower-like 
girl.  She  stretched  forth  her  hands  to  take  the  flower  ;  thereupon 
the  earth  opened,  and  the  king  of  the  great  nation  of  the  dead  sprang 
out  with  his  immortal  horses.  He  seized  the  unwilling  girl,  and  bore 
her  away  weeping  on  his  golden  chariot.  .  .  .  The  peaks  of  the 
hills  and  the  depths  of  the  sea  echoed  her  cry.  And  her  mother 
heard  it.  A  sharp  pain  seized  her  at  the  heart ;  she  plucked  the  veil 
from  her  hair,  and  cast  down  the  blue  hood  from  her  shoulders,  and 
fled  forth  like  a  bird,  seeking  Persephone  over  dry  land  and  sea.  .  .  . 
Then  a  more  terrible  grief  took  possession  of  Demeter,  and,  in  her  anger 
against  Zeus,  she  forsook  the  assembly  of  the  gods  and  abode  among 
men,  for  a  long  time  veiling  her  beauty  under  a  worn  countenance,  so 


122 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


CHAP. 


that  none  who  looked  upon  her  knew  her,  until  she  came  to  the  house 
of  Celeus,  who  was  then  king  of  Eleusis.  She  seemed  as  an  aged  woman 
whose  time  of  child-bearing  is  gone  by,  and  from  whom  the  gifts  of 
Aphrodite  have  been  withdrawn,  like  one  of  the  hired  servants  who 
nurse  the  children  in  kings'  palaces.  (And  there  she  consented  to 
remain,  and  become  the  nurse  of  the  young  child  whom  Metaneira 
had  lately  borne  to  Celeus.  But  Metaneira  suspected  her,  and  the 
goddess  was  wrath.)  .  .  .  So,  all  night,  trembling  with  fear,  they 
sought  to  propitiate  the  glorious  goddess  ;  and  in  the  morning  they 
told  all  to  Celeus.  And  he,  according  to  the  commands  of  the  goddess, 
built  a  fair  temple ;  and  all  the  people  assisted.  Then  Demeter 
returned,  and  sat  down  within  the  temple  walls,  and  remained  still 
apart  from  the  company  of  the  gods,  alone  in  her  wasting  regret  for 
her  daughter  Persephone.  And,  in  her  anger,  she  sent  upon  the  earth 
a  year  of  grievous  famine,  and  the  whole  human  race  had  like  to  have 
perished,  unless  Zeus  had  interfered.  Zeus  sent  Hermes  into  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead,  and  Aidoneus  bade  Persephone  return.  And 
Persephone  arose  up  quickly  in  great  joy  ;  only,  ere  she  departed,  he 
caused  her  to  eat  a  morsel  of  sweet  pomegranate,  designing  secretly 
thereby  that  she  should  not  remain  always  upon  earth,  but  might  some 
time  return  to  him.  And  Hermes  brought  Persephone  to  the  door  of 
the  temple  where  her  mother  was.  Then  Zeus  ordained  that  Perse- 
phone should  remain  two  parts  of  the  year  with  her  mother,  and  one- 
third  part  only  with  her  husband  in  the  kingdom  of  the  dead.  So 
Demeter  suffered  the  earth  to  yield  its  fruits  once  more,  and  the  land 
was  laden  with  leaves  and  flowers  and  waving  corn "  (From  the 
Homeric  Hymn  to  Demeter,  Pater's  translation). 

Mr.  Pater  points  out  that  in  all  Greek  myths  we  may  trace 
three  successive  phases.  Thus  the  myth  of  Demeter — goddess 
of  corn  and  fruits — is  primarily  a  legendary  description  of  the 
order  of  summer  and  winter.  Then  the  myth  passes  into  the 
hands  of  the  poets,  who  elaborate  its  human  interest  and 
weave  around  it  a  pathetic  story  of  mother  and  daughter. 
Lastly,  the  myth  enters  upon  an  ethical  phase.  Demeter 
becomes  the  type  of  Divine  Grief ;  Persephone,  the  goddess 
of  death,  but  with  a  promise  of  life  to  come.1  We  shall  find 
traces  of  all  these  three  influences  in  the  beautiful  sculptures 
which  we  are  now  to  examine. 

The  Standing  Demeter  (1301,  in  the  Hall  of  Inscrip- 
tions).— Found  by  Newton  in  the  sacred  enclosure  of  Demeter 
at  Cnidus  : — 

1  This  is  an  account  of  the  myth  in  its  literary  phases.  For  rival 
theories  of  its  origin,  the  reader  should  consult  Mr.  Frazer's  Golden  Bough 
and  Mr.  Lang's  criticism  of  that  work.  See  also  an  introductory  essay 
in  the  latter's  Homeric  Hymns  (1899). 


VIII 


THE  ANTE- ROOM 


123 


"Immediately  in  front  of  the  statue  was  a  base,  inscribed  with  a 
dedication  to  the  Infernal  Deities  by  Nikokleia,  wife  of  Apollophanes. 
If  this  base  belongs  to  the  statue,  as  would  seem  from  the  relative 
positions  in  which  they  were  found,  the  figure  would  represent  Demeter. 
The  type  is  peculiar.  The  features  and  form  are  those  of  an  elderly 
woman  wasted  with  sorrow,  and  do  not  exhibit  that  matronly  comeli- 
ness and  maturity  of  form  which  usually  characterise  Demeter  in 
ancient  art.  If  we  suppose  this  figure  to  be  Demeter,  the  deviation 
from  her  usual  type  can  only  be  explained  by  supposing  that  she  is 
here  represented  as  the  mater  dolorosa  of  Hellenic  mythology, 
disconsolate  for  the  loss  of  her  daughter."  "We  have  seen  that  in  the 
Homeric  hymn  to  Demeter  it  is  stated  that  the  goddess,  while 
wandering  in  search  of  her  lost  Persephone,  assumed  the  form  and 
garb  of  an  old  woman.  4 4  The  description  accords  very  well  with  this 
statue.  It  may  be  observed  that,  contrary  to  the  usual  practice  in 
ancient  statuary,  the  eyes  are  represented  looking  up.  It  is  possible 
that  the  artist  of  this  statue  may  have  intended  to  represent  Demeter 
looking  up  to  the  god  Helios,  and  imploring  him  to  aid  her  in  her 
search.  It  may  be  objected,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  type  of  the 
features  and  form  are  hardly  in  character  with  ideal  representation, 
and  that  the  statue  must,  therefore,  be  a  portrait.  In  that  case  it 
probably  represents  a  priestess  of  the  temenos  "  (Newton,  Travels  and 
Discoveries  in  the  Levant \  ii.  pp.  186-187). 

This  latter  view  is  accepted  by  many  authorities.  Hirsch- 
feld  sees  in  the  figure  the  most  ancient  example  of  what 
afterwards  became  a  favourite  Roman  type — a  portrait  statue 
of  a  priestess  dedicated  by  herself  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made 
in  times  of  trouble  (Ancient  Greek  Inscriptions  in  the  Britis/t 
Museum,  Pt.  iv.  p.  20).  Mr.  Pater  finds  it  "  hard  not  to 
believe  that  this  work  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
legend  of  the  place  to  which  it  belonged,  and  the  main  subject 
of  which  it  realises  so  completely."  He  interprets  the  motive 
thus  : — 

"  The  Homeric  hymn,  as  we  saw,  had  its  sculptural  motives,  the 
great  gestures  of  Demeter,  who  was  ever  the  stately  goddess,  as  she 
followed  the  daughters  of  Celeus,  or  sat  by  the  well-side,  or  went  out 
and  in,  through  the  halls  of  the  palace,  expressed  in  monumental 
words.  With  the  sentiment  of  that  monumental  Homeric  presence  this 
statue  is  penetrated,  uniting  a  certain  solemnity  of  attitude  and  bearing 
to  a  profound  piteousness,  an  unrivalled  pathos  of  expression.  .  .  . 
It  is  the  very  type  of  the  wandering  woman,  going  grandly,  indeed, 
as  Homer  describes  her,  yet  so  human  in  her  anguish,  that  we  seem 
to  recognise  some  far-descended  shadow  of  her,  in  the  homely  figure 
of  the  roughly-clad  French  peasant  woman,  who,  in  one  of  Corot's 
pictures,  is  hasting  along  under  a  sad  light,  as  the  day  goes  out  behind 


124 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


CHAP. 


the  little  hill.  We  have  watched  the  growth  of  the  merely  personal 
sentiment  in  the  story  ;  and  we  may  notice  that,  if  this  figure  be 
indeed  Demeter,  then  the  conception  of  her  has  become  wholly 
humanised  ;  no  trace  of  the  primitive  cosmical  import  of  the  myth, 
no  colour  or  scent  of  the  mystical  earth  remains  about  it"  {Greek 
Studies  ^  p.  148). 

Demeter  Enthroned  (in  the  Ante-room). — Different,  but 
equally  beautiful,  is  the  motive  of  this  exquisite  work  : — • 

t£  The  features  have  the  matured  and  perfect  beauty  which  befits 
the  mother  of  Proserpine ;  a  divine  calm  is  diffused  over  the  features, 
such  as  we  may  conceive  the  goddess  to  have  worn  on  receiving  back 
from  Hades  her  long-lost  daughter.  ...  In  the  suave  and  tranquil 
beauty  of  this  Demeter,  the  sculptor  has  sought  to  idealise  the  sacred 
idea  of  maternity.  In  expressing  this  the  sculptor  has,  by  a  singular 
anticipation,  thrown  into  her  countenance  an  expression  which,  had 
it  been  seen  by  one  of  the  early  Italian  painters,  might  have  modified 
the  conventional  type  of  the  Madonna.  It  has  been  truly  said  that 
the  countenance  of  this  Cnidian  Demeter  is  in  expression  the  most 
Christian  work  in  early  sculpture"  (Newton,  Travels^  ii.  177?  and 
Portfolio,  1874,  p.  103). 

"  In  the  lines  of  her  countenance  are  an'inexpressible  softness  and 
loving  tenderness,  combined  with  the  expression  of  a  sorrow  which 
has  become  chastened  with  time.  The  hair  and  veil  serve  to  force 
the  expression  back  upon  itself.  .  ,  .  Can  it  be  only  the  result  of 
chance  that  Christian  artists  have  also  represented  the  Madonna 
wearing  a  veil  ?  The  centre  of  the  ethical  religion  of  the  Greeks  was 
formed  by  the  worship  of  Demeter  and  Persephone  in  the  mysteries  of 
Eleusis.  In  the  centre  also  of  the  Christian  religion  is  the  figure  of  a 
mother  who  lives  only  for  her  child  and  in  her  child,  who  in  the  same 
way  grieves  for  the  loss  of  her  son,  and  finds  blessedness  in  the 
spiritual  contemplation  of  him.  Suppose  a  Christian  artist  were  to 
give  his  Madonna  the  head  of  our  Demeter,  he  would  certainly  not  be 
censured  for  it.  Indeed,  who  knows"  if  modern  critics,  unaware  of 
the  ancient  prototype,  might  not  declare  that  here  at  last  the  problem 
was  solved  how  to  combine  classic  form  with  the  depth  of  Christian 
sentiment  ?  Such  a  criticism  would  teach  us  two  things  :  first,  that 
the  power  of  rendering  the  deep  emotions  of  the  soul  was  by  no  means 
foreign  to  ancient  art ;  and,  secondly,  that  it  is  the  general  feeling  of 
humanity  in  its  highest  sense,  not  dogmatism,  which  asserts  itself  in 
all  art.  Whether  Madonna  or  Demeter,  it  is  her  pure  womanliness 
that  draws  us  towards  her,  or,  in  Goethe's  words — 

Das  ewig  Weibliche 
Zieht  uns  hinan." 

(Brunn  in  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  2nd  Series, 
xi.  p.  80.) 


VIII 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


125 


It  should  be  observed  that  the  back  of  this  statue  is  left  flat 
— a  proof  that  it  must  have  been  placed  in  a  niche. 

Statuette  of  Persephone  (1302,  in  the  Ephesus  Room). — 
"I  commenced  my  excavation,"  says  Newton,  "and  in  the 
course  of  half  an  hour  came  upon  a  small  statuette,  lying  only 
a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  perfect,  all  but 
the  head,  which  I  found  broken  off  close  by.  It  represents  a 
draped  female  figure,  wearing  the  tall  cylindrical  head-dress 
which,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  corn  measure,  is  called  modins, 
and  holding  in  her  right  hand  a  pomegranate  flower.1  .  .  . 
The  statuette  has  no  mark  of  having  ever  been  attached  to  a 
base  ;  it  was,  therefore,  possibly  carried  about  as  an  idol  in 
religious  rites"  {Travels  and  Discoveries,  ii.  176,  198).  Mr. 
Pater's  description  is  full  of  beauty  and  interest : — 

"  The  figure  of  Persephone  is  but  seventeen  inches  high,  a  daintily 
handled  toy  of  Parian  marble,  the  miniature  copy  perhaps  of  a  much 
larger  work.  The  conception  of  Demeter  is  throughout  chiefly  human. 
In  contrast,  Persephone  is  wholly  unearthly  ;  and  as  sorrow  is  the 
characteristic  sentiment  of  Demeter,  so  awe  of  Persephone.  .  .  . 
Treated  as  it  is  in  the  Homeric  hymn,  and  still  more  in  this  statue,  the 
figure  of  Persephone  may  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  many  efforts  to 
lift  the  old  Chthonian  gloom,  still  lingering  on  in  heavier  souls,  con- 
cerning the  grave — to  connect  it  with  impressions  of  dignity  and 
beauty,  and  a  certain  sweetness  even  ;  it  is  meant  to  make  men  in 
love,  or  at  least  at  peace,  with  death.  .  .  .  The  image  of  Persephone, 
as  it  is  here  composed,  with  the  tall,  tower-like  head-dress,  from 
which  the  veil  depends — the  corn-basket,  originally  carried  thus  by 
the  Greek  women,  balanced  on  the  head — giving  the  figure  unusual 
length,  has  the  air  of  a  body  bound  about  with  grave-clothes  ;  while 
the  archaic  hands  and  feet,  and  a  certain  stiffness  in  the  folds  of  the 
drapery,  give  it  something  of  a  hieratic  character,  and  to  the  modern 
observer  may  suggest  a  sort  of  kinship  with  the  more  chastened  kind 
of  Gothic  work"  {Greek  Studies^  p.  154). 

With  regard  to  the  workmanship  of  these  statues  generally, 
Newton  notes  in  them  "  more  tenderness  and  refinement  of 
expression  and  greater  richness  of  line,5'  while  at  the  same 
time  they  are  "  less  grand  and  monumental "  than  the  statues 
of  the  Mausoleum  at   Halicarnassus,  with  which  they  are 

1  The  pomegranate,  of  which  Pluto  gave  Persephone  to  eat  and  which 
the  sculptor  placed  in  her  hand,  passed  on  into  Italian  literature  and 
Christian  art  (see  Pater's  Greek  Studies,  p.  154).  It  is  one  of  the  many 
instances  of  the  continuous  evolution  of  art,  and  of  Christian  adaptation  of 
pagan  legends.  The  pomegranate  becomes  a  symbol  of  the  under-world, 
and  the  mediaeval  painters  place  it  "  into  the  childish  hands  of  Him  who, 
if  men  '  go  down  into  hell,  is  there  also.'  " 


126 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


CHAP. 


probably  contemporary.  They  are  indeed  of  peculiar  interest 
as  revealing  a  side  of  Greek  thought  and  art  which  is  not  often 
apparent,  namely,  that  "  worship  of  sorrow,"  as  Goethe  called 
it,  which  is  sometimes  supposed  to  have  had  almost  no  place 
in  the  religion  of  the  Greeks  (see  again  on  this  point  Pater's 
Greek  Studies  j  the  chapter  in  that  book  on  "  The  Myth  of 
Demeter  and  Persephone  "  is  the  best  of  commentaries  on  the 
statues  before  us). 

Who  was  the  artist  to  whose  hands  or  influence  these 
interesting  statues  may  be  ascribed  ?  Newton  decides  from 
the  evidence  of  the  inscriptions  that  the  date  of  the  dedication 
of  the  temple  was  about  350  B.C.,  and  thinks  that  the  statues 
may  have  been  executed  under  the  influence  of  Praxiteles, 
whose  Aphrodite  was  the  chief  glory  of  Cnidus.  Other  critics, 
dwelling  on  the  subtle  mixture  of  expression  in  the  Seated 
Demeter,  assign  the  work  to  the  School  of  Scopas.  Professor 
E.  Gardner,  combining  both  views,  ascribes  it  to  "  a  sculptor 
who  was  the  associate  of  both  during  their  activity  in  Asia 
Minor"  (see  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  416). 

The  temple  of  Demeter,  in  which  these  sculptures  were 
found,  seems  to  have  been  a  small  chapel,  situated  in  private 
grounds.  The  spot  presents  indications  of  volcanic  disturb- 
ance, as  if  a  chasm  in  the  earth  had  opened  there — a  fact 
which  would  explain  the  choice  of  site  for  a  temple  to  Demeter 
and  the  infernal  deities. 

In  addition  to  the  larger  statues  and  several  small  votive 
figures  of  Demeter,  a  large  number  of  lamps  were  found 
(p.  712),  and  a  collection  of  spells  devoting  certain  persons  to 
the  infernal  deities  (p.  547).  (For  further  descriptions  and 
discussions  of  the  Cnidian  shrine  of  Demeter  the  reader  may 
consult  "  Demeter  at  Eleusis  and  Cnidus"  in  Mr.  Dyer's  The 
Gods  in  Greece.  A  full  account  of  the  excavations  at  Cnidus 
is  given  in  ch.  xliv.  of  Newton's  Travels  and  Discoveries.) 

Among  other  objects  discovered  were  several  marble 
breasts  (probably  dedicatory  offerings)  and  fragments  of 
statues  (preserved  in  the  glass  case  in  this  alcove) ;  also  two 
marble  pigs  (one  of  which  stands  on  a  shelf  behind  the  Seated 
Demeter) : — 

cc  In  the  worship  of  Persephone  and  Demeter  the  pig  was  a  symbol 
of  special  import.1    When  my  Turkish  workmen  had  dug  out  these 


1  For  a  discussion  of  the  pig  question  in  this  connection,  see  Lang's 


VIII 


THE  ANTE-ROOM 


127 


marble  representations  of  the  unclean  animal,  they  exchanged  knowing 
glances  one  with  another.  It  was  tacitly  agreed  that  these  objects 
must  on  no  account  be  recognised  as  pigs,  especially  in  the  presence 
of  the  Giaour  ;  so  they  insisted  on  calling  them  marble  bears,  a  pious 
and  convenient  euphemism  in  which  I  was  quite  ready  to  acquiesce  " 
(Newton's  Travels,  ii.  181). 


Homeric  Hymns,  pp.  63-68.  The  pig  played  a  great  part  in  the  ritual 
of  Demeter.  The  pig  was  sacrificed  to  her,  and  the  initiate  in  the 
mysteries  brought  pigs  to  Eleusis  and  bathed  with  them  in  the  sea. 
Gardeners  will  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  in  the  marble  pigs  of  Demeter 
a  tribute  to  the  fruitful  virtues  of  pig  manure. 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 

£'  Not  alone  at  Ephesus,  but  almost  throughout  all  Asia,  this  Paul 
hath  persuaded  and  turned  away  much  people,  saying  that  they 
be  no  gods,  which  are  made  with  hands  :  so  that  not  only  this  our 
craft  is  in  danger  to  be  set  at  nought  ;  but  also  that  the  temple 
of  the  great  goddess  Diana  should  be  despised,  and  her  magni- 
ficence should  be  destroyed,  whom  all  Asia  and  the  world 
worshippeth.  And  when  they  heard  these  sayings,  they  were 
full  of  wrath,  and  cried  out,  saying,  Great  is  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians."  —Acts  of  the  Apostles,  xix.  26-28. 

Strange  clouded  fragments  of  the  ancient  glory, 

Late  lingerers  of  the  company  divine  ;  .  .  . 

Yet  even  in  ruin  of  their  marble  limbs 

They  breathe  of  that  far  world  wherefrom  they  came, 

Of  liquid  light  and  harmonies  serene, 

Lost  halls  of  Heaven  and  large  Olympian  air. 

E.  Myers. 

Few  chapters  in  the  romance  of  archaeology  are  more 
interesting  than  that  of  which  visible  memorials  stand  before 
us  in  this  room,  and  which  tells  how  the  Great  Temple  of 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians  was  discovered  by  Christian  hands 
sixteen  centuries  after  its  overthrow,  and  its  broken  fragments 
were  set  up  one  upon  the  other  in  our  Museum  Gallery.  The 
remains  in  this  room  include  also  stones  from  the  Great 
Theatre  which  witnessed  the  uproar  caused  by  the  preaching 
of  St.  Paul.  The  Temple  and  the  worship  of  the  goddess  sur- 
vived the  Apostle's  denunciations.  Many  splendid  images — 
made  by  the  guild  of  Demetrius  the  silversmith,  as  we  know 
from  inscriptions — were  discovered  among  the  ruins  (see  p.  5), 
dedicated  to  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  in  the  Christian  era. 
Yet  the  forebodings  of  Demetrius  were  in  the  appointed  time 
made  true.  In  the  year  262  A.D.  the  city  and  temple  were 
destroyed  by  the  Goths.    The  city  never  recovered  its  former 

128 


CHAP.  IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


129 


splendour,  and  at  last  sank  into  a  wretched  Turkish  village, 
the  name  of  which — Ayasaluk — preserved,  in  a  corrupted 
form,  the  title  of  St.  John  (Hagios  Theologos).  The  ruins  of 
the  temple,  after  serving  as  a  quarry  for  the  beautifiers 
of  Constantinople  and  the  builders  of  Christian  Rome,  were 
finally  covered  deep  with  mud  by  the  river  Cayster,  and 
tobacco — still  of  some  reputation  for  its  quality — was  grown 
upon  the  land  once  occupied  by  the  famous  city  and  its  still 
more  famous  shrine.  The  site  of  the  temple  was  unsuspected 
until  the  laborious  excavations  of  the  late  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood,  con- 
tinued over  a  space  of  eleven  years,  were  at  last  rewarded  by  the 
success  whose  trophies  are  now  placed  in  this  Ephesus  Room. 

The  excavations,  conducted  for  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum, 
commenced  in  May  1863,  and  six  years  elapsed  before  Mr. 
Wood  struck  upon  the  boundary  wall  of  the  temple.  It  was 
the  discovery  of  the  famous  Salutarian  Inscription  (see  p.  5) 
which  gave  him  the  necessary  clue.  In  his  book  {Discoveries 
at  Efthesns,  1877)  very  interesting  accounts  will  be  found  of 
his  many  and  incessant  difficulties.  What  with  rascally  and 
superstitious  pashas,  fevers,  brigands,  and  bad  workmen,  it 
may  be  said  that  Mr.  Wood  also  had  to  "  fight  with  wild 
beasts  at  Ephesus."  It  was  "  on  the  last  day  of  1869  that  the 
marble  pavement  of  the  temple,  so  long  lost,  so  long  sought 
for,  and  so  long  almost  despaired  of,  was  at  length  actually 
found,  at  a  depth  of  nearly  twenty  feet  below  the  present 
surface  of  the  ground."  "  I  congratulate  you  most  warmly," 
wrote  the  late  M.  Waddington  —  the  eminent  scholar  and 
afterwards  French  ambassador  in  London — "  on  your  most 
important  discovery,  the  more  so  because  it  is  not  the  result  of 
a  lucky  accident,  but  entirely  due  to  your  wonderful  persever- 
ance and  tenacity  under  difficult  and  sometimes  dangerous 
circumstances."  From  that  day  till  25th  March  1874,  when 
the  works  were  abandoned,  discoveries  of  the  utmost  interest 
were  made.  Heathen  theatres,  temples,  inscriptions,  coins, 
statuettes  ;  Christian  tombs  and  a  font ;  and  a  vast  quantity  of 
shells  of  oysters,  on  which  the  Ephesians  had  once  feasted, 
were  among  the  things  found.  The  strangest,  perhaps,  of  all 
the  u  finds  "  was  the  discovery,  partly  below  the  foundations  of 
the  later  temple  and  partly  built  into  its  walls,  of  remains  of 
the  earlier  temple  which  we  have  already  examined  (Ch.  VII.). 
The  total  cost  of  the  excavations  from  first  to  last  was 
£  1 6,000. 

K 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  earlier  temple  was,  as  we  have  seen,  burnt  down  in 
356  B.C.  The  temple  which  replaced  it  was  considered  in 
after  times  the  most  perfect  model  of  Ionic  architecture,  and 
was  reckoned  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World.1  The 
columns  of  the  peristyle,  60  feet  high,  were  100  in  number, 
27  of  them  being  the  gifts  of  kings.  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  his  victories,  offered  to  pay  the  whole  cost  of  reconstruc- 
tion, on  condition  that  he  might  inscribe  his  name  as  dedicator. 
This  offer,  suggested  perhaps  by  a  desire  to  emulate  Croesus 
(see  p.  105),  was  declined.  "  The  priests,  who  probably 
still  secretly  favoured  the  cause  of  the  Persian  king,  replied 
with  an  adroit  cunning  that  it  was  not  meet  for  a  god  to 
make  dedication  to  gods."  The  architect  was  Dinocrates, 
and  Scopas  was  one  of  the  sculptors  employed  in  the  decora- 
tion. Pliny  says  that  one  of  the  columns  was  sculptured  by 
that  artist. 


The  visitor,  before  passing  on  to  examine  the  remains, 
should  consult  the  plans  which  hang  above  the  glass  case  in 
the  centre  of  the  west  wall.  These  plans,  drawn  by  Dr.  A.  S. 
Murray,  give  a  conjectural  restoration  of  the  temple  ;  the 
existing  portions,  which  we  can  examine  in  this  room,  are 
tinted  gray. 

The  best  idea  of  the  size  of  the  temple  will  be  obtained  by 
looking  at  the  huge  base  of  a  column  (1220),  in  the  middle 
of  the  room  (east  side).  This  was  found  by  Mr.  Wood  in  si/i/, 
and  has  been  built  up  here  : — 

11 'On  6th  February  187 1  the  fine  base  of  one  of  the  columns  was 
discovered  in  position.  A  ladder  was  placed  for  me  to  descend  the 
hole  ;  but  I  was  so  excited  and  so  careless  in  my  hurry  to  get  down, 
that  I  fell  head  foremost,  much  to  the  amusement  of  the  men,  as  I 
suppose  it  must  have  been,  although  they  did  not  show  it  in  the 
slightest  degree.  This  base  is  now  re-erected  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  gives  a  very  fair  notion  of  the  grand  scale  on  which  the  last 


An  epigram  in  the  Greek  Anthology  says  : — 

The  chariot-ridden  walls  of  Babylon, 

Mausolus'  shrine,  the  Zeus  of  Pelops'  isle, 
The  Hanging  Gardens,  Statue  of  the  Sun, 

The  towering  Pyramids'  stupendous  pile — 
These  have  I  seen  ;  but  when  before  mine  eyes 

Arose  the  cloud-capped  fane  of  Artemis. 
All  were  bedimmed  and  vanished  ;  'neath  the  skies 

Never  the  sun  beheld  a  work  like  this. 

(Translation  in  A.  T.  Butler's  Amaranth  and  Asphodel?} 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


temple  was  built.  Portions  of  this  base  retained  much  of  the  red 
colour  with  which  it  had  been  originally  tinted,  but  exposure  to  air  and 
light  has  so  completely  dissipated  the  colour  that  there  are  now  no  signs 
of  it"  [Discoveries  at  Ephesus,  p.  177). 

The  most  remarkable  architectural  feature  of  the  temple  was 
the  use  of  sculptured  columns.  This  peculiarity — noticed  by 
Pliny  {columnce  ccelatce)^  and  now  confirmed  by  the  excavations — 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  copied  from  the  older  temple.  Remains 
of  four  of  these  columns  are  ranged  on  the  west  side  of  the 
room.  They  show  (a)  a  square  base,  sculptured  in  high 
relief ;  (b)  above  which  is  the  lowermost  drum  of  the  column, 
sculptured  in  low  relief ;  (c)  surmounted  by  fluted  columns. 
The  subjects  (beginning  on  the  left)  are  : — 

(1)  1 200- 1 203.  On  the  base,  Hercules  and  an  Amazon; 
on  the  drum,  figures  in  Persian  costume. 

(2)  1 204-1 206.  The  second  column  is  the  only  one  in  a 
complete  enough  state  to  give  an  adequate  notion  of  its  design 
and  style.  Both  alike  are  very  interesting,  and  the  figures  of 
which  the  heads  are  preserved  are  most  beautiful.  "  There  is 
of  course  no  reason  for  supposing  that  this,  the  one  column 
preserved,  is  the  one  which  Scopas  made.  But  his  influence 
and  that  of  his  associates  was  at  this  time  predominant  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  so  it  is  likely  enough  to  reflect  the  character  of  his 
art,  even  if  it  be  not  by  his  own  hand  "  (E.  Gardner).1  On 
the  base  is  a  combat  of  Hercules  and  Cycnus.  On  the  drum  is 
a  subject  which  possesses  peculiar  interest  from  its  connection 
with  one  of  the  most  pathetic  stories  of  Greek  tragedy,  the 
story  of  Alcestis  (the  subject  of  the  best  known  of  the  plays 
of  Euripides,  familiar  to  English  readers  from  Browning's 
Balaustion^  where  also  Leighton's  picture  of  it  is  com- 
memorated). Hercules,  it  will  be  remembered,  recovers 
Alcestis  from  Death  by  force,  after  she  has  devoted  herself  to 

1  Professor  E.  Gardner  adds,  however,  that  he  can  see  in  the  studied 
grace  of  these  figures  little  to  remind  him  of  Scopas,  the  master  of  passion. 
"There  is  more  of  the  influence  of  Praxiteles"  [Handbook,  p.  420). 
According  to  another  writer,  these  figures  *'  have  all  the  qualities  by  which 
we  recognise  a  genuine  work  of  Scopas.  The  expression  of  pathos  in  the 
mouth  of  the  winged  figure,  the  upturned  eye  of  Hermes  with  its  slightly 
contracted  eyebrow,  and  the  strong  resemblance  they  all  bear  to  the  heads 
from  Tegea  by  the  same  master,  make  the  conjecture  almost  a  certainty" 
(Wherry's  Greek  Sculpture  with  Story  and  Song,  p.  245).  Furtwangles 
ascribes  the  Ephesus  column  to  Scopas  under  the  influence  of  Praxiteler 
[Masterpieces,  p.  301). 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


save  the  life  of  her  husband  Admetus.  The  sculptor  here  tells 
the  story  somewhat  differently  : — 

"  The  scene  is  placed  in  the  lower  world.  Hades  (on  the  spectator's 
right)  is  seated  ;  before  him  stands  Persephone  ;  next  comes  Hermes, 
conductor  of  souls,  easily  identified  by  his  caduceus  and  petasos  hang- 
ing from  his  neck  ;  next  to  him  is  Alcestis,  whose  head,  like  that 
of  Persephone,  has  been  broken  off ;  next  an  enigmatical  figure  wearing 
large  wings  and  a  sword  hanging  by  a  belt.  This  figure  is  supposed  to 
personify  Death.  Beyond  him  must  have  stood  Heracles.  The  gods 
of  the  lower  world  have  yielded  to  the  demands  of  Heracles  ;  and 
Hermes,  with  upturned  face  already  seeking  the  regions  of  the  air,  is 
about  to  lead  Alcestis  thither  ;  she  gathers  up  her  robe  to  follow  him  ; 
Death  moves  aside  as  if  relinquishing  his  claim.  This  last  is  one  of  the 
most  striking  figures  of  antiquity.  So  great  was  the  Greek  love  of 
beauty  and  desire  to  banish  from  sight  all  that  was  ugly  and  repulsive, 
that  the  sculptor  has  not  merely  divested  Death  of  his  terrors,  but  even 
represented  him  under  the  form  of  a  beautiful  youth.  Whatever  may 
have  been  their  emotions  in  the  actual  presence  of  death,  their  artistic 
sense  required  that  the  permanent  expression  of  them  should  be  calm 
and  reserved  "  1  (Upcott's  Introduction  to  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  86). 

It  may  be  interesting  to  add  that  this  sculptured  drum 
(weighing  more  than  1 1  tons)  was  found  turned  completely 
over  and  deeply  buried  in  sand  and  marble  chippings,  and  was 
almost  entirely  under  water.  It  took  fifteen  men  fifteen  days 
to  haul  it  up.  This  fact  will  give  some  idea  of  the  expense  of 
moving  these  large  masses  of  marble  to  London. 

(3)  1 207-1 2 1 1.  On  the  base  of  the  third  sculptured  column 
are  Nereids  riding  on  sea-horses ;  above,  a  group  not 
identified. 

(4)  1 2 12- 1 213.  On  the  base,  Victories  leading  animals  to 
sacrifice  ;  above,  not  identified. 

1  See  further  on  this  subject,  Ch.  xin.,  where  the  Greek  tombstones  are 
described.  The  interpretation  given  above  has  been  commonly  accepted. 
Mr.  A.  H.  Smith,  however,  has  recently  suggested  that  the  subject  is  the 
making  of  Pandora,  as  told  by  Hesiod  (see  the  vase  with  this  subject, 
p.  372).  Zeus  had  hidden  the  fire  from  mankind  and  Prometheus  stole  it, 
hidden  in  his  reed.  Zeus  in  wrath  devised  a  scheme  of  vengeance,  He 
bade  Hephaestus  make  a  fair  maiden,  and  bade  Athena  teach  her  weaving 
and  other  gods  to  give  each  a  gift.  When  the  gods  had  endowed 
Pandora,  then  Zeus  bade  Hermes  take  her  to  Epimetheus,  and  Epimetheus 
received  her,  contrary  to  the  counsel  of  Prometheus.  According  to  Mr. 
Smith,  "Alcestis  is  Pandora,  the  winged  figure  is  Eros  ;  Hermes  is  leading 
Pandora  forth.  His  opened  mouth  =  the  breathing  forth  of  gift  of  speech 
to  Pandora.  Zeus  is  sitting  ;  the  goddess  next  holds  out  a  necklace, 
one  of  Pandora's  gifts  "  (J.H.S.  xi.  278). 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


133 


Behind  these  sculptured  columns,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
room,  are  various  other  architectural  remains  from  Ephesus — 
two  Ionic  capitals,  with  part  of  the  shafts  restored  in  plaster,  a 
lion's  head  from  the  cornice,  a  fragment  of  an  acroterion  or 
ornament  from  the  apex  of  the  pediment,  two  steps  from  the 
ascent  to  the  temple,  a  Corinthian  capital,  and  various  mould- 
ings, chiefly  of  the  familiar  egg  pattern.  The  restored  Ionic 
capital  (1224),  surmounted  by  a  piece  of  the  architrave,  is 
especially  interesting.  Pliny  gives  a  curious  account  of  the 
way  in  which  the  architrave  was  raised  : — 

"  This  the  architect  effected  by  means  of  bags  filled  with  sand,  which 
he  piled  up  upon  an  inclined  plane  until  they  reached  beyond  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  ;  then,  as  he  gradually  emptied  the  lower  bags, 
the  architraves  insensibly  settled  in  the  places  assigned  them.  But  the 
greatest  difficulty  of  all  was  found  in  laying  the  lintel  which  he  placed 
over  the  entrance  doors.  It  was  an  enormous  mass  of  stone,  and  by  no 
possibility  could  it  be  brought  to  the  level  upon  the  jambs  which 
formed  its  bed  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  architect  was  driven  to 
such  a  state  of  anxiety  and  desperation  as  to  contemplate  suicide. 
Wearied  and  quite  worn  out  by  such  thoughts  as  these,  during  the 
night,  they  say,  he  beheld  in  a  dream  the  goddess  in  honour  of  whom 
the  temple  was  being  erected,  who  exhorted  him  to  live  on,  for  that 
she  herself  had  placed  the  stone  in  its  proper  position.  And  such,  in 
fact,  next  morning,  was  found  to  be  the  case,  the  stone  apparently 
having  come  to  the  proper  level  by  dint  of  its  own  weight  "  (xxxvi. 
c.  22). 

In  the  north-west  corner,  against  the  wall,  are  some 
remains  of  sculpture.  We  may  notice  (going  from  north  to 
south)  part  of  a  statue  of  an  emperor.  This  was  found  in  the 
great  theatre  and  is  of  Roman  period.  On  the  breastplate 
are  a  Medusa's  head  and  two  griffins. 

Triton  blowing  a  Shell  (1263). — This  seems  to  have  been 
a  portion  of  the  frieze  from  the  proscenium  of  the  theatre.  The 
subject  is  interesting  —  a  characteristic  piece  of  the  pagan 
world  ;  as  W ordsworth  sings  : — 

Great  God  !  I'd  rather  be 
A  pagan  suckled  in  a  creed  outworn  .  .  . 
Have  sight  of  Proteus  rising  from  the  sea  ; 
Or  hear  old  Triton  blow  his  wreathed  horn. 

Also  from  the  great  theatre  are  the  fragments  of  Satyrs 
(1248-  1250)  which  belonged  to  a  frieze.  The  humorous 
relief  of  Pan  as  a  warrior  (1270)  is  curious. 


134 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP* 


Gladiators  and  Grain  Waggon  (1285). — Found  near  one 
of  the  gates  of  the  city  ;  it  may  once  have  stood  above  the 
gate,  and  have  represented  "Peace  and  War."  On  a  ledge 
farther  on  are  various  more  or  less  mutilated  statues,  found  in 
the  theatre.  No.  754  is  a  fragment  of  a  sepulchral  relief. 
Against  the  south  wall  is  an  interesting  fragment,  the  lower 
half  of  a  statue  of  Lucius  Verus  (1256,  cf.  p.  32).  The  base 
is  inscribed  (in  Greek),  "  This  statue  to  Lucius  Aelius 
Aurelius  Commodus,  the  son  of  the  emperor,  was  set  up  by 
Vedius  Antoninus."  The  upper  part  of  the  statue  was  after- 
wards found  ;  with  some  other  antiquities  it  was  put  on  board 
a  sailing  vessel  which  was  wrecked,  and  it  was  never  recovered. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SCULPTURES 

We  now  make  a  second  tour  of  the  room  in  order  to  note 
the  principal  pieces  among  the  miscellaneous  sculptures  here 
exhibited. 

On  either  side  of  the  door  by  which  we  entered  are 
interesting  heads  : — 

On  the  right  of  the  doorway  as  we  enter  is  a  very  fine  head 
of  an  armed  runner  or  combatant.  A  Grasco-Roman  copy, 
probably  from  a  work  by  Cresilas ;  found  at  Rome  and 
acquired  by  the  Museum  in  1899.  The  helmet  is  exactly  like 
those  bronze  helmets  to  be  found  in  various  museums,  which 
could  be  thrust  back  upon  the  nape  of  the  neck,  leaving  the 
face  uncovered.  It  is  similar  to  the  helmet  of  the  bust  of 
Pericles  in  the  Elgin  room,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  copy 
from  a  work  by  Cresilas,  the  contemporary  of  Phidias  : — 

"  The  peculiar  interest  of  the  bust  is  due  to  the  intensity  of  the 
sorrowful  emotion  expressed  by  the  features.  The  execution  of  the 
face,  its  severe  forms,  and  the  thoroughness  of  the  modelling  through- 
out, attest  the  hand  of  a  highly-trained  artist  of  a  noble  period,  yet 
retain  slight  traces  of  an  archaic  style  in  the  severity  of  treatment, 
which  is  very  apparent  in  the  eyelids.  It  has  been  suggested  that  we 
have  here  the  head  of  a  runner  in  the  funeral  games,  perhaps  of 
Patroclus"  {Atkenceum,  4th  March  1899). 

Especially  fine  in  this  head  is  the  expression  of  life  in  the 
parted  lips.  Shelley,  in  one  of  his  admirable  letters  from 
Rome  on  ancient  art,  notices  this  motive  as  characteristic  of 
the  Greek  sculptors  : — 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


135 


"  Their  lips  are  parted  :  a  delicate  mode  of  indicating  the  fervour  of 
their  desire  to  arrive  at  the  destined  resting-place,  and  to  express  the 
eager  respiration  of  their  speed.  Indeed,  so  essential  to  beauty  were 
the  forms  expressive  of  the  exercise  of  the  imagination  and  the  affec- 
tions considered  by  Greek  artists,  that  no  ideal  figure  of  antiquity,  not 
destined  to  some  representation  directly  exclusive  of  such  a  character, 
is  to  be  found  with  closed  lips  "  {Essays  and  Letters  from  Abroad, 
1840,  ii.  207). 

On  the  other  side  of  the  door  is  the  head  of  a  youth,  bound 
with  a  narrow  diadem,  the  hair  parted  in  the  middle,  falling  in 
a  mass  of  curls  on  the  temples,  and  gathered  into  a  thick  roll 
behind.  This  fine  head  resembles,  in  these  respects  and  in 
the  type  of  face,  a  marble  head  in  Munich  (engraved  in 
Furtwangler's  Masterpieces,  p.  81),  which  has  been  called 
Iacchus  from  its  general  likeness  to  the  head  of  that  divine  and 
beautiful  youth,  who  stood  as  torch-bearer  between  Demeter 
and  Kore  on  the  well-known  marble  relief  from  Eleusis,  now 
in  Athens.     The  present  example,  acquired  by  the  Museum  in 

1898,  was  found  in  Rome  and  is  "a  Graeco-Roman  copy, 
probably  from  an  original  by  an  Athenian  sculptor  shortly 
after  the  time  of  Phidias.  The  manner  in  which  the  front  part 
of  the  hair  is  separated  from  the  back  part  is  suggestive  of  a 
follower  of  the  sculptor  Calamis.  The  rendering  of  the  eyelids 
and  eyebrows,  and  of  the  hair  on  the  brow  and  temples,  seems 
to  indicate  an  original  in  bronze J'  {British  Museum  Return, 

1899,  P.  59). 

The  large  capital,  sculptured  with  winged  bulls  (15 10), 
was  found  embedded  in  a  hillock  on  the  site  of  the  agora  at 
Salamis  in  Cyprus.  No  other  works  related  to  it  were  found. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  surmounted  a  monumental  column.  It 
was  probably  intended  to  be  used  in  later  ages  as  a  font  in  a 
Byzantine  church.  It  was  found  in  the  excavations  carried 
on  in  1890  by  Messrs.  H.  A.  Tubbs  and  J.  A.  R.  Munro  on 
behalf  of  the  Cyprus  Exploration  Fund.  One  of  the  excavators 
thus  discusses  its  artistic  qualities  : — 

"  The  design  is  no  doubt  oriental.  The  two  bulls  back  to  back  with 
their  heads  projecting  to  either  side  are  found  on  the  capitals  from  the 
Palace  of  Darius  at  Persepolis,  where  they  were  doubtless  copied  from 
older  models  in  the  art  of  Chaldsea  and  Assyria.  But  one  cannot  but 
feel  how  much  the  design  has  been  improved  upon  in  the  work  before 
us.  The  curtailment  of  the  bulls  to  heads  and  shoulders  gets  rid  of 
much  of  the  grotesque  awkwardness  of  the  earlier  composition,  and 
gives  greater  relative  prominence  to  the  heads.    The  addition  of  wings 


150 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


spreading  from  the  shoulders  and  curling  forwards  like  volutes  is  a 
happy,  though  perhaps  not  original,  touch.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
wings  must  have  looked  rather  small  and  cramped,  and  the  unity  of 
the  design  is  spoilt,  for  the  artist  has  now  to  find  something  to  fill  the 
centre  face  of  the  capital  between  the  wings.  He  does  it  with  a  female 
figure  in  Caryatid  position,  who  passes  below  the  waist  into  a  curious 
floral  ornament.  The  filling  is  well  adapted  to  the  space,  and  the 
contrast  between  the  simple  broad  outer  surfaces  and  the  broken  com- 
plicated play  of  light  and  shade  in  the  middle  section  is  not  unpleasing. 
But  the  effect  is  none  the  less  inartistic.  Wholeness  is  sacrificed.  The 
contrast  between  the  big  bulls  and  the  little  woman  is  too  emphatic, 
and  the  centre  has  too  much  the  appearance  of  a  decorative  patch  on 
a  bold  sculpturesque  design.  .  .  .  The  bull's  head  projects  boldly  and 
effectively.  The  wings  are  treated  in  broad  parallel  curves,  without 
any  attempt  at  feathering.  The  rough  hair,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the 
forehead  and  front  face  is  carefully  rendered,  and  the  folds  of  hide  on 
the  neck  are  not  forgotten.  The  modelling  above  the  nostrils,  and  the 
expression  of  the  small  truculent  eye,  are  well  done.  The  female 
figure  is  dressed  in  a  simple  sleeveless  chiton  gathered  in  by  a  band 
round  the  waist.  The  work  displays  considerable  skill  in  the  rendering 
of  the  form,  and  some  feeling  for  the  difference  of  texture  between  the 
drapery  and  the  flesh.  On  the  whole  the  workmanship,  if  a  little  dry, 
is  good  and  effective.  Yet  the  capital  must  be  of  comparatively  late 
date.  The  material,  the  style,  and  the  taste  displayed  in  the  Caryatid, 
all  prevent  our  assigning  it  to  an  earlier  period  than  the  Ptolemaic, 
even  if  it  be  no  later,  as  well  it  may.  The  design  is  extremely 
interesting  as  showing  how  oriental  motives  persisted  in  the  art  of 
Cyprus  after  the  final  establishment  of  Hellenic  culture"  (J.  A.  R. 
Munro  m/.H.S.  xii.  pp.  133-135). 

On  the  ledge  in  the  south-east  corner  are  among  other 

objects  : — 

The  Persephone  ( 1  302)  from  Cnidus.  which  has  been  already 
described  (p.  125).  The  Aphrodite  (13 14)  is  from  the  same 
place.  The  Eros,  from  the  Castellani  collection,  and  the 
Hermes,  Greek  work  of  the  fourth  century,  are  both  very  fine. 
The  male  head  from  Cyrene  1506'.  with  inlaid  eyes,  is 
especially  interesting  as  an  example  of  polychrome  or  inlaid 
sculpture : — 

"  The  crown  of  the  head  is  cut  away,  so  as  to  form  a  point,  and  it 
is  evident  that  a  helmet  or  other  head-dress  has  been  fitted  on  to  it, 
doubtless  of  a  different-coloured  marble.  The  eyes  are  inserted  in 
hollow  sockets.  The  whites  of  the  eyes,  formed  of  marble,  still 
remain  in  these  sockets.  The  pupils,  which  have  probably  been  made 
of  coloured  vitreous  pastes,  have  fallen  out.  All  round  the  marble  eyes 
the  edge  of  a  thin  bronze  plate  intervenes  between  the  eye  and  the 
upper  and  lower  eyelids  ;  this  edge  has  probably  been  serrated,  so  as 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


137 


to  indicate  by  its  projection  the  upper  and  lower  eyelashes  "  (Smith 
and  Porcher,  p.  92). 

Below  the  ledge  are  some  curious  pieces  :  Belief  of  Serapis 
and  Isis,  from  Rhodes,  presented  by  the  late  F.  T.  Palgrave. 
A  personification  of  Spain — a  woman  reclining,  with  a  rabbit 
in  a  box  which  a  boy  is  taking.  The  rabbit,  as  shown  by  coins 
of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  was  the  emblem  of  Spain,  of  which 
country  it  is  believed  originally  to  have  been  a  native. 

The  Aphrodite  Euploia  (M1?)  (giver  of  a  favourable 
voyage)  is  interesting  : — 

"  A  small  statuette  representing  Venus  in  the  act  of  adjusting  the 
sandal  of  her  left  foot.  She  leans  forward,  standing  on  her  right  leg, 
and  resting  her  left  thigh  against  a  pillar.  The  toes  of  her  raised  foot, 
now  broken  away,  have  been  supported  by  a  dolphin.  Her  left  arm, 
which  is  also  wanting,  is  drawn  back,  and  probably  rested  on  the 
pillar  ;  as  the  head  is  broken  away  at  the  base  of  the  neck,  it  is 
uncertain  in  which  direction  it  turned.  Drapery  hangs  from  a  column, 
against  which  a  rudder  is  leaning"  (Smith  and  Porcher,  p.  96). 

There  are  many  varieties  and  repetitions  of  this  graceful 
figure,  including  two  in  the  Bronze  Room.  Similar  statuettes 
have  been  found  in  Crete,  Rhodes,  Cos,  and  Calymnus. 
There  was  no  doubt  some  famous  original  from  which  they 
were  all  derived.  The  veil  over  the  head  of  Venus  in  one 
of  the  bronzes  represented  a  sail  filled  with  favourable 
wind.  The  number  of  these  small  statuettes  found  in  the 
islands  of  the  Archipelago  suggests  the  notion  that  they  may 
have  been  dedicated  by  seafaring  men  after  a  voyage  (cf.  the 
story  from  Naucratis,  p.  98). 

The  votive  relief,  No.  816,  is  referred  to  in  a  later 
chapter  (p.  246). 

Continuing  along  the  east  side  of  the  room,  we  may  notice  : — 
Scylla,  terminating  in  dogs'  bodies  below  her  waist,  from 
Bargylia — an  unusual  subject  in  sculpture.  Portrait  of  a  poet 
crowned  with  ivy,  "  an  interesting  example  of  the  half- 
idealised  portraiture  of  the  Alexandrine  period."  The  pedestal 
with  an  interesting  scene  of  farewell,  No.  710,  is  described  in  a 
later  chapter  (p.  238).  Ionic  columns  from  Daphne  (Elgin  col- 
lection), near  Athens,  on  the  road  to  Eleusis,  where  there  was  a 
temple  of  Apollo.  A  muse — a  base  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
the  sculptor,  Apollodorus  of  Phocaea,  and  with  a  dedication  in 
honour  of  Theodorus,  son  of  Artemon.     Sculptured  pedestal 


138 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


(724),  with  a  sepulchral  relief,  described  later  on  (see  p.  243). 
Torso  of  a  Triton,  from  Delos — "  its  style,  with  its  high  relief 
and  colossal  scale,  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  sculptures 
from  the  great  altar  at  Pergamon,  now  in  Berlin."  Draped 
female  torso,  from  the  island  of  Clauda,  near  Crete,  presented 
by  Capt.  Spratt  (see  his  Travels  and  Researches  in  Crete,  ii. 
277).  The  circular  altar  (1 356)  of  coarse  limestone  served 
as  a  funeral  cippus  or  tombstone  ;  it  was  found  on  the  site 
of  the  cemetery  at  Cnidus.  The  circular  pedestal  (1106), 
encircled  with  a  frieze,  comes  from  Halicarnassus.  The 
frieze  represents  the  nine  Muses,  but  all  the  faces  have  been 
destroyed. 

Very  beautiful,  though  somewhat  damaged,  is  the  head  of 
Perseus : — 

"  Acquired  in  1879  from  Alessandro  Castellani  with  no  record  of  its 
provenance.  In  the  type  of  head  and  in  the  features  is  to  be  traced  a 
powerful  and  pathetic  original.  The  chin  is  aesthetically  large,  the 
eyes  and  eyebrows  are  strained  forward  as  if  by  constant  intensity  of 
pathos,  in  contrast  to  the  relaxation  of  muscle  produced  by  an  equable 
mind.  Doubtless  the  original  is  to  be  sought  in  the  schools  of 
Praxiteles  and  Scopas  "  (A.  S.  Murray  in  J.H.S.  ii.  p.  55). 

The  winged  helmet  identifies  him  as  Perseus.  A  replica 
has  recently  been  discovered  at  Rome.  Both  must  have  been 
copies  from  a  famous  original.  "  Now  we  are  acquainted 
through  literature  with  one  famous  statue  of  Perseus,  and  with 
one  alone,  that  of  Myron.  It  stood  on  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens,  and  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (i.  23.  7),  and  also 
by  Pliny  (xxxiv.  57)."  Furtwangler  accordingly  sees  in  this 
head  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Myron — a  sculptor  to  whom  he 
gives  a  wider  range  than  is  found  in  the  traditional  account 
of  him  (see  above,  p.  49).  In  his  discussion  of  this  head, 
Furtwangler  calls  attention,  inter  alia,  to  the  powerful  forehead 
and  expression  of  extreme  energy,  which  is  conveyed  also 
by  the  broad,  bony  chin  and  the  powerful  muscles  of  the 
cheeks  : — 

"  A  long  train  of  stylistic  development  undoubtedly  lies  between 
the  Discobolus,  with  his  impassive  countenance,  his  severe  flat  hair,  and 
the  marked  angle  of  brow  and  nose,  and  the  Perseus,  with  his  full 
flowing  locks,  straight  profile,  and  rounder,  freer  modelling.  Yet  the 
Discobolus  contains  all  the  essential  forms  of  the  Perseus.  This 
Perseus  must  have  been  a  work  full  of  grandeur  and  energy.  The 
total  effect,  however,  must  have  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  wings, 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


139 


now  missing,  which,  to  judge  from  the  attachments,  must  have  been  of 
considerable  size  and  have  given  a  supernatural  expression  to  the  head  '? 
{Masterpieces,  p.  199). 

In  the  same  part  of  the  room  are  some  imposing  fragments 
of  a  chariot  group,  presented  by  the  late  Lord  Savile,  from 
excavations  conducted  by  him  at  Civita  Lavinia  (the  ancient 
Lanuvium)  : — 

"  The  head  and  neck  of  a  horse,  the  size  of  life,  were  first  discovered. 
The  muzzle  and  ears  were  broken  off,  but  otherwise  it  was  in  excellent 
preservation  and  of  such  fine  character,  animated  expression,  and 
freedom  of  execution,  that  it  was  evident  the  work  was  due  to  a  Greek 
chisel  or  to  some  excellent  imitator  of  Greek  art ;  the  fact  of  the 
material  being  of  Parian  marble  being  in  favour  of  the  former  supposi- 
tion. On  the  forehead,  nose,  and  cheeks  are  the  holes  for  the  rivets 
holding  the  bronze  head -gear  usually  found  on  statues  of  that 
period.  (The  other  fragments  were  subsequently  discovered,  and  have 
now  been  put  together. )  One  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with 
these  horses  is  the  individuality  given  to  each  animal ;  in  modern 
sculpture  of  this  monumental  character  the  same  horse  would  probably 
be  repeated  four  times,  but  each  of  these  horses  might  be  a  portrait ; 
they  are  not  even  of  the  same  size,  a  difference  observed  even  in  the 
hoofs,  some  of  which  are  larger  than  others,  while  in  all  the  frogs 
and  parts  which  could  hardly  be  seen  are  carefully  made  out "  (from 
Lord  Savile's  account  of  his  excavations,  in  Archceologia,  xlix.  367). 

In  the  north-east  corner,  on  the  right  of  the  door  leading  into 
the  Elgin  room,  are  several  interesting  sculptures.  Among 
them  we  may  notice  on  the  ledge  a  female  figure  (1473), 
from  Cyrene;  and  the  (headless)  Nymph  Cyren6  (1472) 
(see  p.  78)  : — 

"  The  fashion  of  the  time  is  peculiar.  The  sides  are  left  open,  so  as 
to  expose  the  breasts,  between  which  the  folds  are  gathered  together 
in  a  broad  band.  The  composition  of  the  drapery  is  remarkable 
for  severe  and  simple  beauty.  It  is  probably  executed  by  a  Greek 
sculptor  of  the  best  period.  The  type  and  costume  are  those  of  a 
young  girl  trained  to  the  chase  or  athletic  exercises.  These  charac- 
teristics make  it  probable  that  in  this  statuette  we  have  the  nymph 
Cyrene  herself"  (Smith  and  Porcher,  p.  94). 

Below  this  ledge  are  some  gladiators  (1286),  from  Ephesus 
(who  fought  with  literal  wild  beasts  there)  ;  fragment  of  a 
tombstone  (678),  from  Ephesus,  with  beautiful  faces;  and 
fragment  of  a  chariot  group,  very  spirited. 

In  this  part  of  the  room  we  must  also  notice  the  head  of 
a  horse,  procured  near  Tarentum,  and  presented  by  Mr.  J. 


140 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Reddie  Anderson  in  1882.  A  resemblance  to  the  horses'  heads 
of  the  Parthenon  is  as  striking  as  are  certain  differences.  We 
find  the  same  simple  and  grand  treatment  of  the  nether  jaw, 
but  there  is  a  closer  imitation  of  real  life.  "  A  certain  abstract- 
ness  which  dwells  almost  exclusively  on  the  essential  elements 
of  the  organism  and  contents  itself  with  merely  indicating  all 
secondary  features  has  given  place  to  a  closer  imitation  of 
nature,  which  copies  with  equal  interest  essential  and  subor- 
dinate parts,  and  does  not  even  shrink  from  rendering  the 
anomalies  of  individuals  "  (Michaelis  in  J.ff.S.  iii.  234). 

The  large  statue  (No.  432)  is  of  Dionysus,  and  originally 
decorated  the  "  choragic  monument  of  Thrasyllus,"  near  the 
Dionysiac  Theatre  on  the  south  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens — 
whence  Lord  Elgin  removed  it.  The  monument  was  erected 
to  commemorate  a  victory  gained  in  a  dramatic  contest  in 
320  B.C.  "The  figure  is  majestic,  but  the  drapery  is  rather 
heavy"  (A.  H.  Smith). 

Nearer  the  door  is  a  bust  of  Alexander  the  Great.  This 
beautiful  work  is  of  great  and  various  interest.  It  was  found 
in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  which  the  Macedonian  founded  ; 
it  is  identified  from  its  likeness  to  undoubted  portraits  as  a 
representation,  somewhat  idealised,  of  the  great  conqueror  ; 
and  it  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  artistic  style  of  the  sculptor 
Lysippus  :  — 

This  artist,  one  of  the  most  famous  among  the  ancients,  flourished 
about  372-316  B.C.  He  was  a  native  of  Sicyon.  Originally  em- 
ployed as  a  bronze  founder,  he  rose  to  great  fame  as  a  sculptor  in  that 
material.  He  is  said  to  have  produced  1500  works — the  number  was 
discovered  after  his  death,  when  his  strong  box  was  opened,  into  which 
it  had  been  his  custom  to  put  one  gold  coin  for  every  work  executed 
by  him.  Being  in  bronze,  his  works  have  all  perished  ;  no  originals 
from  his  hand  are  preserved,  and  few  well-authenticated  copies.  He 
established,  we  are  told,  a  new  system  of  proportions.  He  seems  to 
have  ' '  exchanged  the  immovable  dignity  and  repose  by  which  the  old 
masters  suggested  the  possession  of  physical  power,  for  new  attitudes 
in  which  the  exercise  of  physical  power  should  be  made  apparent  by  its 
effect  on  the  body  and  the  face.  The  colossal  frame  of  Hercules  was 
a  favourite  study  with  Lysippus,  for  this  reason  especially,  we  presume, 
that  of  all  the  ancient  heroes  he  was  represented  in  the  legends  as 
bearing  about  with  him  always  the  effect  of  the  arduousness  of  his 
labours. "  With  Lysippus  seems  to  have  originated  the  type  of  Hercules 
as  "  a  man  of  toil  and  sorrows,  ever  performing  new  labours,  but 
wearying  of  his  task"  (cf.  pi  56).  One  of  his  works  most  famous 
in  antiquity  was  a  bronze  statuette  of  the  god,  which  Alexander 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


141 


the  Great  is  said  to  have  carried  with  him  on  his  expeditions 
to  be  placed  always  on  his  table.  A  copy  of  this  Hercules 
Epitrapezius,  in  stone,  enlarged  somewhat  from  the  original,  was 
obtained  by  the  British  Museum  from  Babylonia  in  1881.  It  is 
signed  with  the  name  of  an  artist,  Diogenes,  otherwise  unknown,  and 
it  bears  clearly  the  evidence  of  having  been  copied  from  a  work  in 
bronze.  Another  very  famous  work  by  Lysippus  was  the  Apoxyomenus, 
a  figure  of  an  athlete  in  the  act  of  scraping  off  the  sweat  and  dust  from 
his  body.  This  statue  stood  in  front  of  the  Baths  of  Agrippa  at  Rome, 
and  was  such  a  favourite  with  the  populace  that  when  Nero  removed 
it  to  his  private  apartments  a  riot  ensued,  and  he  was  forced  to  restore 
it.  A  marble  copy  of  it  is  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  and  well  illustrates 
what  ancient  writers  noted  as  characteristics  of  the  proportions  adopted 
by  Lysippus — namely,  a  small  head  and  comparatively  long  slim  arms 
and  legs.  Other  examples  of  the  same  proportions  may  be  seen  in  the 
Bronze  room  here  (p.  437).  Lysippus  was  famous  also  for  his 
allegorical  figures.  His  conception  of  "Opportunity"  as  a  youth 
standing  on  a  rolling  ball  and  having  over  his  forehead  a  lock  of  hair 
has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

The  skill  of  Lysippus  in  rendering  character  was  best 
shown  in  his  portraits.  He  was  the  favourite  sculptor  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  gave  orders,  it  is  said,  that  no  other 
artist  should  make  portraits  of  him  : — s 

"  We  can  judge  reasonably  of  his  success  from  a  marble  head  in  the 
British  Museum,  with  its  singularly  fine  blending  of  the  ideal  and  the 
real,  of  limitless  mental  power  combined  with  ordinary  passions,  and 
of  features  ideally  beautiful,  united  in  one  person  with  features  nearly 
deformed.  No  doubt  it  must  be  classed  as  a  copy,  since  there  is  no 
evidence  of  Lysippus  having  ever  worked  in  marble.  Nor  can  it  be 
absolutely  pronounced  a  copy  after  him,  since  there  were  other  sculptors 
of  eminence,  such  as  Euphranor  and  Leochares,  who  made  statues  ox 
Alexander.  Yet  it  may  reasonably  be  presumed  to  be  a  reproduction 
from  a  work  of  Lysippus.  It  is  thoroughly  Greek,  and  of  a  date  not 
long  after  Alexander.  The  vivid  animation  of  the  face  is  what  would 
be  expected  ;  we  welcome,  however,  above  all  the  artistic  style  with 
which  the  whole  work  is  carried  out,  showing  as  it  does  that  the 
sculptor  was  a  man  who  retained  some  of  the  older  and  best  traditions 
of  his  craft,  adapting  but  not  abandoning  them"  (Murray's  History  of 
Greek  Sctilfitwe,  ii.  345). 

While  examining  the  sculptured  portraits  of  Alexander,  it 
will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  description  which  Plutarch 
and  others  have  given  us  of  him  : — 

"  His  head  was  slightly  inclined  to  the  left,  a  deformity  due  to  an 
inequality  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck.  There  was  a  liquidness  about 
his  deep-set  eyes  which  gave  a  far-off  look  to  his  face.     His  eyebrows 


142 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


were  shaggy,  and  there  was  something  manly,  awe-inspiring,  almost 
leonine  in  his  glance  ;  his  hair  was  in  curls  and  brushed  up  over  his  brow. 
These  characteristics  scarcely  suggest  to  us  the  fearless  conqueror,  and 
seem  rather  to  belong  to  the  dreamer,  philosopher,  or  poet.  .  .  .  The 
British  Museum  bust  represents  a  youth  of  singularly  attractive  features. 
The  head  is  slightly  inclined  towards  the  left ;  the  eyes  are  deep-set 
beneath  a  prominent  brow,  and  possess  a  far-off  and  schwarmerisch 
look  quite  in  keeping  with  Plutarch's  description  ;  the  hair  falls  over 
the  neck  and  ears  in  curls,  which  cluster  round  the  brow  ;  the  nostril 
is  dilated,  and  the  upper  lip  is  curled  as  if  in  scorn,  while  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  waywardness  and  sensuality  in  the  slightly  opened  mouth. 
In  fact,  except  in  the  broad,  strong  chin,  we  seem  to  see  in  this  bust 
only  the  impulsive  side  of  Alexander ;  here  we  might,  indeed, 
recognise  the  murderer  of  Clitus,  the  slave  of  ungovernable  passions, 
the  victim  of  innumerable  superstitions,  but  we  look  in  vain  for  the 
features  which  should  characterise  the  conqueror  of  two  continents  " 
(f*  Portraits  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  by  Charles  Whibley,  in  Magazine 
of  Art,  1889,  p.  265). 

Partly  owing  to  the  skill  of  Lysippus,  and  partly  to  the 
commanding  position  of  Alexander  himself,  whose  conquests 
spread  Hellenic  art  throughout  the  East,1  the  features  of  the 
great  conqueror  had  a  permanent  effect  on  the  sculptural  type 
of  Hellenic  art — a  type  founded  on  the  overhanging  head,  the 
deep -set  eyes,  the  yearning  expression  which  we  associated 
with  the  idealised  Alexander  (see  on  this  subject  E.  Gardner's 
Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  436).  The  visitor  will 
remember  in  this  connection  the  idealised  head  in  the  Second 
Grasco-Roman  Room  (p.  52).  Of  the  bust  known  as  "  The 
Dying  Alexander,"  there  is  in  the  vestibule  of  the  National 
Gallery  a  fine  copy  in  Egyptian  porphyry. 

THE  HERMES  OF  PRAXITELES  (Cast) 

The  original  of  which  this  is  a  cast  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  extant  Greek  statues  and  one  of  the  most  important 
of  all  recent  £<  finds."  The  original  is  still  at  Olympia,  where 
it  was  discovered  :— 

1  In  the  wonderful  series  of  sarcophagi,  showing  splendid  examples  of 
the  finest  Greek  sculpture,  which  were  discovered  at  Sidon  in  1877,  and 
are  now  preserved  in  the  Museum  at  Constantinople,  this  spread  of 
Hellenic  culture  through  the  East  finds  a  remarkable  anticipation.  On 
the  so-called  "Alexander  Sarcophagus  "  there  is  a  youthful  warrior  with 
the  skin  of  a  lion  instead  of  a  helmet,  which  probably  represents  Alexander 
himself.   The  style  is  thought  to  resemble  that  of  Lysippus  and  his  school. 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


143 


"  It  was  on  the  morning  of  May  8th,  1877,  when  the  season  was  all 
but  at  its  close,  that  the  German  excavators  at  Olympia  came  suddenly, 
all  unsuspecting,  on  this  statue.  It  lay  face  foremost  on  a  soft 
heap  of  clay  and  rubbish  just  where  it  had  fallen.  The  limbs  were  in 
part  shattered,  but,  to  the  infinite  joy  of  archaeologists,  face  and 
feature  were  perfect.  Probably  the  god's  uplifted  arm  had  broken 
the  fall  and  saved  his  face.  Soft  moss  had  gathered  on  the  cheeks, 
but  the  surface  was  uninjured  "  (J.  E.  Harrison's  Introductory  Studies 
in  Greek  Art,  p.  251). 

The  legs  from  the  knees  downwards  were  missing ;  so 
were  the  greater  part  of  Hermes's  right  arm,  and  the  body 
and  head  of  the  child  Dionysus.  Afterwards  the  right  foot  of 
Hermes  was  discovered,  and  the  body  and  head  of  the  child. 
The  fame  of  the  discovery  at  once  spread  through  the  learned 
world,  and  it  is  now  from  casts  and  photographs  one  of  the 
best  known  of  existing  works  of  ancient  art.  It  is  very 
beautiful  in  itself,  and,  moreover,  it  is  beyond  all  question  an 
original  work  by  the  famous  Praxiteles  ;  for  it  was  found 
precisely  where  Pausanias  saw  "  a  Hermes,  of  marble,  carry- 
ing the  infant  Dionysus,  the  work  of  Praxiteles."  It  is  not  a 
little  remarkable  that,  out  of  the  many  thousand  statues  which 
adorned  the  Altis,  or  sacred  precinct  at  Olympia,  the  only  one 
by  Praxiteles  mentioned  in  ancient  literature  should  thus  have 
been  preserved. 

Thus  slept  He  long,  thus  hath  He  risen  so  late 
The  Son  of  Maia  :  that  the  earth  no  more 
Holds  him  in  night  sepulchral,  this  to  him 
Is  nought,  or  eyes  of  gazers  ;  his  own  world 
He  bears  with  him,  all  untoucht  of  Time. 
Yet  haply  if  thou  gaze  upon  the  God 
In  reverent  silence,  even  to  thee  shall  flow 
From  that  high  presence  of  the  unconscious  form 
Some  effluent  spell,  whereby  thy  calmed  soul 
Shall  be  indrawn  to  that  diviner  world 
Wherein  his  soul  hath  being,  fair  and  free. 
Unharmed  of  chance  and  ruin,  lo,  his  head 
•  Bends  with  half-smile  benign  above  his  charge, 
The  little  child,  the  son  of  Semele, 
Snatched  from  the  fierce,  tongues  of  celestial  fire, 
The  insupportable  blaze  of  very  Zeus, 
His  mother's  doom  ;  but  from  his  baby  soul 
The  terror  of  that  night  hath  passed  away, 
And  left  him  blithe  on  his  mild  brother's  arm, 
His  tender  hand  on  that  strong  shoulder  prest. 

E.  Myers. 


144 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  statue  more  minutely,  a 
few  words  on  the  place  of  Praxiteles  in  Greek  art  may  be 
useful  : — ■ 

Praxiteles,  second  in  fame,  among  ancient  sculptors,  to  Phidias  alone, 
was  a  native  of  Attica,  and  was  in  the  prime  of  his  activity  about 
350  B.C. — or  a  century  later  than  Phidias.  If  art  be  the  mirror  of  the 
age,  we  may  find  in  the  changes  wrought  by  that  century  in  the  history 
and  social  life  of  Greece  an  explanation  of  the  change  between  the  art 
of  Phidias  and  the  art  of  Praxiteles.  The  Peloponnesian  war  had 
succeeded  the  Persian — a  war  among  Greeks  instead  of  a  war  against 
a  common  enemy  ;  philosophy  had  superseded  politics  in  the  interests 
of  men  ;  and  individual  development  rather  than  the  organisation  of 
the  state  was  the  end  of  life.  The  corresponding  change  in  the  ideals 
of  sculptors  was  the  substitution  of  what  the  Greeks  called  pathos  for 
ethos — of  individual  emotion,  that  is,  for  fixed  types  of  character. 
This  is  the  distinguishing  note  of  the  school  of  Scopas  and  Praxiteles 
as  contrasted  with  the  school  of  Phidias.  Greek  art  of  the  earlier 
period  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  individual  character  and  in 
the  great  time  by  the  presence  of  4 4  colossal  calm."  But  Scopas  was 
the  artist  of  passion ;  Praxiteles,  of  moods.  Praxiteles,  says  an 
ancient  writer,  "blended  with  his  marble  the  emotions  of  the  soul." 
The  emotions  he  sought  to  express  were  such  as  are  consonant  with 
graceful  attitudes  and  beautiful  forms.  "  In  daring  flights  of  original 
genius  he  could  not  follow  Scopas  ;  but  in  the  beauty,  grace,  and 
tenderness,  in  the  exquisite  refinement  and  winning  charm  with  which 
he  endows  the  creations  of  his  genius,  he  has  no  equal"  (Perry). 

Phidias  aimed  at  calm,  dignity,  majesty  ;  Praxiteles  rather  at 
charm  and  grace.  Phidias,  we  may  say,  represented  men  as  gods  ; 
Praxiteles,  gods  as  men.  We  may  in  some  ways  liken  him  to  Raphael. 
Just  as  Raphael's  imitators  degenerated  into  insipidity,  triviality,  or 
attitudinarianism,  so  from  Praxiteles  the  descent  was  easy  to  over- 
sweetness,  to  sensualism,  to  genre.  The  perversion  of  his  Aphrodite 
is  a  case  in  point  (see  p.  43).  But  Praxiteles  himself  still  moved  on 
the  ideal  plane.  "The  beauty  at  which  he  aimed  was  not  merely 
corporeal ;  it  was  the  beauty  of  tender,  loving,  or  pathetic  emotions." 
One  or  two  technical  characteristics  of  his  style  will  be  noticed 
presently.  The  works  by  which  he  was  most  famous  in  the  ancient 
world  are  known  to  us  only  by  copies — e.g.,  the  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus 
(see  p.  74),  the  Faun  of  the  Capitol,  and  the  Eros  of  the  Vatican.  He 
was  employed  not  only  throughout  the  mainland  of  Greece,  but  at 
Halicarnassus,  at  Cnidus,  and  at  Ephesus.  There  is  in  the  British 
Museum  a  head  which  is  believed  to  be  an  original  work  by  Praxiteles, 
the  so-called  "Aberdeen  Head"  (see  p.  218). 

Turning  now  to  the  Hermes,  we  see  the  god  in  the  very 
spring-tide  of  his  beauty,  as  Homer  describes  him  "  in  the 
likeness  of  a  young  man,  with  the  first  down  on  his  lip,  when 


IX 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


H5 


youth  is  most  graceful."  The  features  of  his  oval  face,  under 
the  curly  hair  that  encircles  the  brow,  are  refined,  strong,  and 
beautiful.  The  profile  is  of  the  straight  Greek  type,  and  over 
the  eyebrows  is  "the  bar  of  Michael  Angelo."  This  feature 
serves  to  throw  the  eyes  and  their  sockets  more  into  shadow, 
and  therein  to  increase  their  expressiveness  (see  also  under 
Scopas,  p.  218).  The  form  is  the  perfection  of  manly  grace. 
It  is  noticeable  that  the  child  is  sculptured  in  a  rough  and 
somewhat  awkward  fashion.  In  this  respect  something  of  the 
merely  symbolic  character  of  archaic  art  clings  to  the  work  of 
Praxiteles.  The  child  is  introduced  not  for  his  own  sake,  but 
only  as  an  attribute  of  the  god.  He  lays  his  little  hand 
trustingly  on  the  shoulder  of  Hermes.  The  child's  left  arm  and 
the  right  arm  of  Hermes  are  missing,  and  various  restora- 
tions have  been  proposed.  Possibly  Hermes  held  a  bunch  of 
grapes,  towards  which  the  child  stretched  his  missing  arm  (see 
p.  692).  But  however  this  may  have  been,  Hermes  is  looking 
not  at  the  child,  but  past  him  into  the  distance.  "  Compared 
with  the  heads  that  are  left  to  us  in  the  Parthenon  frieze, 
there  seems  to  be  on  the  face  of  Hermes  the  shadow  of  a 
nameless  unrest ;  the  mouth  has  lost  its  old  proud  setness.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  meditative,  dreamy  eyes  ;  we  seem  to 
expect  some  change  of  expression  every  moment  to  flit  across 
the  face  "  (J.  E.  Harrison).  Another  characteristic  difference 
from  earlier  art  is  in  the  pose.  Archaic  figures  stand  on  both 
feet  alike,  planted  squarely.  Then  Polyclitus  introduced  the 
innovation  of  making  his  figures  throw  their  chief  weight  on 
one  leg  (p.  38);  but  they  still  stood  erect  and  self-supporting. 
Praxiteles  made  his  figures  lean  for  support  on  some  extraneous 
structure,  and  was  then  able  to  throw  them  into  the  most 
graceful  curves.  The  drapery  thrown  over  the  tree-stump  is 
very  realistic.  It  is  said  that  when  the  photograph  of  the 
Hermes  was  first  shown  to  a  great  German  critic,  he  exclaimed, 
"  Why  did  they  leave  that  cloth  hanging  there  when  they 
photographed  the  statue  ? "  "  But  no  reproductions,"  says 
Mr.  Frazer,  "give  an  adequate  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the 
original.  The  dead  white  colour  and  the  mealy  texture  of  casts 
give  no  conception  of  the  soft,  glowing,  flesh-like,  seemingly 
elastic  surface  of  the  original.  Looking  at  the  original,  it 
seems  impossible  to  conceive  that  Praxiteles  or  any  man  ever 
attained  to  a  greater  mastery  over  stone  than  is  exhibited  in 
this  astonishing  work."     It  is  therefore  generally  assigned  to 

L 


146 


THE  EPHESUS  ROOM 


CHAP.  IX 


a  late  period  in  the  career  of  the  artist.  "  There  is  not  in  all 
antiquity,"  says  Furtwangler,  "  a  work  showing  more  subtle 
finish  or  more  intimate  mastery  of  all  the  secrets  of  marble 
technique  than  the  Hermes." 

Before  passing  into  the  Elgin  room,  the  visitor  should 
notice  on  one  side  of  the  door  a  head  of  Venus  which  is 
exhibited  in  a  glass  case.  This  is  of  special  interest  because 
it  still  retains  abundant  traces  of  the  flesh  tints  with  which 
ancient  marbles  were  often  painted  (see  above,  p.  107). 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 

Not  from  a  vain  or  shallow  thought 

His  awful  Jove  young  Phidias  1  wrought  .  .  . 

He  builded  better  than  he  knew, — 

The  conscious  stone  to  beauty  grew  .  .  . 

Earth  proudly  wears  the  Parthenon 

As  the  best  gem  upon  her  zone  .  .  . 

These  temples  grew  as  grows  the  grass  ; 

Art  might  obey,  but  not  surpass. 

The  passive  master  lent  his  hand 

To  the  vast  Soul  that  o'er  him  planned. 

R.  W.  Emerson. 

"As  the  light  streamed  across  the  room  and  died  away  into  obscurity, 
there  was  something  awful  and  solemn  in  the  grand  forms  and 
heads  and  trunks  and  fragments  of  mighty  temples  and  columns 
that  lay  scattered  about  in  sublime  insensibility, — the  remains,  the 
only  actual  remains,  of  a  mighty  people.  The  grand  back  of  the 
Theseus  would  come  towering  close  to  my  eye,  and  his  broad 
shadow  spread  over  the  place  a  depth  of  mystery  and  awe." 

B.  R.  Haydon  (1810). 

The  Elgin  Marbles,  brought  to  England  in  1803  and  pur- 
chased for  the  nation  in  18 16,  are  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
treasures  of  the  British  Museum.  "  Since  the  opening  of  the 
19th  century,"  writes  a  German  scholar,  "  the  British  Museum 
has  advanced  with  rapid  strides  to  the  supreme  position  of 
having  the  finest  collection  of  antiquities  in  the  world.  It  was 
no  longer  Rome,  or  Italy  generally,  which  filled  the  rooms  of 
this  institution  with  late  copies  or  imitations  of  Greek  originals ; 
but  Greek  art  itself,  represented  by  a  stately  series  of  its  most 
beautiful  creations,  entered   the   Museum  in  triumph,  and 

1  The  poet's  chronology  is  wrong.  It  is  based  on  the  idea  that  the 
Zeus  of  Olympia  belonged  to  the  earlier  period  of  Phidias.  It  is  now 
generally  believed  that  the  Zeus  was  one  of  his  latest  works. 

M7 


148 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


asserted  a  might  of  simple  grandeur  before  unknown.  The 
British  Museum  must  in  this  respect  remain  altogether  beyond 
the  reach  of  rivalry"  (Michaelis,  Ancient  Marbles  in  Great 
Britain,  p.  3).  The  distinctive  value  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  is 
well  explained  in  this  passage  of  Michaelis.  To  the  Greeks 
themselves  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  were  overshadowed 
by  the  fame  of  the  statue  within  (see  p.  188)  ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  these  marbles,  which  the  men  of  the  Renaissance 
travelled  to  see,  and  which  throughout  the  nineteenth  century 
have  been  the  object  of  reverential  study  by  the  whole  learned 
world,  receive  in  the  large  body  of  extant  classical  literature 
nothing  but  the  most  cursory  allusion.  But  to  us  the  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon  have  a  unique  value,  as  being  the  only  works 
as  yet  known  of  which  it  can  confidently  be  declared  that  they 
represent  the  design,  if  not  the  handiwork,  of  the  greatest  of 
Greek  sculptors,  the  famous  Phidias,  of  whom  it  was  said  that 
either  the  gods  had  come  from  heaven  to  inspire  him,  or  he 
had  been  caught  up  to  heaven  to  see  them  face  to  face. 

Yet  the  "triumphant  entry"  of  these  priceless  relics,  of 
which  the  German  critic  speaks,  was  long  deferred,  and  met 
with  the  greatest  obstacles.  The  story  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  is 
indeed  a  most  curious  chapter  in  the  history  of  taste,  and  inci- 
dentally in  that  of  politics  and  diplomacy.  In  1799  Thomas 
Bruce,  seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  was  appointed  British  Ambas- 
sador to  the  Porte.  Having  for  some  time  been  interested  in 
archaeological  matters,  he  determined  to  use  his  sojourn  in  the 
East  to  forward  his  hobby.  He  first  proposed  to  Mr.  Pitt  to 
secure  some  of  the  stones  of  the  Parthenon  for  the  British 
nation.  The  minister,  fully  occupied  with  Napoleon,  was  in 
no  mood  to  attend  to  archaeology  ;  and  Lord  Elgin  was  thus 
thrown  back  on  his  own  resources.  He  found  his  chance 
when  the  success  of  the  British  arms  in  Egypt,  and  the 
expected  restitution  of  that  province  to  the  Porte,  produced  a 
wonderful  and  instantaneous  change  in  the  disposition  of  the 
Turks  to  the  British  nation.  Nothing  was  now  refused  which 
was  asked.  Lord  Elgin,  availing  himself  of  this  opportunity, 
obtained  in  the  summer  of  1801  access  to  the  Acropolis,  with 
permission  to  draw,  model,  remove,  and  excavate.  The 
firman  addressed  in  the  Grand  Vizier's  name  to  the  Turkish 
authorities  at  Athens  in  1801  is  interesting  : — 

"  It  is  hereby  signified  to  you,  that  our  sincere  Friend,  his  Excel- 
lency Lord  Elgin,   Ambassador  Extraordinary  from  the  Court  of 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


149 


England  to  the  Porte  of  Happiness,  hath  represented  to  us  that  it  is 
well  known  that  the  greater  part  of  the  Frank  Courts  are  anxious  to 
read  and  investigate  the  books,  pictures,  or  figures  and  other  works  of 
science  of  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  ;  and  that  in  particular  the 
ministers  or  officers  of  state,  philosophers,  primates,  and  other  indi- 
viduals of  England  have  a  remarkable  taste  for  the  drawings  or  figures 
or  sculptures,  remaining  ever  since  the  time  of  the  said  Greeks,  and 
which  are  to  be  seen  on  the  shores  of  the  Archipelago,  and  in  other 
parts  ;  and  have,  in  consequence,  from  time  to  time,  sent  men  to 
explore  and  examine  the  ancient  edifices  and  drawings  and  figures. 
And  that  some  accomplished  Dilettanti  of  the  Court  of  England,  being 
desirous  to  see  the  ancient  buildings  and  curious  figures  in  the  City  of 
Athens,  and  the  old  walls  remaining  since  the  time  of  the  Grecians, 
which  now  subsist  in  the  interior  part  of  the  said  place ;  his  Excellency 
the  said  Ambassador  hath  therefore  engaged  five  English  painters,  now 
dwelling  at  Athens,  to  examine  and  view,  and  also  to  copy  the  figures 
remaining  there  ab  antiquo :  And  he  hath  also  at  this  time  expressly 
besought  us,  that  an  official  letter  may  be  written  from  hence,  ordering 
that  as  long  as  the  said  painters  shall  be  employed  in  going  in  and  out 
of  the  said  citadel  of  Athens,  which  is  the  place  of  their  occupations  ; 
and  in  fixing  scaffolding  round  the  ancient  Temple  of  the  Idols  there  ; 
and  in  moulding  the  ornamental  sculpture  and  visible  figures  thereon 
in  plaster  or  gypsum  ;  and  in  measuring  the  remains  of  other  old 
ruined  buildings  there  ;  and  in  excavating,  where  they  find  it  neces- 
sary, the  foundations  in  order  to  discover  inscriptions  which  may  have 
been  covered  in  the  rubbish  ;  that  no  interruption  may  be  given  to 
them,  nor  any  obstacle  thrown  in  their  way  by  the  Commandant  of  the 
Citadel,  or  any  other  person ;  that  no  one  may  meddle  with  the 
scaffolding  or  implements  that  they  may  require  in  their  works  ;  and 
that  when  they  wish  to  take  away  any  pieces  of  stone  with  old  inscrip- 
tions or  figures  thereon,  that  no  opposition  be  made  thereto. 

"  We,  therefore,  have  written  this  letter  "  (here  follows  the  operative 
portion  of  the  firman,  in  which  the  above  statements  are  set  out  in  the 
imperative  mood). 

In  accordance  with  the  permission  thus  obtained,  Lord 
Elgin  in  the  first  instance  set  a  staff  of  artists  at  work  on 
copying.  Their  drawings  are  preserved  in  the  Museum. 
Originally  the  actual  removal  of  marbles  was  no  part  of  Lord 
Elgin's  design.  The  constant  injuries  to  which  the  marbles 
were  exposed  caused  him  to  enlarge  its  scope.  The  Turks 
occasionally  fired  at  the  temple,  and  travellers  bribed  the 
soldiers  to  have  a  day's  shooting  and  bring  them  down  a  head, 
or  a  leg,  or  an  arm,  or  whatever  other  pieces  could  be  carried 
off.  This  explains  the  considerable  number  of  fragments  from 
the  Parthenon  which  have  at  various  times  been  discovered  in 
the  private  collections  of  Europe  (see  p.  i8o\     Lord  Elgin 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


resolved  to  use  his  firman  to  prevent  by  wholesale  removal  this 
piecemeal  destruction  ;  he  also  determined  to  make  casts  of 
the  marbles  which  he  did  not  remove.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  there  were  rivals  in  the  field.  The  taste  for 
antiquities  was,  as  the  Grand  Vizier  said,  shared  by  "  the 
greater  part  of  the  Frank  Courts "  ;  concessions  of  marbles 
were  competed  for  as  greedily  as  if  they  were  mines.  The 
French  Ambassador  in  particular,  the  Due  de  Choiseul- 
Gouffier,  was  on  the  same  tack,  and  had  already  succeeded  in 
removing  some  marbles  to  Paris.  The  alternatives  which 
presented  themselves  to  Lord  Elgin's  mind  were  not  those 
which  his  critics  assume  :  it  was  not  a  question  between  leav- 
ing the  marbles  uninjured  in  their  places  and  carrying  them 
off  to  London,  but  between  their  removal  to  London  and  their 
removal  to  Paris.  The  local  opinion  of  the  time  is  preserved 
in  the  story  that  the  Athenians  thought  they  heard  the  sculp- 
tures groaning.  But  the  groans  were  not  the  pangs  of 
removal ;  they  were  the  laments  of  the  stones  that  were 
removed  for  the  fate  of  those  that  were  left  behind. 

On  looking  round  this  room  one  must  admit  that  the 
authorisation  in  the  firman  to  remove  "  certain  pieces  of  stone " 
— qualche  pezzi  di  ftietra — was  liberally  interpreted  by  Lord 
Elgin.  It  is  said  that  Dr.  P.  Hunt,  his  agent  at  Athens,  in 
explaining  the  elasticity  of  the  clause  to  the  local  governor, 
backed  his  interpretation  by  a  timely  present  of  brilliant  cut- 
glass  lustres,  fire-arms,  and  other  articles  of  English  manu- 
facture. At  any  rate  the  removal  was  carried  out  publicly,  and 
no  opposition  was  raised.  But  the  strange  adventures  of  the 
marbles  were  only  now  beginning.  The  French  Ambassador's 
spoils  were  carried  away  in  a  corvette  which  was  captured  by 
Nelson,  but  was  afterwards  allowed  to  go  on  its  way.  The 
vessel  chartered  by  Lord  Elgin  to  convey  the  British  spoils 
was  wrecked  off  Cerigo,  and  the  marbles  went  to  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  It  took  three  years  and  the  expenditure  of  large 
sums  of  money  to  recover  them. 

At  last  the  marbles  of  the  Parthenon  found  rest  after  stormy 
seas  in  London.  But  they  had  escaped  the  perils  of  war  and 
shipwreck  only  to  encounter  the  hostility  of  the  critics  and  the 
indifference  of  the  Government.  The  great  antiquarian  of  the 
day  was  Payne  Knight,  and  he  "beared"  Lord  Elgin's  stock 
from  the  first.  "  You  have  lost  your  labour,  my  Lord  Elgin," 
he  said  across  a  dinner-table  ;  "  your  marbles  are  over-rated  ; 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


they  are  not  Greek,  they  are  Roman  of  the  time  of  Hadrian." 
The  artists — West,  Fuseli,  and  Haydon — took  a  different  view, 
and  Haydon  in  particular  threw  himself  with  fiery  enthusiasm 
into  the  cause.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Keats  dedicated 
his  sonnet  on  the  Elgin  Marbles  to  Haydon  : — 

For,  when  men  stared  at  what  was  most  divine 
With  brainless  idiotism  and  o'erwise  phlegm, 
Thou  had'st  beheld  the  full  Hesperian  shine 

Of  their  star  in  the  east,  and  gone  to  worship  them  ! 

But  the  view  of  Payne  Knight  prevailed,  and  the  Government 
showed  no  disposition  to  purchase  the  marbles. 

Lord  Elgin  bided  his  time  and  continued  to  add  to  his 
collection,  eighty  fresh  cases  arriving  in  1812.  The  collection 
was  first  housed  in  the  courtyard  of  his  house  in  Park  Lane, 
and  afterwards  in  Burlington  House.  The  public  were  ad- 
mitted to  see  them,  and  Haydon  obtained  leave  to  make 
drawings  and  casts.  "  I  used,"  he  says,  "  to  go  down  in  the 
evening  with  a  little  portfolio  and  bribe  the  porter  to  lend  me 
a  lantern,  and  then,  locking  myself  in,  take  the  candle  out  and 
make  different  sketches,  till  the  cold  damp  would  almost  put 
the  candle  out."  Thus,  ill-appreciated  by  the  officials  and 
connoisseurs  of  England,  the  Athenian  deities  lay  for  many 
years  in  cellars  and  pent-houses  with  only  a  few  enthusiasts  to 
do  them  reverence.  Lord  Elgin  himself  was  denounced  as 
a  tasteless  thief,  and  the  dead  set  against  him  was  intensified 
by  Byron's  onslaught  in  the  second  canto  of  Childe  Harold. 
In  181 1  Byron  wrote  also  a  scathing  satire  on  Lord  Elgin, 
entitled  The  Curse  of  Minerva,  but  this  was  not  published 
till  1828,  four  years  after  the  poet's  death.  The  removal  of 
the  marbles  was  described  as  "  the  last  poor  plunder  from  a 
bleeding  land,"  and  Lord  Elgin  himself  was  coupled  with 
Attila  and  was  called  "a  filthy  jackal,"  a  "huckster"  who 
kept  a  stone  shop  for  money,  and,  worse  than  all,  a  Scot ! 1 
1  Byron's  satire  did  not  spare  the  sightseers  either.  I  do  not  know 
whether  my  readers  will  recognise  themselves  in  the  following  lines  : — 

Be  all  the  bruisers  cull'd  from  all  St.  Giles', 

That  art  and  nature  may  compare  their  styles ; 

While  brawny  brutes  in  stupid  wonder  stare, 

And  marvel  at  his  Lordship's  "  stone  shop"  there. 

Round  the  throng'd  gate  shall  sauntering  coxcombs  creep, 

To  lounge  and  lucubrate,  to  prate  and  peep  ; 

While  many  a  languid  maid,  with  longing  sigh, 

On  giant  statues  casts  the  curious  eye  ; 

The  room  with  transient  glance  appears  to  skim, 

Yet  marks  the  mighty  back  and  length  of  limb  ; 

Mourns  o'er  the  difference  of  now  and  then  ; 

Exclaims,  "These  Greeks  indeed  were  proper  men  !" 


152 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  feeling  against  Lord  Elgin  had  also  been  aggravated  by 
stories  of  the  recklessness  with  which  some  of  the  work  of 
removal  had  been  carried  out  by  his  contractors. 

In  1 8 14,  however,  the  tide  began  to  turn.  In  that  year 
the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria,  who  had  secured  the  marbles  of 
^Egina  for  Munich  (see  Ch.  VII.),  came  to  London  and  extolled 
the  Elgin  collection.  M.  Visconti,  Director  of  the  Musee 
National,  did  the  same,  and  the  British  Government  was  now 
inclined  to  buy  them.  Lord  Elgin  accordingly  made  an  offer, 
which  was  laid  before  the  House  of  Commons  on  15th  June 
181  5.  The  battle  of  Waterloo  then  occurred,  and  the  matter 
was  adjourned.  Later  in  the  year  Canova  came  to  London, 
and  the  famous  sculptor  valued  Lord  Elgin's  treasures  at 
,£100,000.  "I  think,"  he  wrote  to  Lord  Elgin,  "  that  I  can 
never  see  them  often  enough.  .  .  .  Oh  that  I  were  a  young  man 
and  had  to  begin  again  !  I  should  work  on  totally  different 
principles,  and  form,  I  hope,  an  entirely  new  school."1  In 
February  18 16  Elgin  presented  his  petition  again,  and  a  select 
committee  was  appointed  to  examine  it.  The  issue  was 
awaited  with  considerable  excitement  in  the  learned  world. 
Rival  experts  gave  evidence,  and  a  lively  battle  of  pamphlets 
raged  outside  the  committee-room.  The  committee  reported 
unanimously  in  favour  both  of  Lord  Elgin's  conduct  and  of  his 
claims,  and  on  7th  June  18 16  the  House  of  Commons,  by 
eighty-two  votes  to  thirty,  granted  a  sum  of  £35,000  for  the 
purchase  of  the  Elgin  collection.  Lord  Elgin's  total  outlay, 
including  interest,  had  been  £74,000.  The  marbles  were  by 
this  time  well  known  throughout  Europe  from  the  drawings 
made  by  Haydon,  and  foreign  authorities  were  cited  in  their 
praise.  Of  these  the  most  famous  was  the  aged  Goethe. 
"  For  many  years,"  he  wrote,  his  "  soul  had  been  elevated  by 
contemplation  of  the  drawings."  He  "longed  to  see  those 
works  in  which  alone  law  and  gospel  were  united,"  and 
"  considered  himself  happy  to  have  at  least  lived  to  see  their 
discovery."  He  sketched  a  plan  for  every  German  sculptor  in 
future  to  come  and  study  for  a  time  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  Elgin  Marbles,  since  their  removal  to  the  Museum,  have 

1  It  is  to  Canova's  eternal  credit  that  he  declined  to  undertake  the 
"restoration"  of  the  marbles  suggested  by  Lord  Elgin.  "They  had," 
he  said,  "  never  been  retouched,  and  it  would  be  sacrilege  in  him  or  any 
man  to  presume  to  touch  them  with  a  chisel"  [Memorandum  on  the  Earl 
of  Elgin's  Pursuits  in  Greece,  p.  26). 


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indeed  become  the  teachers  of  the  artistic  world  of  Europe, 
the  study  of  all  archaeologists,  and  models  of  taste  for  all 
amateurs.  Students  may  every  day  be  seen  copying  from 
them,  and  successive  generations  of  sculptors  and  painters 
have  derived  from  them  models  of  style  and  standards  of  per- 
fection.1 "  The  world  of  really  imaginative  Greek  sculpture," 
says  Mr.  Pater,  "is  reflected  with  most  command  in  the 
consummate  fragments  of  the  Parthenon."  Yet,  "not  so  that 
he  who  runs  may  read,  the  gifts  of  Greek  sculpture  being 
always  delicate,  and  asking  much  of  the  receiver."  2 

THE  PARTHENON 

Many  aids  to  the  study  of  the  Parthenon,  from  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  Elgin  Marbles  are  taken,  are  exhibited  in 
this  room,  and  the  visitor  will  find  a  preliminary  mastery  of 
these  add  greatly  to  his  enjoyment.  A  few  words  about  the 
Parthenon  itself  may  first  be  given.  It  has  had  a  history  as 
strange  and  eventful  as  subsequently  had  the  marbles  removed 
from  it  by  Lord  Elgin.  The  Parthenon  stands  on  the  Acropolis 
of  Athens  (see  the  model  and  the  restored  view  of  the 
Acropolis).  It  was  a  temple,  erected  in  honour  of  the  tutelary 
deity  of  the  city,  the  virgin  goddess  Athena.  The  building 
was  begun  about  447  B.C.,  and  finished  about  438  13. C.  It 
was  one  of  the  works  undertaken  for  the  adornment  of  the 
city  under  the  administration  of  Pericles.  The  architect  was 
Ictinos  ;  the  style  was  Doric.  The  plan  of  the  building  may 
best  be  studied  from  the  large  model.  The  sculptural 
decorations,  and  probably  the  design  of  the  temple  also,  were 
planned  and  executed  under  the  personal  superintendence  of 

1  A  young  M.  P.  once  asked  Sir  Edgar  Boehm  what  his  feelings  would 
be  if  a  motion  were  carried  to  restore  the  Elgin  Marbles  to  Greece. 
"What  would  be  my  feelings  ?  "  was  the  sculptor's  encouraging  response  ; 
"  I  would  curse  you  with  my  dying  breath"  (Grant  Duff's  Notes  from  a 
Diary,  1889-91,  ii.  62). 

2  Many  spectators  are  probably  bewildered — even  as  was  the  poet 
Keats — "  on  seeing  the  Elgin  Marbles  for  the  first  time  "  : — 

Such  dim-conceived  glories  of  the  brain 

Bring  round  the  heart  an  indescribable  feud  ; 

So  do  these  wonders  a  most  dizzy  pain, 

That  mingles  Grecian  grandeur  with  the  rude 

Wasting  of  Old  Time — with  a  billowy  main 
A  sun,  a  shadow  of  a  magnitude. 


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Phidias.  The  characteristics  of  his  style  will  be  discussed 
incidentally  when  we  make  a  particular  examination  of  the 
sculptures.     But  a  few  general  remarks  may  here  be  given  : — 

Of  Phidias  the  sculptor  it  may  be  said  as  of  Titian  the  painter,  that 
"  there  is  a  strange  undercurrent  of  everlasting  murmur  about  his  name 
which  means  the  deep  consent  of  all  great  men  that  he  is  greater  than 
they."  But  the  person  of  the  artist  was  hidden  in  the  splendour  of 
his  works,  and  though  ancient  literature  abounds  in  references  to  his 
genius  and  his  fame,  very  little  is  known  of  his  life,  and  of  his  death 
nothing  except  apocryphal  stories  with  which  the  rhetoricians  of  a 
later  age  adorned  their  moral  of  the  world's  ingratitude  to  its  greatest 
men.  He  was  born  at  Athens,  and  was  the  son  of  Charmidas,  of  whom 
nothing  is  known  ;  but  the  fact  that  his  brother  Pancenus,  like  Phidias 
himself  in  his  earlier  years,  was  a  painter,  renders  it  probable  that  he 
belonged  to  a  family  of  artists.  He  was  born  about  500  B.C.,  and 
attained  to  manhood  in  the  year  of  the  great  victories  of  Athens  over 
the  Persians.  The  times  were  in  every  way  propitious  for  the  develop- 
ment of  artistic  genius.  "  The  long  labour  of  preceding  generations  had 
overcome  every  technical  difficulty  and  subjected  the  hardest  and  most 
stubborn  materials  to  the  will  and  fancy  of  man.  The  materials  them- 
selves— marble,  bronze,  ivory,  gold,  ebony  and  cypress  wood — were 
there  in  inexhaustible  abundance."  The  rebuilding  of  Athens  opened 
out  a  vast  opportunity  to  the  sculptor  and  the  architect.  The  genius 
of  Pericles  directed  that  opportunity  to  the  noblest  possible  ends. 
Phidias,  as  we  have  said,  was  originally  a  painter,  but  afterwards 
studied  sculpture  in  the  studio  of  Ageladas,  of  Argos,  who  was  the 
teacher  also  of  Myron  and  Polyclitus.  His  great  opportunity  came 
when  Pericles,  discerning  his  genius,  entrusted  to  him  the  entire  and 
absolute  control  over  the  public  works  with  which  he  sought  to  enrich 
and  adorn  the  city.  The  Parthenon  and  the  great  statue  of  the  goddess 
within  were  his  principal  works  at  Athens.  The  enormous  expense  of 
these  works  involved  the  sculptor  in  the  discontent  which  was  gathering 
round  Pericles.  A  brother  artist,  named  Medon,  was  suborned  to 
accuse  him  of  embezzling  the  gold  of  which  the  robe  of  the  Athena 
Parthenos  was  to  be  made.  When  he  had  easily  refuted  this  charge, 
others  were  trumped  up  against  him.  The  story  of  his  conviction  and 
death  in  prison  may  safely  be  rejected,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  was  the 
victim  of  envy  or  malice  and  "fell  into  trouble  "  (as  Aristophanes  puts 
it)  among  the  Athenians.  He  was,  however,  called  to  Olympia  to 
undertake  what  proved  to  be  the  grandest  work  of  his  life,  the  colossal 
gold  and  ivory  statue  of  Zeus  for  the  newly-erected  temple  there. 
This  great  work  is  supposed  to  have  occupied  him  from  438  B.C.  to 
432  B.C.  That  he  died  in  dishonour  and  disgrace  at  Olympia  on 
another  charge  of  embezzlement,  as  one  of  the  scholiasts  relates,  is 
improbable,  for  his  studio  was  preserved  down  to  the  time  of  Pausanias 
as  a  precious  relic,  and  special  privileges  were  accorded  by  the  Eleans 
to  his  descendants.     It  is  upon  his  Olympian  "Zeus"  that  antiquity 


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lavished  its  most  enthusiastic  praises.  The  Roman  general,  Paulus 
/Emilius,  was  deeply  moved  by  the  sight  of  it;  he  "felt  as  if  in  the 
presence  of  the  god  himself.5'  Quintilian,  speaking  of  the  Athena 
Parthenos  and  the  Olympian  Zeus,  declares  that  their  beauty  "added 
new  power  to  the  established  faith,  so  nearly  did  the  grandeur  of  the 
work  approach  to  the  majesty  of  the  gods  themselves."  The  statue 
was  reckoned  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world,  and  to  die  with- 
out having  seen  it  was  deemed  a  misfortune.  Dio  Chrysostom,  the 
rhetorician  and  a  man  of  fine  taste,  called  it  "  the  most  beautiful  image 
on  earth,  and  the  dearest  to  the  gods." 

Wherein,  it  may  be  asked,  did  the  greatness  of  Phidias  consist  ? 
First,  in  the  perfect  command  of  all  the  resources  of  his  art.  His  technical 
skill  enabled  him  to  deal  successfully  with  the  most  varied  materials, 
and  many  of  the  ancient  writers  praise  especially  his  accuracy  and 
finish.  He  was  a  consummate  master  of  architectural  effect,  of  form 
and  colour,  of  symmetry  and  rhythm.  Secondly,  and  chiefly,  the  art 
of  Phidias  is  remarkable  for  its  ideality,  for  its  attainment  of  that  ideal 
beauty  which,  as  Plato  says,  is  the  highest  reality  : — 

' 1  What  if  a  man  had  eyes  to  see  the  true  beauty — the  divine  beauty,  I 
mean,  pure  and  clear  and  unalloyed,  not  clogged  with  the  pollutions  of 
mortality  and  all  the  colour  and  vanities  of  human  life — thither  looking  and 
holding  converse  with  the  true  beauty,  divine  and  simple,  and  bringing  into 
being  and  educating  true  creatures  of  virtue  and  not  idols  only  ?  Do  you 
not  see  that,  in  that  communion,  only  beholding  beauty  with  the  eye  of 
the  mind,  he  will  be  enabled  to  bring  forth  not  images  but  realities  ;  for 
he  has  hold  not  of  an  image,  but  of  a  reality,  and  bringing  forth  and 
educating  true  virtue  to  become  the  friend  of  a  god  and  immortal,  if 
mortal  man  may." 

It  was  the  attainment  of  this  ideal  truth  and  beauty  by  Phidias  that 
the  ancients  had  in  mind  when  they  said  that  his  figures  of  the  gods 
added  something  to  the  revealed  religion.  The  great  artist,  says 
Cicero,  when  speaking  of  the  Olympian  Zeus,  when  he  was  moulding 
his  Zeus  or  Athena,  was  not  looking  at  any  form  of  these  deities  of 
which  he  might  make  a  copy,  but  there  dwelt  in  his  mind  a  certain 
form  of  surpassing  beauty,  the  sight  and  intense  contemplation  of  which 
directed  his  art  and  his  hand  to  produce  a  similitude.  As  Shelley 
says  of  the  poet.  Phidias  did  not  copy  the  natural  forms  he  saw  around 
him  : — 

But  from  these  create  he  can 
Forms  more  real  than  living  man, 
Nurslings  of  immortality. 

The  ideality  of  Phidias,  in  this  Platonic  sense  of  the  term,  includes 
all  the  qualities  which  ancient  writers  praised  in  him  :  his  majesty,  his 
grandeur,  dignity,  largeness,  and  beauty,  his  divine  element ;  also  his 
repose,  his  self-containedness,  his  tranquil  air,  the  peace  he  brings 
to  the  troubled  heart  of  the  beholder;  "for  methinks,"  says  Dio 
Chrysostom,   "that  if  one  who  is  heavy  laden  in  mind,  who  has 


1 56 


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CHAP. 


drained  the  cup  of  misfortune  or  sorrow  in  life,  and  whom  sweet  sleep 
visits  no  more,  were  to  stand  before  this  image,  he  would  forget  all  the 
griefs  and  troubles  that  are  incident  to  the  life  of  man, — so  wondrously 
hast  thou,  Phidias,  conceived  and  wrought  it,  and  such  grace  shines 
upon  it  from  thine  art."  The  successors  of  Phidias  attained  equal 
skill  in  execution  and  grace  of  design.  But  in  their  work  there  is  not, 
as  we  shall  see,  quite  the  same  effect  of  majesty  and  repose  that 
characterises  the  art  of  Phidias. 

The  works  of  Phidias  here  collected  show  us  Greek  art  as 
it  was  in  its  brief  poise  of  perfection.  "  Complete  technical 
mastery  has  been  acquired,  and  sculpture  is  freed  from  its 
archaic  fetters.  It  is,  however,  still  pervaded  by  a  certain 
grave  dignity  and  simplicity  which  is  wanting  in  the  more 
sensuous,  more  florid,  or  more  conventional  works  of  a  later 
time."  For  twenty  centuries  the  Temple  of  Art  which  en- 
shrined these  great  works  stood  almost  unscathed.  But  the 
immunity  of  the  sculptured  Olympians  and  Athenians  was  at 
the  price  of  many  changes  of  ritual.  In  the  fifth  century  A.D. 
the  great  statue  of  Athena  was  removed,  and  Santa  Sophia 
(or  the  Divine  Wisdom)  succeeded  her  Greek  prototype  as 
tutelary  deity  of  the  shrine.  For  two  centuries,  during  the 
rule  of  the  Frankish  Dukes  of  Athens,  the  Parthenon  was  a 
Latin  Church.  For  a  few  years  more,  it  reverted  to  the  Greek 
Church,  but  in  1460  it  was  transformed  into  a  Turkish  mosque. 
Its  partial  destruction  was  wrought,  two  centuries  later  (in 
1687),  not  by  the  Turks  but  by  Greeks  in  alliance  with 
the  Venetians,  whose  aid  they  had  sought.  Up  to  this  time 
the  Parthenon  was  still  nearly  perfect,  so  far  as  regarded  the 
external  architecture,  and  even  the  sculpture  was  little  injured. 
But  in  view  of  the  impending  siege  by  the  Venetians,  the 
Turks  had  made  the  temple  a  place  of  arms.  The  Venetian 
General,  Morosini,  having  failed  to  undermine  the  Parthenon, 
determined  to  blow  it  up.  A  bomb  fell  in  it,  and  a  terrific 
explosion  occurred.  The  centre  columns  of  the  peristyle,  the 
walls  of  the  cella,  and  the  immense  architraves  and  cornices 
they  supported,  were  scattered  on  the  ground  ;  much  of  the 
sculpture  was  defaced,  and  a  part  utterly  destroyed.  Further 
injury  was  done  by  Morosini,  who,  in  endeavouring  to  take 
down  the  central  group  of  the  west  pediment,  then  nearly 
complete,  dashed  the  sculpture  to  pieces.  Happily,  however, 
many  of  the  sculptures  had  been  drawn  before  the  explosion. 
In  1674  the  Marquis  de  Nointel,  French  Ambassador  to  the 


X 


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Porte,  had  visited  Athens  and  seen  and  admired  the  Parthenon 
marbles.  At  the  price  of  a  quarter  of  a  hundredweight  of 
coffee  and  six  yards  of  scarlet  cloth,  he  got  leave  for  his 
artist,  Jacques  Carrey,  to  make  sketches.  These  are  preserved 
at  Paris.  Facsimiles  of  Carrey's  drawings  of  the  pediments 
are  exhibited  in  this  room.  In  1688  Athens  was  restored  to 
the  Turks,  and  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  were  exposed 
to  constant  injury  until  Lord  Elgin  removed  those  now  before 
us.  Many  still  remain  on  the  temple  ;  other  pieces,  including 
some  of  great  beauty,  are  preserved  in  the  Acropolis  Museum. 
These  are  represented  here  by  casts.  The  large  model  shows 
the  Parthenon  as  it. was  after  the  explosion  of  1687. 

The  temple  was  of  the  Doric  order  of  architecture.  Tn 
this,  the  oldest,  simplest,  and  most  dignified,  the  massive 
columns  have  no  base  ;  they  are  crowned  with  the  plainest  of 
capitals  above  the  column ;  the  abaci,  above  the  capitals, 
are  heavy ;  the  entablature,  above  the  abacus,  is  massive 
and  simple.  A  characteristic  feature  is  the  triglyphs  (origin- 
ally the  ends  of  the  wooden  cross-beams)  and  between  these 
are  the  metopes.  The  Ionic  order  is  characterised  by  the 
volutes,  or  spiral  projections  at  each  side  of  the  angle.  In 
the  Corinthian  order  the  columns  are  tall  and  slender,  the 
capitals  highly  wrought,  the  cornice  is  elaborate  :  the  Choragic 
monument  of  Lysicrates  is  a  typical  example.  Greek  temples 
are  distinguished  by  different  names,  according  to  the  number 
and  arrangement  of  their  columns.  The  Parthenon  was  of 
the  form  called  peripteral  {i.e.  it  was  surrounded  by  a 
colonnade),  octastyle  {i.e.  with  eight  columns  at  each  end). 
After  an  examination  of  the  large  model  the  reader  will  easily 
understand  the  position  of  the  marbles  which  we  now  proceed 
to  examine. 

THE  EAST  PEDIMENT 

We  come  first  to  the  pediments  {i.e.  the  gables  at  each  end 
of  the  building).  The  sculptures  of  the  east  pediment  are 
arranged  on  marble  pedestals,  to  our  left  as  we  enter  the  room. 
Fragmentary  and  for  the  most  part  headless  though  they 
are,  these  marbles  are  among  the  most  famous,  and  are  in 
some  respects  the  finest,  pieces  of  sculpture  in  the  world. 
They  call,  therefore,  for  close  attention. 

With  regard,  first,  to  the  subject,  we  know  from  Pausanias 


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CHAP. 


that  "  all  the  figures  in  the  gable  over  the  entrance  relate  to 
the  birth  of  Athena."  But  already  in  1674,  when  Carrey 
drew  the  Parthenon  sculptures,  the  central  group  had  totally 
disappeared,  so  that  we  do  not  know  how,  if  at  all,  the  birth 
of  Athena  was  represented.  The  legend  was  that  Hephaestus 
clove  the  skull  of  Zeus  with  his  axe,  from  which  Athena  fully 
armed  sprang  forth.  "  This  rude  symbol  of  his  cleaving  the 
forehead  of  Zeus  with  his  axe  and  giving  birth  to  Athena 
signifies  physically  the  thrilling  power  of  heat  in  the  heavens, 
rending  the  clouds  and  giving  birth  to  the  blue  air  ;  but  far 
more  deeply  it  signifies  the  subduing  of  adverse  Fate  by  true 
labour  ;  while  out  of  the  chasm,  cleft  by  resolute  and  indus- 
trious fortitude,  springs  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom  "  (Ruskin).  In 
vase-paintings  Athena  is  represented  as  a  tiny  figure  hovering 
over  the  head  of  Zeus  (see,  e.g.,  B  147  in  Vase  Room  II., 
p.  320). 

It  is  possible  that  the  scene  was  similarly  represented  on 
the  Parthenon,  for  what  seems  grotesque  to  us  may  not  have 
so  appeared  to  those  familiar  with  that  method  of  symbolising 
the  miracle.  Other  authorities  argue  that  some  more  dignified 
treatment  of  the  subject  would  have  been  adopted  by  Phidias. 
This  may  be  found,  it  is  thought,  in  an  ancient  relief  now  at 
Madrid,  where  the  scene  after  the  miracle  is  depicted.  Zeus 
is  seated  on  a  throne.  In  front  of  him  Athena  advances. 
Between  them  is  a  figure  of  Victory  flying  with  a  wreath  to 
place  on  Athena's  head.  Some  such  composition  may  have 
occupied  the  centre  of  the  pediment.  The  general  sentiment 
of  the  pediment  would  in  any  case  be  the  astonishment  and 
excitement  which  prevailed  at  the  miracle  when  (in  Pindar's 
words)  "  Athena  leapt  to  light,  and  cried  aloud  with  an 
exceeding  cry,  and  Heaven  trembled  at  her  coming,  and 
Earth,  the  Mother."  The  same  scene  is  described  in  the 
Homeric  hymn  to  Athena,  of  which  (says  Miss  Harrison)  the 
east  pediment  is  but  a  translation  into  stone  : — 

Fear  took  hold  of  them  all  at  the  sight — 
Them,  the  Immortals  ;  but  she,  before  Zeus  of  the  aegis-shield, 
Burst  and  flashed  and  leaped  in  birth  before  the  deathless  head, 
Shaking  a  sharp-edged  spear.     And  high  Olympus  reeled 
At  the  wrath  in  the  sea-gray  eyes,  and  Earth  on  every  side 
Rang  with  a  terrible  cry,  and  the  deep  was  disquieted 
With  the  tumult  of  purple  waves  and  outpouring  of  the  tide. 
Suddenly,  and  in  heaven,  Hyperion's  bright  son  stayed 
His  galloping  steeds  for  a  space.  .  .  , 


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The  figures  in  the  extreme  angles  may  be  identified  with 
certainty.  On  the  left  the  horses  represent  the  chariot  of  the 
rising  sun  ;  the  horse,  in  the  other  extremity,  that  of  the  setting 
moon.  "  These  two  figures  —  symbolical  of  the  new  and 
brighter  day  which  dawned  upon  the  world  at  the  Advent  of 
Athena — may  be  interpreted  as  marking  the  boundaries  either 
of  Olympus  or  of  the  universe.  It  has  also  been  suggested 
that  they  indicate  the  hour  at  which  the  birth  took  place. 
This,  according  to  Attic  tradition,  was  at  sunrise."  With 
regard  to  the  other  figures,  "the  field  of  conjecture  is,"  as 
Mr.  Frazer  says,  "  boundless,  and  archaeologists  have  accord- 
ingly expatiated  in  it."  Those  who  are  interested  in  the 
discussion  will  find  a  summary  of  the  different  hypotheses  in 
the  Official  Catalogue  ;  they  should  consult  also  the  appendix 
in  Furtwangler's  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture. 

Coming  to  the  actual  remains  before  us,  we  notice  first  the 
Horses  of  the  Sun,  which  should  be  compared  with  the  Horse 
of  the  Moon  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  pediment.  They 
are  famous  as  consummate  examples  of  the  life  and  breath 
which  the  skill  of  the  sculptor  can  impart  to  marble  : — 

"The  head  of  Helios  has  been  broken  off  and  the  horses  are  much 
injured,  yet  still,  with  their  heads  and  ears  thrown  back  and  their 
powerful  chests  arched  forward,  they  seem  to  rear  and  tug  at  the 
rein — 

The  horses  that  guide  the  golden  eye  of  heaven, 
And  blow  the  morning  from  their  nosterils, 
Making  their  fiery  gait  above  the  clouds. 

In  the  opposite  corner  the  moon-goddess,  Selene,  is  sinking  below  the 
level  of  the  pediment.  One  of  the  four  horses'  heads  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  a  marvellous  union  of  natural  truth  with  idealisation  in  the 
grand  style  ;  the  others  are  still  on  the  pediment.  This  head,  inclined 
downwards,  forms  a  striking  contrast  with  the  up-springing  heads  of 
the  opposite  group.  There  the  sun  comes  forth,  *  like  a  giant  to  run 
his  course '  ;  here  the  yet  panting  steed  seems  eager  to  reach  the  goal 
of  rest.  It  is  marvellous  that  with  such  simple  means,  the  heads  and 
nothing  more,  the  designer  should  be  able  to  stimulate  the  imagination 
so  powerfully"  (Upcott,  p.  41). 

Of  the  Sun -god  himself,  who  is  emerging  in  his  chariot 
from  the  waves,  only  some  fragments  remain.  Notice  that 
at  the  back  are  sculptured  "  small  rippling  waves  to  repre- 
sent a  calm  sea  at  sunrise."  The  waves  are  traced  in  the 
conventional    "  wave -pattern "    manner    common   in  Greek 


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CHAP. 


representations  of  water  (see  p.  295) ;  "  Phidias  has  represented 
these  waves  like  a  mass  of  overlapping  tiles,  thus  generalising 
their  rippling  movement  "  (Newton  in  Ruskin's  Stones  of  Venice, 
vol.  i.  app.  21). 

The  next  figure,  the  so-called  "  Theseus,"  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  marbles  in  the  British  Museum,  "  the  object 
of  wondering  and  despairing  study  to  countless  artists."  "  I 
prefer  the  Theseus,"  said  Flaxman,  "to  the  Apollo  Belvedere. 
It  has  more  ideal  beauty  than  any  male  figure  I  know."  The 
identification  as  Theseus  has  nothing  except  tradition1  to 
recommend  it.  If  it  be  assumed  that  the  figures  in  the 
pediment  were  deities  present  at  the  birth  of  Athena,  then 
this  figure  may  be  taken  for  Dionysus  reclining  on  a  panther's 
skin.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  figures  be  taken  as  per- 
sonifications of  parts  of  the  natural  world,  the  "Theseus" 
may  be  interpreted  as  the  mountain  of  Olympus,  illumined  by 
the  first  rays  of  the  rising  sun  ;  the  attitude  and  type  are 
suitable  for  the  personification  of  a  mountain  "  leaning  solidly 
on  the  earth."  There  are,  however,  objections  to  both  these 
interpretations  —  to  Dionysus,  because  the  powerful  form 
is  inappropriate  to  that  god  ;  to  Mount  Olympus,  because  no 
such  personification  is  known  to  Greek  art  or  literature  of  the 
time.  Furtwangler  suggests  that  the  "  Theseus  "  is  Cephalus, 
the  beautiful  hunter.  "  When  the  sun  rose  yonder  beyond 
Hymettus,  then  the  Athenians  of  Phidias's  time,  as  we  are 
shown  by  a  beautiful  painted  vase  (see  p.  379),  bethought 
themselves  of  Cephalus,  who  was  carried  off  thence  by  Eos," 
goddess  of  the  dawn.  Furtwangler  notes  "in  this  strong  and 
youthful  figure  who  bathes  his  breast  in  the  ruddiness  of 
morning,  a  splendid  counterpart  to  the  deceptive  beautiful 
Fates,  at  the  other  end  of  the  pediment,  who  are  akin  to  the 
darkness  of  night  and  spin  the  mysterious  future."     In  any 

1  Nothing  except  tradition,  and  the  pretty  things  written  round  the 
tradition.  Thus,  Ruskin  :  "The  Ionian  or  Attic  race  express  all  the 
laws  of  human  government,  developed  in  the  highest  states  of  human 
art.  These  are  first  founded  on  industry  and  justice  in  the  dominion  of 
^Eacus  over  the  ant-made  race  at  /Egina,  and  on  earth-born  sagacity 
and  humanity  in  the  kingship  of  Cecrops  ;  fulfilled  in  chivalric  heroism 
by  Codrus  and  Theseus,  whose  crowning  victory  is  over  the  forms  of  evil 
involved  and  defended  by  the  skilfullest  art  ;  and  whose  statue,  the 
central  labour  of  that  art  itself,  has  been  appointed  by  Fate  to  remain  the 
acknowledged  culmen  and  model  of  human  labour,  to  our  own  days  " 
(Bibliotheca  Pastoruj?i,  vol.  i.  ;  The  Economist  of  Xenophon,  Preface, 
p.  xx.). 


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161 


case,  the  perfect  repose  of  the  "Theseus"  is  in  effective 
contrast  to  the  impetuous  horses.  It  is  "the  very  ideal  of 
serene  rest  such  as  gods  enjoy."  Yet  the  robust  form  forbids 
any  attribution  of  weakness  or  indolence  ;  it  "'is  the  rest  of 
reserved  strength,  the  enjoyment  of  sacred  calm."  The  ease 
and  majesty  of  the  attitude  of  this  "  Theseus  "  are  as  remark- 
able as  its  technical  skill  in  the  representation  of  the  human 
form  :  — 

"The  Theseus  presents,  as  it  were,  the  sum  of  all  that  Greek 
sculpture  had  hitherto  attained  in  the  rendering  of  the  male  figure. 
There  is  nothing  about  him  of  the  dry  and  somewhat  meagre  forms 
that  characterise  the  athletic  art  of  early  masters,  nor  of  that  unduly 
square  and  massive  build  that  was  chosen  by  the  sculptors  of  the 
Peloponnese.  It  is  an  absolute  freedom  from  exaggeration  of  any 
sort  that  marks  in  him  the  perfection  of  sculptural  technique.  His 
muscles  are  correctly  felt  and  closely  indicated,  yet  not  in  such  a  way 
as  to  suggest  that  there  is  no  interposing  layer  of  flesh  between  them 
and  the  skin  ;  his  figure  shows  in  every  detail,  as  well  as  in  its  general 
character,  the  most  powerful  build  and  the  height  of  physical  con- 
dition ;  yet  it  is  that  of  a  perfectly  developed  man  rather  than  that  of 
a  successful  athlete.  Above  all,  in  his  pose,  with  its  combination  of 
grace  and  dignity,  we  see  that  Attic  art  has  lost  none  of  its  feeling  for 
beauty  of  composition  and  pleasantness  of  effect,  while  acquiring  the 
more  vigorous  and  severe  excellence  of  other  schools  "  (E.  Gardner, 
Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  285). 

The  two  female  figures  which  come  next  have  been  inter- 
preted, among  other  conjectures,  as  Demeter  and  Persephone, 
and  as  the  Horai  or  Seasons,  warders  of  the  gates  of  Olympus. 
The  Hours,  says  Furtwangler,  "  are  pre-eminently  appropriate 
at  a  birth,  since  they  bring  on  the  due  time  for  its  accomplish- 
ment. While  the  Fates  embodied  the  unknown  dispensations 
of  the  powers  of  destiny,  and  are  therefore  represented  by 
Phidias  as  resting  on  rocks  in  careless  self-abandonment,  the 
Horai  personified  the  conception  of  conscious  adherence  to  law, 
and  Phidias  therefore  makes  them  sit  on  thrones  and  maintain 
a  tranquil  dignity."  The  attitude  and  beauty  of  proportion  in 
these  figures  are  alike  admirable  ;  and,  even  in  the  absence 
of  the  heads,  the  action  may  be  clearly  distinguished.  The 
goddess  on  the  left  is  in  a  position  of  rest;  her  arm  is  laid 
comfortably  on  her  companion's  shoulder.  The  other  goddess 
must  be  supposed  as  having  already  heard  the  great  tidings. 
Her  neck  is  slightly  turned,  as  if  to  speak  to  her  companion, 
and  her  left  arm  is  raised  in  surprise.    The  drapery  is  sculptured 

M 


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CHAP. 


in  a  broad  style,  contrasting  with  the  more  delicately  wrought 
folds  of  the  group  on  the  other  side. 

Next  comes  the  very  graceful  figure  known  as  Iris.  "  The 
wind  outblows  her  scarf  into  a  fluttering  pavilion."  Every  line 
indicates  movement,  as  of  a  swift  gliding  through  the  air ;  the 
figure  seems  the  very  impersonation  of  a  breeze.  The  folds 
indicate  a  descending  motion  through  the  air,  and  she  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  Heavenly  Messenger  on  the  way 
from  Olympus  to  the  world  below  to  bear  the  glad  tidings  of 
Athena's  birth.  But  as  the  figure  has  no  wings,  the  identifica- 
tion with  Iris  seems  impossible.  Moreover,  the  whole  space 
enclosed  within  the  border  of  the  pediment  represents  Olympus. 
No  one  is  hastening  forth  from  it,  but  the  gods  are  in  astonish- 
ment and  excitement.  On  this  latter  theory,  the  so-called 
"  Iris  "  has  been  identified  as  Hebe  or  as  Eileithyia,  the  goddess 
of  childbirth,  and  her  movement  is  explained  as  that  of  one 
startled  at  what  she  has  just  witnessed. 

There  now  comes  a  gap,  which  we  must  fill  in  imagination 
with  some  representation  of  the  birth  of  Athena,  as  described 
above. 

On  the  other  side  we  note  first  a  female  torso,  supposed  to 
be  Nike,  or  Victory,  who  would  be  present  to  welcome  the 
new-born  Athena.  It  will  be  observed  that  on  Carrey's  draw- 
ing of  the  pediment  this  figure  does  not  appear.  It  was  found 
lying  on  the  ground  below  the  front  of  the  temple. 

The  group  of  three  female  figures — popularly  known  as 
"  The  Fates" — is  celebrated  as  the  most  perfect  example 
extant  of  the  artistic  treatment  of  drapery.  Those  critics  who 
interpret  the  figures  of  the  pediment  as  definite  mythological 
personages  have  identified  the  so-called  "  Fates  "  as  the  three 
daughters  of  Cecrops,  or  as  Hestia  and  Aphrodite  lying  in  the 
lap  of  Peitho.  According  to  another  theory,  one  goddess  (K.)  is 
Hestia — the  personification  of  the  hearth  and  home  of  Olympus, 
the  dwelling-place  of  the  gods  ;  and  the  other  figures  are  Gaea 
(the  earth)  and  Thalassa  (the  sea)  in  her  lap.  "The  one 
goddess  (L.)  sits  firmly  upright,  secure  on  her  seat,  the  whole 
composition  dominated  by  vertical  lines  ;  the  other  (M.)  is  in 
every  line  an  impersonation  of  fluid  rhythm."  But  the  old 
interpretation  is  more  probable.  The  goddesses  of  Fate  were 
t  all  times  conceived  as  present  at  births2  and  they  are  here 
associated  with  the  Moon  ;  Hesiod  calls  them  the  daughters 
of  Night.    With  regard  to  the  attitudes  of  these  three  figures, 


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163 


they  repeat  the  M  note  "  of  rest  that  is  struck  on  the  other  side 
by  the  "  Theseus,"  yet  variety  is  obtained  by  subtle  gradations 
from  a  recumbent  to  a  sitting  posture  : — 

"  The  first  (on  the  left  of  the  group)  sits  upright  on  a  separate  rock. 
Her  attention  has  just  been  called  away  from  her  sisters  to  the  centre 
towards  which  she  is  looking.  The  second  figure  also  has  just  made 
a  movement  towards  the  centre,  and  draws  her  legs  under  her  as  if 
preparing  to  rise.  This  change  of  position  has  slightly  disturbed  the 
recumbent  figure,  and  obliged  her  to  raise  herself  a  little  from  her 
companion's  lap,  so  that  her  chiton  slips  downwards  and  reveals  the 
lovely  shoulder  and  bosom.  The  artist  has  lavished  on  their  attire  a 
superabundant  wealth  of  lovely  details,  which  invests  the  majestic  forms 
with  an  ineffable  grace  and  charm.  The  hard  marble  is  absolutely 
transformed  by  the  skill  of  the  artist  into  the  soft  and  delicate  material 
of  the  chiton  which  flows  freely  and  easily  round  the  figure,  adapting 
itself  to  every  movement  of  the  glorious  limbs,  covering,  but  never 
altogether  hiding,  the  exquisite  proportions  of  the  beautiful  and  queenly 
forms  "  (Perry's  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  p.  268). 

The  French  critic,  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  in  a  letter  to 
Canova  on  the  Elgin  Marbles  (18 18),  specially  admired  this 
beautiful  group  : — 

"  There  is,"  he  said,  "a  certain  graceful  indolent  charm  in  the  whole 
work  which  makes  me  always  believe  that  I  see  a  living  woman  dans 
V abandon  du  repos.  I  actually  believe  I  see  a  living  mass  of  body 
bending  under  its  own  weight.  It  is  not  marble — at  least  one  loses  the 
impression  that  it  is  so — it  is  a  living  creature  ;  the  appearance  of 
vitality  destroys  the  impression  of  inanimate  matter  ;  art  vanishes  and 
truth  and  beauty  take  its  place.  It  is  this  that  gives  a  soul  to  stone  ; 
this  delightful  illusion,  which  few  artists  at  any  time  have  known  how 
to  express,  appears  to  me  to  be  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  all 
these  sculptures." 

Goethe  called  drapery  "  the  thousand-fold  echo  of  the  form"  ; 
these  figures  are  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  amount  of 
expression  which  may  exist  in  figures  even  when  the  head  is 
absent. 

Finally,  we  have  to  notice  a  cast  of  the  torso  of  Selen&, 
the  goddess  of  the  Moon,  and  the  original  of  one  of  her  horses, 
whose  downward  inclination  indicates  that  the  Moon  is  about 
to  vanish  below  the  horizon.  We  have  already  noticed  the 
fine  "  contrast  between  the  impetuous  rush  with  which  the 
horses  of  the  rising  Sun  burst  wildly  on  the  scene,  and  the 
gentle  gliding  motion  of  the  chariot  of  the  Moon  as  it  slowly 
and  quietly  sinks  beneath  the  western  wave."  This  horse's 
head  is  in  itself  a  very  famous  work  : — 


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CHAR 


"  In  the  whole  range  of  ancient  art  there  is,  perhaps,  no  work  in 
marble  in  which  the  sculptor  has  shown  such  complete  mastery  over 
his  material.  The  nostrils  '  drink  the  air  * ;  the  fiery  expression  of  the 
eye,  the  bold,  sharply  defined  outlines  of  the  bony  structure,  so  skil- 
fully opposed  to  the  sensitive  flexibility  of  the  nose,  and  the  brawny 
terseness  of  the  arched  neck,  are  so  combined  in  this  noble  work  that 
the  praise  bestowed  on  it  by  Goethe  is  not  extravagant.  'This 
work,'  he  says,  6  whether  created  by  the  imagination  of  the  artist  or 
seen  by  him  in  nature,  seems  the  revelation  of  a  prototype  ;  it  com- 
bines real  truth  with  the  highest  poetical  conception 5 "  (Newton's 
Guide  to  the  Elgin  Room). 

e<  The  outline  of  the  head  is  beautifully  drawn — full  of  variety,  with 
long  lines  so  subtly  curved  that  they  seem  scarcely  removed  from  the 
straight.  See,  too,  how  admirably  the  shapely,  muscular  neck  is 
curved  to  express  vigour  and  proud  bearing.  And  the  eye,  too,  is 
living  ;  and  though  it  may  seem  rather  protruding,  we  must  remember 
that  it  was  to  be  seen  from  below "  (W.  E.  Sparkes  in  The  Practical 
Teacher's  Art  Monthly,  Nov.  1899). 

The  mouth  formerly  held  a  bridle,  for  the  drill-holes  in 
which  the  supports  of  the  harness  were  fixed  may  be  seen  near 
the  ear  and  the  jaw.  From  the  horses  of  Phidias,  says 
Haydon,  we  may  learn  the  lesson  that  elevation  of  sentiment, 
that  the  great  style  in  art,  is  founded  upon  strict  adherence  to 
the  principles  of  nature.     Shakespeare  says  : — 

Look,  when  a  painter  would  surpass  the  life, 
In  limning  out  a  well-proportioned  steed, 
His  art  with  Nature's  workmanship  at  strife, 
As  if  the  dead  the  living  should  exceed. 

In  the  greatest  art  there  is  no  such  strife.  Art  can  surpass 
Nature  only  by  obeying  her.  Natural  forms  may  be  perfected, 
but  not  perverted.  In  the  works  of  later  sculptors  (such  as 
Lysippus),  an  ideal  horse  was  figured,  with  sunken  eye  and 
overhanging  brow,  and  the  "  ideal  n  was  often  adopted  by  the 
painters.  But  the  horses  of  Phidias  have  all  the  characteristics 
of  a  fine  blood  horse  in  full  vigour — the  full  eyes,  the  hollow 
brow,  the  flat  and  decided  jaw  B.  R.  Haydon  in  T.  Elmes's 
A n mils  of  the  Fine  Artsy  18 18,  p.  180). 

THE  WEST  PEDIMENT 

The  sculptures  of  the  west,  or  back,  pediment — the  re- 
mains of  which  are  arranged  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room 
— were  nearly  perfect  at  the  time  when   Carrey  made  his 


X 


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drawing.  To  understand  the  fragments  now  before  us,  refer- 
ence should  be  made  to  the  large  model  of  the  Parthenon. 
The  general  subject  is  known  to  us  from  Pausanias  :  it  was 
"  the  strife  of  Poseidon  with  Athena  for  the  possession  of  the 
land."  This  must  have  been  the  subject  of  the  central  group. 
The  two  deities,  Athena  and  Poseidon,  enamoured  of  the  same 
small  plot  of  ground,  the  rocky  Acropolis  of  Athens,  have 
come  thither  from  Olympus  in  their  chariots.  Each  chariot 
is  driven  by  an  attendant  goddess.  Arrived  together  on  the 
Acropolis,  the  gods  took  possession,  each  by  a  token  of  power 
— Athena  by  making  the  bare  rock  produce  an  olive  tree  ; 
Poseidon  by  striking  the  ground  with  his  trident  and  causing  a 
salt  spring  to  flow  forth.  The  interpretation  of  the  rest  of  the 
pediment  is  uncertain,  and  has  been  much  debated.  The 
general  supposition  with  regard  to  the  figures  in  the  angles  is 
that  they  are  river-gods  ;  in  that  case  the  pediment  may  be 
taken  to  represent  the  Acropolis  between  the  two  rivers  of 
Athens,  the  Cephissus  and  the  Ilissus.  With  regard  to  the 
other  figures,  those  behind  Athena  have  been  variously  inter- 
preted as  (i)  Attic  deities,  and  (2)  Attic  heroes,  Cecrops  and 
his  family,  while  those  behind  Poseidon  are  similarly  identified 
as  (1)  marine  deities,  and  (2)  other  Attic  heroes,  Erechtheus 
and  his  daughters.  Furtwangler,  who  is  the  exponent  of  this 
latter  theory,  energetically  contests  the  popular  supposition 
with  regard  to  the  so-called  "  river-gods,55  and  sees  in  them 
also  Athenian  heroes  (Masterpieces,  Appendix  vi.). 

Such  discussions,  however,  hardly  concern  us  here,  for  the 
actual  remains  of  the  west  pediment  are  too  broken  and 
scanty  to  afford  any  substantial  data.  After  taking  the 
Acropolis  in  1687  the  Venetian  General,  Morosini,  tried  to 
lower  Athena5s  horses,  but  the  tackle  broke  and  the  group  fell 
to  the  ground.  Some  fragments  remain  in  position  on  the 
pediment ;  these  are  represented  here  by  casts.  The  river- 
god  (A.)  and  the  torsos  were  found  by  Lord  Elgin  under  the 
ground. 

The  river-god — probably  the  Cephissus,  not  the  Ilissus — 
is  the  only  figure  from  this  pediment  which  is  sufficiently  intact 
to  be  of  much  general  interest.  It  is  one  of  the  finest,  and 
most  generally  admired,  of  all  the  Elgin  Marbles.  In  the  first 
place,  the  representation  of  the  anatomy  is  perfect.  "We  can 
compare  these  marbles  to  nothing,55  says  Hazlitt,  "  but  human 
figures  petrified  '5 ;  and  he  selects  this  river-god  as  a  proof  of 


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his  thesis  that  the  ideal  form  is  nothing  but  a  selection  of  fine 
nature  : — 

"  Let  any  one  look  at  the  leg  of  the  Ilissus  which  is  bent  under 
him — let  him  observe  the  swell  and  undulation  of  the  calf,  the  inter- 
texture  of  the  muscles,  the  distinction  and  union  of  all  the  parts,  and 
the  effect  of  action  everywhere  impressed  on  the  external  form,  as  if 
the  very  marble  were  a  flexible  substance,  and  contained  the  various 
springs  of  life  and  motion  within  itself,  and  he  will  own  that  art  and 
nature  are  here  the  same  thing"  {Criticisms  on  Art,  p.  241). 

The  general  motion  of  the  figure  seems  to  indicate  the 
moment  of  sudden  transition  from  repose  to  action.  The 
river-god  has  suddenly  raised  himself  from  his  rocky  bed, 
startled  by  the  contest  between  Athena  and  Poseidon.  The 
weight  of  the  body  is  about  to  rest  on  his  left  hand  and  arm. 
As  he  rises,  his  mantle  hangs,  as  it  were,  wet  and  heavy. 
"  In  the  undulating  lines  of  the  drapery,"  says  Newton,  "  the 
sculptor  has  succeeded  in  suggesting  the  idea  of  flowing  water 
without  having  recourse  to  direct  or  conventional  imitation." 
In  this  connection  Michaelis  makes  another  point.  The  under 
side  of  the  left  leg  is  cut  down,  the  effect  being  much  as  if  it 
were  still  in  the  water.  "  The  union  of  anatomical  representa- 
tion, which  is  the  principle  of  movement,  with  that  of  the 
muscles  and  the  flesh,  impresses  upon  the  whole  work,"  says 
Quatremere  de  Quincy,  "such  a  character  at  once  of  force  and 
of  flexibility,  of  strength  and  of  suppleness,  as  makes  the 
figure  breathe  and  live  and  stir.  One  thinks  every  moment 
that  the  Ilissus  is  about  to  rise  ;  one  thinks  that  he  does  rise  ; 
one  is  surprised  to  see  that  he  is  still  there  "  (Leitres  .  .  .  a 
Canova,  18 1 8,  p.  114). 

The  figure  of  the  Cephissus  is  further  of  interest  as  the 
earliest  example  we  have  of  a  reclining  river-god — a  form  of 
representation  now  very  familiar  from  its  adoption  in  Roman 
art.  "  It  is  probable  that  the  necessities  of  pedimental  com- 
position first  led  the  artist  to  place  the  river-god  in  a  reclining 
position."  An  instructive  comparison  might  be  drawn  between 
the  simplicity  of  the  original  type  as  conceived  by  Phidias  and 
the  river-gods  of  the  Roman  period,  loaded  with  symbols  and 
accessories  (see  C.  T.  Newton  in  Ruskin's  Stones  of  Venice, 
vol.  i.  App.  2  1 ). 

Before  leaving  these  famous  works,  which  have  excited  the 
admiration  of  so  many  great  critics  and  have  been  the  wonder 
and  despair  of  successive  generations  of  artists,  a  few  general 


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remarks  on  some  of  their  distinguishing  characteristics  may 

be  made* 

(1)  The  spirit  in  which  the  artist  wrought  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  the  backs  of  the  statues  which  were  set 
against  the  wall  and  could  never  be  seen  by  human  eye  are 
nevertheless  finished  hardly  less  carefully  than  the  other  parts.1 
Whatever  were  the  motives  of  this  apparent  superfluity  of  labour 
— whether  it  were  "  the  true  love  sacrifice  of  a  genuine  artistic 
soul,"  2  or  a  feeling  that  the  truth  of  the  visible  could  only 
be  secured  if  the  whole  work  were  sculptured,  it  is  an  eloquent 
testimony  to  the  sculptor's  straining  after  perfection. 

(2)  We  have  seen  above  that  Goethe  described  the  horse's 
head  on  the  east  pediment  as  a  portrayal  of  "  the  original 
horse,"  of  what  in  the  language  of  Plato  would  be  called 
the  "  idea  "  of  a  horse.  We  have  quoted  on  the  other  hand  a 
passage  from  Hazlitt,  in  which  that  excellent  critic  praises  these 

1  In  this  connection  there  seems  to  me  some  justice  in  a  complaint  made 
in  a  recent  pamphlet.  After  describing  a  dirty  screen  placed  behind  the 
Discobolus,  the  writer  continues  :  ' '  Like  screens,  though  not  quite  so 
squalid,  are  placed  behind  some  of  the.  Elgin  Marbles  with  even  more 
disastrous  results,  for  they  prevent  the  visitor  from  seeing  the  backs  of 
these  noble  images,  the  only  parts  spared  by  time  and  weather  and  human 
imbecility.  ...  It  is  well  that  much  should  be  done  for  the  art-student, 
but  there  are  limits  which  should  not  be  overpassed,  nor  should  the  interests 
of  the  plain  man  be  altogether  lost  sight  of"  (H.  Naegely,  Concerning  the 
Royal  Academy  and  other  Reveries,  p.  62). 

2  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  sculptor  Rietschl,  who  says  : — "It  has 
always  filled  me  with  a  feeling  of  tender  admiration,  that  the  figures  of  the 
Parthenon  are  as  carefully  finished  behind  as  before.  The  artist  knew  that 
when  these  statues  had  left  his  hands  and  studio,  no  mortal  eye  could 
ever  see  the  charming  work  which  his  love  and  diligence  had  created  and 
cherished.  And  now,  after  2000  years,  we  are  permitted,  rather  by  a 
happy  accident  than  by  historical  necessity,  to  discover  the  true  love- 
sacrifices  of  a  genuine  artistic  soul.  Why  did  the  artist  do  that,  in  doing 
which  he  seemed  to  lose  so  much  time  and  labour  ?  He  did  it  from  a 
truly  godlike  creative  impulse  to  call  his  work  into  being  in  full  perfection, 
and  for  its  own  sake,  as  the  flower  springs  up  on  the  lonely  uplands  to 
bloom  in  the  wilderness  unvisited  by  man  or  beast.  It  serves  no  animal 
for  food,  and  yet  it  is  as  perfectly  developed  as  the  most  sumptuous  flower 
in  an  ornamental  garden"  (Perry's  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  p.  271). 
Readers  of  The  Stones  of  Venice  will  remember  Mr.  Ruskin's  condemnation 
of  the  "  utter  coldness  of  feeling"  in  the  Renaissance  sculptor  who  stayed 
his  hand,  even  in  the  portraiture  of  the  dead,  so  soon  as  he  reached  the 
side  that  would  be  out  of  sight.  It  is  interesting  to  reflect  how  much  of 
the  great  art  of  the  world  was  spent  on  places  where  it  was  never  destined 
to  be  seen  at  all,  or  where  it  could  only  be  seen  with  difficulty — on  the 
outside  cella  of  temples,  for  instance,  and  on  the  ceilings  of  the  Ducal 
Palace. 


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statues  of  the  pediments  for  their  close  study  of  nature.  The 
fact  seems  to  be  that  they  present  in  a  remarkable  degree  that 
combination  of  truth  to  nature  with  grandeur  of  effect  which  is 
the  note  of  the  Phidian  ideal.  These  works,  said  the  sculptor 
Dannecker,  "seemed  moulded  from  the  life,  and  yet  he  had 
never  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  in  the  life  such  perfection." 
"These  figures/'''  says  Friederichs,  "are  not  copied  from 
nature,  but  created  after  nature,  and,  although  in  these  mighty 
and  majestic  forms  the  smallest  details — even  to  the  folds  of 
the  skin — are  given,  yet  they  appear  to  be  born  easily  and 
without  trouble,  like  a  dialogue  of  Plato"  (Bausteine). 

(3)  The  beauties  of  the  composition  in  these  pediments 
of  the  Parthenon  require,  in  the  fragmentary  state  of  the 
remains,  some  effort  of  the  imagination  to  appreciate.  A  few 
notes  under  this  head  maybe  useful.  The  general  lines  of  the 
composition  were  enforced  on  the  artist  by  the  triangular  shape 
of  the  space  which  he  had  to  fill.  Standing  figures  had  of 
necessity  to  occupy  the  centre,  and  recumbent  or  stooping 
figures  the  ends  :  and  a  certain  parallelism  between  the  two 
sides  was  also  a  matter  of  necessity.  "  But,  as  in  poetry, 
where  the  shackles  of  rhyme  and  metre,  which  encumber  the 
thoughts  of  ordinary  writers,  are  the  very  source  which  produces 
in  the  true  poet  the  highest  and  most  precious  beauties  of 
expression  :  so  in  sculpture  and  painting,  fixed  conditions 
seem  not  to  injure,  but  to  enhance  and  perfect,  the  beauty  and 
symmetry  attainable  in  the  highest  art ;;  (Mahaffy,  Rambles  in 
Greece,  3rd  ed.,  p.  90).  In  the  present  case  it  should  be 
noticed,  first,  how  successfully  the  artist  breaks  the  main 
architectural  lines  by  every  variety  of  curve  in  the  pediments. 
Again,  though  all  the  attendant  figures  are  present  as 
spectators  of  the  central  action,  they  do  not  all  turn  towards 
it  with  a  monotonous  iteration.  Note,  for  instance,  how 
"Theseus"  is  first  attracted  by  the  horses  of  Helios  :  his  next 
action,  we  may  suppose,  will  be  to  turn  to  the  centre,  and  his 
bond  with  the  central  group  is  thus  indirect  (Murray).  A 
close  study  of  the  pediments  in  Carrey's  drawings  will  reveal 
other  refinements  of  this  kind.  The  reader  will  find  it 
instructive  to  contrast  the  composition  here  with  that  of  the 
pediments  from  .-Egina  (Ch.  VII.),  in  which  the  uniformity  and 
symmetry  are  rigid  and  monotonous. 

It  is  sad  that  no  heads  are  left  on  the  figures  from  the 
pediments,  except  that  of  the  so-called  "  Theseus,"  the  surface 


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of  which  is  too  damaged  to  give  us  much  idea  of  the  expression. 
There  is,  however,  a  colossal  head,  now  in  Paris,  which  is 
believed  to  have  belonged  to  one  of  the  figures.  A  cast  of 
this  head  (339)  stands  on  the  top  of  the  frieze,  on  the  right  of  the 
door  into  the  Nereid  Room.  The  head  was  found  in  a  house 
of  the  San  Gallo  family  at  Venice.  A  member  of  the  family 
was  secretary  to  Morosini,  the  Venetian  General  who  bombarded 
the  Acropolis  in  1687.  The  head  may  have  been  taken  home 
as  a  trophy.  The  head  opposite  (340)  is  a  cast  from  an 
original  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris,  which  also  has 
sometimes  been  assigned  to  the  pediments  of  the  Parthenon. 

THE  METOPES 

We  may  next  examine  the  metopes  which  are  arranged  high 
up  on  the  west  wall  of  the  room.  Metopes  were  the  sculptured 
blocks  inserted  in  the  spaces  left  between  the  triglyphs  or 
slabs  which  represented  the  ends  of  the  beams  of  the  roof. 
The  Parthenon  had  originally  ninety-two  metopes,  an  un- 
usually large  number,  which  must  have  taxed  to  the  utmost 
the  artist's  power  of  invention.  Many  of  the  metopes  still 
remain  on  the  temple,  but  are  badly  decayed.  The  fifteen 
original  metopes  brought  from  Athens  by  Lord  Elgin  (Nos. 
305-312,  315-321)  all  come  from  the  south  side  of  the  temple. 
Another  of  the  same  series  (No.  31 3)  was  obtained  by 
Choiseul-Gouffier,  and  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  A  cast  is 
exhibited  here.  There  is  also  a  cast  of  another  (No.  314),  of 
which  the  original  is  in  the  Acropolis  Museum.  No.  322  is  a 
cast  from  a  metope  on  the  north  side,  and  No.  323  from  one 
on  the  west  side.  A  comparison  between  the  metopes  as  they 
now  exist  and  as  they  appear  in  Carrey's  drawings  shows  the 
damage  to  which  they  were  exposed.  In  some  cases  our 
metopes  have  been  restored  from  fragments  now  existing 
elsewhere.  Thus  the  heads  on  No.  307  are  casts  from  the 
originals  in  the  Museum  at  Copenhagen. 

The  fifteen  originals  among  the  Elgin  Marbles  enable  us  to 
judge  of  the  artistic  style  of  the  whole.  In  some  respects  the 
artistic  treatment  of  the  metopes  was  governed  by  the  position 
of  the  slabs  on  the  building.  Thus,  in  the  first  place,  notice 
that  the  sculpture  of  the  metopes  is  in  the  highest  possible 
relief — large  portions  of  some  of  the  figures  being  carved  in 
the  round.     If  we  now  cast  our  eye  down  to  the  frieze  which 


170 


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hangs  below  the  metopes,  we  shall  see  that  in  the  frieze  the 
relief  is  very  low.  A  glance  at  the  large  model  of  the 
Parthenon  will  make  the  reason  for  this  difference  obvious. 
The  frieze  could  only  be  seen  from  the  colonnade  or  by  a  spec- 
tator walking  just  outside.  The  metopes  could  be  seen  by 
spectators  at  a  distance,  and  forty  feet  from  the  ground  ;  and 
it  was  necessary,  therefore,  that  they  should  stand  out  boldly. 
"  Projection  commands  shade,  and  shade  is  necessary  to  make 
the  figure  conspicuous  in  a  strong  light.  Flatness,  on  the 
other  hand,  commands  light,  and  the  flattest  relief  is  fittest  for 
a  dark  situation."  Secondly,  each  metope  was,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  model,  a  kind  of  framed  picture  in  stone.  Hence, 
whereas  the  frieze  below  represented  a  continuous  procession, 
the  metopes  represented  single  incidents.  Thirdly,  these 
incidents  are  scenes  of  conflict.  The  artistic  object  of  the 
slabs  would  be  to  break  upon  the  squareness  and  straightness 
of  all  the  other  members  of  the  frieze  and  architrave.  This 
is  admirably  done,  as  there  is  no  conceivable  design  which 
more  completely  breaks  the  stiff  rectangles  of  the  entablature 
than  the  various  and  violent  curves  of  wrestling  figures 
(Mahaffy).  The  selection  of  attitudes  is  governed  by  another 
consideration.  In  metopes  much  less  variety  and  choice  is 
open  to  the  sculptor  than  in  a  frieze  in  low  relief : — 

"  In  the  highest  relief  however  decided  the  shadows  may  and  must 
of  necessity  be,  on  the  plane  to  which  the  figure  is  attached,  the  light 
on  the  figure  itself  is  kept  as  unbroken  as  possible,  and  this  can  only  be 
effected  by  a  selection  of  open  attitudes  :  that  is,  such  an  arrangement 
of  the  limbs  as  shall  not  cast  shadows  on  the  figure  itself.  In  basso- 
relievo the  same  general  effect  of  the  figure  is  given,  but  by  very 
different  means  ;  the  attitude  is  not  selected  to  avoid  shadows  on 
the  figure,  because,  while  the  extreme  outline  is  strongly  marked,  the 
shadows  within  it  may  be  in  a  great  measure  suppressed,  so  that  the 
choice  of  attitudes  is  greater  "  (Eastlake's  Contributions  to  the  Literature 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  p.  116). 

The  subject  selected  in  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon  for 
the  display  of  the  requisite  qualities  is  the  contest  between 
the  Centaurs  and  Lapiths  at  the  marriage  feast  of  Peirithous — 
a  legend  to  which  the  Greeks  attached  peculiar  importance  as 
allegorical  of  the  first  contests  between  civilisation  and  bar- 
barism, and  which  was  of  additional  interest  to  the  Athenians 
as  introducing  their  national  hero.  The  Greeks  on  their 
national  monuments  did  not  indulge  the  realism  which  depicts 


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contemporary  events.  They  went  back  for  types  and  alle- 
gories to  the  legends  of  old.  The  battles  with  the  Centaurs 
and  Amazons  were,  as  Mr.  Colvin  puts  it,  types  of  which 
Marathon  and  Salamis  were  the  antitypes.  Peirithous,  king 
of  the  Lapiths,  had  summoned  Theseus  to  celebrate  his 
marriage  with  Deidameia,  to  which  festivity  came  also  the 
Centaurs  from  the  Thessalian  mountains.  During  the  feast 
these  wild,  ungovernable  creatures,  half- man,  half- horse, 
became  inflamed  with  wine,  and  attempted  to  carry  off  the 
women.  Whereupon  a  battle  ensued ;  the  Lapiths  were 
victorious,  and  to  them  was  attributed  the  invention  of  the  bit 
and  the  bridle.  We  shall  meet  with  the  same  subject  again, 
in  the  next  room,  on  the  Phigalian  frieze,  and  a  comparison 
of  the  treatment  of  it  in  the  two  cases  will  suggest  many 
points  of  artistic  interest. 

In  studying  the  Parthenon  metopes,  we  may  notice  that, 
"  as  becomes  a  marriage  ceremony,  the  Lapiths  are  youthful, 
beardless,  slim,  but  firmly  knit."  The  Centaurs,  on  the  other 
hand,  "  like  rustic,  half-civilised  neighbours,  are  bearded  and 
mature  in  years.  Wine  has  inflamed  the  brutality  of  their 
nature,  and  some  of  them  have  already  seized  on  the  maidens 
present  at  the  ceremony,  to  carry  them  off  to  the  wilderness." 
Thus  in  307  the  victorious  Centaur  is  about  to  hurl  a  large 
wine-cup  on  his  prostrate  foe  ;  in  312  the  Lapith  is  thrown 
down  over  a  large  wine-vessel  ;  in  3 1 8  the  Centaur  is  carrying 
off  a  Lapith  woman.  Note  that  in  this  case  the  Centaur's 
head  has  the  pointed  ears  which  are  characteristic  of  the  semi- 
bestial  type.  In  contrast  to  the  ferocity  of  the  Centaurs, 
notice  how  calmly  the  Lapiths  expire  {e.g.  307),  and  with  what 
austerity  their  faces  are  treated.  The  countenance  of  the 
Lapith  in  No.  320  is  especially  fine.  We  may  read  into  this 
contrast  the  very  spirit  of  the  whole  myth  : — 

"The  Greeks  were  the  first  people  that  were  born  into  complete 
humanity.  All  nations  before  them  had  been,  and  all  around  them 
still  were,  partly  savage,  bestial,  clay -encumbered,  inhuman  ;  still 
semi-goat,  or  semi-ant,  or  semi-stone,  or  semi-cloud.  But  the  power 
of  a  new  spirit  came  upon  the  Greeks,  and  the  stones  were  filled  with 
breath,  and  the  clouds  clothed  with  flesh  ;  and  then  came  the  great 
spiritual  battle  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae  ;  and  the  living 
creatures  became  'Children  of  Men.'  Taught,  yet  by  the  Centaur — 
sown,  as  they  knew,  in  the  fang — from  the  dappled  skin  of  the  brute, 
from  the  leprous  scale  of  the  serpent,  their  flesh  came  again  as  the  flesh 
of  a  little  child,  and  they  were  clean"  (Ruskin,  Aratra  Pentelici,  §  76). 


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In  composition,  in  artistic  effect,  and  in  technical  skill,  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  unevenness  in  the  slabs.  That  they  were 
not  the  production  of  one  hand  is  clear ;  whether  they  were 
the  designs  of  the  same  artist  may  be  doubted.  Contrast,  for 
instance,  Nos.  315  and  316.  In  the  former  the  actions  are 
violent ;  yet  they  seem  to  lack  decision.  In  316,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  idea  of  force  and  energy  is  conveyed  in  every  line  of 
the  man's  body,  nor  can  anything  be  finer  than  the  instinctive 
action  with  which  the  Centaur  clutches  at  his  wounded  back  in 
the  moment  of  pain.  In  point  of  composition,  also,  No.  315 
is  somewhat  bald  and  meagre.  No.  316  is  a  masterpiece  in 
variety  and  balance  ;  the  flowing  lines  of  the  Lapith's  mantle 
form  a  very  effective  contrast  to  the  tension  of  the  bodily  limbs. 
The  figure  is  "finished  as  exquisitely  where  it  is  not  seen  as  it 
is  in  front."  This  metope  and  Nos.  310  and  317  are  generally 
accounted  the  finest  of  the  series.  In  No.  310  the  action  is 
full  of  spirit,  and  the  drapery  is  very  happily  employed  to 
emphasise  its  rapidity.  There  is  a  beautiful  rendering  of 
drapery  in  the  figure  of  the  woman  carried  off  by  a  Centaur  in 
No.  318,  but  the  general  effect  is  tame.  In  No.  317,  where 
the  Centaur  is  victorious,  the  contrast  between  the  expression 
of  death  in  the  body  of  the  prostrate  Lapith — "  his  knees 
loosened,"  in  the  Homeric  phrase — and  that  of  triumph  in  the 
Centaur,  as  he  brandishes  the  lion-skin,  lashes  his  tail,  and 
prepares  to  gallop  off  to  a  new  adversary,  is  most  effective. 

An  interesting  point  to  notice  in  these  metopes  is  the  treat- 
ment of  the  Centaurs.  It  is,  as  we  have  seen,  one  of  the 
functions  of  Greek  art  to  humanise  barbarous  conceptions  and 
reduce  them  to  artistic  service.  This  process  may  be  well 
seen  in  the  Centaurs  of  the  Parthenon.  In  archaic  Greek  art 
these  monsters  were  represented  with  the  fore-legs  of  a  man, 
but  with  the  hind-legs  of  a  horse.  The  composite  figure  thus 
produced  is  excessively  ungainly  ;  and  later  Greek  artists, 
feeling  this,  gave  their  Centaurs  the  fore-legs,  as  well  as  the 
hind-legs,  of  a  horse.  The  gain  in  artistic  effect  was  immense 
(Frazer's  Pausam'as,  iii.  619).  But,  even  so,  the  human  body 
joined  at  the  waist  to  the  horse's  neck  is  one  of  the  worst  of 
the  mixed  forms  devised  by  fancy,  since  it  implies  a  duplica- 
tion of  so  many  of  the  essential  organs.  The  sculptor  of  the 
Parthenon  produces  a  more  consistent  and  harmonious  effect 
by  "the  adoption  of  a  familiar  device  of  archaic  art,  by  which 
the  beast  is  seen  facing,  the  lower  part  of  the  body  in  profile. 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


173 


So  in  these  metopes  the  human  upper  part  of  the  Centaurs  is 
always  seen  either  from  the  front  or  three-quarter  face  ;  while 
the  equine  body  is  seen  in  profile  ;  the  breadth  thus  gained  for 
the  upper  part,  and  the  subtle  curves  of  the  transition  from  the 
one  form  to  the  other,  seen  only  in  front,  and  implied  at  the 
back,  help  to  justify  and  almost  to  make  credible  the  monstrous 
combination"  (E.  Gardner,  p.  273).  It  has  been  pointed  out, 
further,  that  in  these  metopes  the  equine  body  of  the  Centaurs 
is  never  exhibited  in  death  or  agony  ;  it  is  at  the  human  part 
of  the  Centaurs  that  the  Lapiths  level  their  weapons.  The 
sculptor  has  adopted  in  many  of  the  Centaurs  the  movements 
of  a  high-bred  horse  under  management  (Murray,  ii.  57).  In 
this  way  he  elevates  his  subject,  by  securing  a  simple,  natural, 
and  dignified  action,  and  rationalises  the  legend,  so  as  to  make 
the  otherwise  strange  subject  acceptable  to  ordinary  spectators. 
To  the  Lapiths,  as  we  have  seen,  was  attributed  the  invention 
of  the  bit  and  bridle,  and  this  is  one  aspect  of  the  legend  which 
seems  to  be  seized  by  the  sculptor.  A  comparison  with  the 
Phigalian  frieze  will  show  how  rare  was  the  perfect  poise  of 
Attic  art  at  its  best. 

THE  FRIEZE  OF  THE  PARTHENON 

"It  would  be  vain  to  point  out  the  truly  immeasurable  wealth  of 
beauty  that  is  displayed  in  these  most  splendid  of  frieze  compositions. 
But  if  we  reflect  how  monotonously  such  processions  were  depicted  by 
Oriental  art,  and  if  we  compare  with  them  the  inexhaustible  power  of 
imagination,  the  variety,  the  charming  animation,  the  attraction  of 
quiet  grace,  of  solemn  dignity,  of  vigorous  life,  and  of  sparkling  and 
spirited  action,  which  meet  us  in  the  countless  figures  of  this  frieze,  we 
perceive  that  such  a  work  could  alone  have  proceeded  from  the  great 
master  of  a  perfectly  untrammelled  art,  and  could  only  have  proceeded 
from  him  when  a  people  exuberant  in  beauty,  nurtured  in  freedom, 
and  conspicuous  for  nobility  of  manners  and  cultivation,  such  as  the 
Athenians  of  that  period,  presented  the  most  beautiful  models  to  the 
eye  of  the  artist"  (Liibke,  History  of  Sculpture r  i.  155). 

The  marbles  which  we  have  next  to  examine  are  from  the 
frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  and  are  arranged  all  round  the  room 
on  the  level  of  the  eye.  More  than  half  of  the  slabs  here 
exhibited  are  the  original  marbles,  removed  by  Lord  Elgin 
from  the  temple.  The  remainder  (generally  distinguishable  at 
a  glance  by  their  brighter  colour)  are  casts  from  marbles  which 
still  remain  on  the  temple,  or  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  at 


174 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Athens  and  elsewhere.  The  double  interest  in  these  bas- 
reliefs  is  well  suggested  by  Liibke  in  the  passage  quoted  above. 
The  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  is  at  once  a  beautiful  work  of  art 
and  an  important  historical  document.  Artistically,  it  is  full 
of  varied  beauty  ;  historically,  it  gives  us  a  picture  of  the 
Athenian  people1: — 

"  These  reliefs  set  before  us  in  a  way  which  no  mere  words  can  do 
the  very  form  and  spirit  of  Periclean  Athens.  It  is  the  very  epitome 
of  Attic  history,  and  teaches  us  more  than  a  thousand  treatises.  From 
the  Gods  of  Olympus  with  their  priests  to  the  poor  dumb  victims 
which  bled  upon  their  altars  ;  from  the  Archon  and  Eupatrid  to  the 
charioteer  and  the  slave  groom,  all  are  there.  In  long  array  we  behold 
the  stately  magistrates  and  the  venerable  seers  of  Athens,  the  sacred 
envoys  of  dependent  states,  the  victors  in  their  chariots  drawn  by  the 
steeds  which  had  won  for  them  the  cheap  but  priceless  garland,  the 
full -armed  warriors,  the  splendid  cavalry,  and  the  noble  youths  of 
'  horse-loving '  Athens  on  their  favourite  steeds,  in  the  flush  and  pride 
of  their  young  life  ;  and  last,  not  least,  the  train  of  high-born  Athenian 
maidens,  marching  with  bowed  heads  and  quiet  gaits,  for  they  are 
engaged  in  holy  work,  with  modest  mien,  and  gentle  dignity  and  grace. 
All  that  was  sacred,  powerful,  and  grand,  all  that  was  beautiful, 
graceful,  and  joyous  in  Athenian  life,  is  represented  here,  in  ideal  form, 
of  course,  but  in  strict  conformity  with  the  realities  of  life"  (Perry's 
Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  p.  299). 

From  both  points  of  view — the  historical  and  the  artistic — 
these  marbles  call  for  long  and  attentive  study. 

The  position  of  the  frieze  will  be  understood  at  once 
by  a  glance  at  the  large  model  of  the  Parthenon.  It  ran  all 
round  the  temple,  on  the  outside  wall  of  the  ceila  (or  interior 
chamber).  It  could  thus  only  be  seen  by  persons  standing 
within  the  colonnades  and  looking  up,  or  by  persons  outside 
looking  up  between  the  columns  of  the  peristyle.  This  position 
explains  why  the  sculpture  is  in  very  low  relief.     Unlike  the 

1  In  this  way  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  is  historical  art  in  the  best 
sense  of  the  term.  There  is  a  reproduction  of  it  on  the  Athenaeum  Club, 
in  Pall  Mall,  and  Mr.  Ruskin  draws  the  distinction  :  "Admired  beyond 
all  other  marble  shapes  in  the  world  ;  for  which  reason,  the  gentlemen  of 
my  literary  club  here  in  London,  professing  devotion  to  the  same  goddess, 
decorate  their  very  comfortable  corner  house  in  Pall  Mall  with  a  copy  of 
this  Attic  sculpture.  Being  therein,  themselves,  Attic  in  no  wise,  but 
essentially  barbarous,  pilfering  what  they  cannot  imitate  ;  for  a  truly  Attic 
mind  would  have  induced  them  to  portray  themselves,  as  they  appear  in 
their  own  Pan-Christian  procession,  whenever  and  wherever  it  may  be 
— presumably  to  Epsom  Downs  on  the  Derby  day"  (Fors  Clavigera, 
xxiii.  5). 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


175 


metopes,  the  frieze  could  only  be  seen  from  near,  and  received 
such  light  only  as  penetrated  between  the  columns  or  was 
reflected  upwards  from  the  marble  floor.  Being  thus  scantily 
lighted,  it  was  necessarily  kept  flat,  so  as  to  avoid  the  deep 
shadows  of  high  relief.  No  doubt  it  derived  much  of  its  effect 
from  the  colour  employed  to  set  off  the  figures  from  the  back- 
ground ;  bronze  seems  also  to  have  been  freely  used  in  the 
trappings,  etc.  (see  p.  187).  It  may  be  noted,  lastly,  with 
regard  to  the  work  in  low  relief,  that  it  tends  to  become  in- 
distinct and  formless,  unless  the  outlines  are  conspicuous  at 
the  first  glance.  "  The  contrivance  by  which  this  is  effected 
is  by  abruptly  sinking  the  edges  of  the  form  to  the  plane  on 
which  they  are  raised,  instead  of  gradually  rounding  and 
losing  them  "  (Eastlake). 

The  subject  of  the  frieze  was  to  some  extent  governed  by 
its  position.  It  decorated  a  temple  of  Athena,  and  it  occupied 
a  place  where  continuity  was  the  effect  aimed  at.  Nothing 
was  so  well .  calculated  to  give  this  as  a  procession.  Seen 
from  outside,  "  the  advance  of  the  moving  procession,  as  seen 
between  the  columns  by  a  spectator  walking  outside,  would 
give  a  peculiarly  lifelike  appearance  as  its  scenes  opened 
themselves  one  after  another  to  the  view"  (Gardner,  p.  293). 
The  visitor  to  the  British  Museum  may  perceive  this  effect 
by  walking  slowly  round  the  large  model.  The  procession 
chosen  for  representation  is  that  which  was  formed  in 
connection  with  the  Panathenaic  Festival,  held  every  fourth 
year  in  honour  of  Athena  Polias,  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
Acropolis.  A  procession,  solemn  sacrifices  and  the  offering  of 
a  new  robe  (peplos)  to  the  goddess,  were  among  the  chief 
ceremonies.  The  procession,  which  was  ordered  by  marshals, 
assembled  in  the  outer  Ceramicus  (or  potters'  quarter),  and 
after  passing  through  the  lower  city,  ascended  the  Acropolis. 
In  the  procession  the  whole  body  of  Athenian  citizens  were 
represented.  Each  of  the  Athenian  colonies  contributed 
sacrificial  victims,  and  sent  special  envoys.  We  may  therefore 
liken  the  subject  represented  on  the  frieze  in  some  sort  to  a 
cattle-show,  but  more  fully  to  our  own  "  Jubilee  "  or  Coronation 
processions. 

The  arrangement  of  the  frieze. — The  sculptures  represent- 
ing this  Athenian  "  Jubilee  "  were  conceived  by  the  artist  as  a 
whole,  culminating  on  the  east  side  of  the  temple,  where,  in  the 
centre  above  the  principal  entrance  to  the  temple,  is  represented 


West  Frieze 


Cavalry  Preparing- 
Slabs       i  -  xvi 


Plan  of  the 
Parthenon  Frieze. 


IITA'tlA 

TIA 

IA  5> 

AT 

nt-I 

spoo 

S0[(l0J 

spoo 

suapi-B]^ 

Y/alker  &  Cockerellso. 


B.  Branch -bearer 
M.  Musicians 


V.  Vase-bearer 
T.  Tray -bearer 


176 


CHAP.  X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


177 


the  delivery  of  the  peplos  (Figs.  30-34  on  the  east  side  of  this 
room).  Towards  this  central  group  the  whole  procession 
moves.  The  accompanying  plan  will  help  the  visitor  to 
understand  the  scheme.  The  procession  is  represented  as 
starting  at  the  south-west  angle.  One  part  moves  along  the 
west  and  north  sides  ;  the  other  in  the  opposite  direction, 
along  the  south  side.  The  figures  on  the  west  side,  which 
a  visitor  to  the  Acropolis  would  first  see,  show  the  procession 
in  preparation  ;  Dr.  Murray  suggests  that  the  artist's  idea  was 
to  show  the  two  sides  of  a  procession  as  seen  at  the  same 
moment  from  two  sides  of  the  road.  It  will  be  observed  from 
our  plan  that  there  is  an  exact  correspondence  between  the 
two  sides ;  to  a  spectator  stationed  at  the  east  end  the 
arrangement  of  the  frieze  might  well  suggest  the  idea  thus 
indicated.  The  spectator  in  the  British  Museum  must  re- 
member that  the  slabs  are  here  turned,  as  it  were,  inside 
out.  They  are  necessarily  arranged  as  an  internal  decoration : 
on  the  temple  they  were  an  external  decoration. 

THE  WEST  FRIEZE 

We  will  begin  our  examination  with  the  marbles  from  the 
south-west  angle  (behind  the  large  model)  and  follow  the  pro- 
cession round  the  west  and  north  sides.  Slabs  I.  and  II.  of  the 
west  side  (numbers  of  the  slabs  are  below  in  Roman  numerals) 
are  originals  brought  by  Lord  Elgin  ;  the  remainder  are  casts 
from  the  originals  which  are  still  in  position  on  the  temple. 
Two  sets  of  casts  of  this  side  of  the  frieze  are  exhibited  in 
parallel  lines.  The  lower  series  was  taken  from  moulds  made 
by  Lord  Elgin  in  1801  ;  the  upper,  in  1872.  The  exhibition 
may  be  taken  as  a  kind  of  justification  of  Lord  Elgin's  action. 
For  a  comparison  of  the  two  sets  of  casts  shows  how  much  the 
frieze  has  suffered  from  exposure  to  weather,  in  the  ruined 
state  of  the  temple,  during  seventy  years.  Notice,  for  instance, 
in  Figure  15  (the  numbers  of  the  figures  are  above  in  Arabic 
numerals)  how  the  head  had  disappeared  between  1801  and 
1872. 

The  subject  of  the  west  frieze  is  the  preparation  of  the 
procession.  Some  of  the  cavalry  are  just  mounted  ;  others 
are  quieting  their  restless  steeds,  or  preparing  to  mount.  In 
accordance  with  this  nature  of  the  subject,  the  slabs  are 
independent  of  each  other,  the  west  frieze  differing  in  this 

N 


i78 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


respect  from  the  north  and  south.  But  though  there  is  a 
number  of  isolated  groups  exhibiting  great  variety  of  atti- 
tude, the  prevailing  movement  is  harmonious  and  uniform. 
As  we  pass  along,  we  note  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
figures  : — 

30,  One  of  the  marshals  who  occur  at  frequent  intervals  throughout 
the  procession.  The  supply  of  the  men  for  this  duty  was,  we  read, 
the  privilege  of  a  particular  family,  the  Euneidse. 

29.  A  youth  stoops  down  to  fasten  his  boot,  resting  his  foot  on  a 
stone  ;  such  stones  may  have  been  placed  for  assistance  in  mounting. 
The  same  attitude  occurs,  though  with  differences  of  detail,  in  No.  12 
farther  on  ;  and  it  became  a  favourite  motive  in  Greek  art.  The 
graceful  pose  afforded  a  good  opportunity  for  displaying  the  elasticity 
of  youthful  forms. 

17.  The  rider  wears  the  broad-brimmed  "Thessalian  hat." 

14.  The  youth  has  a  characteristically  grave  expression. 

11.  This  figure  is  unique  upon  the  frieze  for  the  richly-adorned 
armour  which  the  rider  wears.  On  the  front  of  the  cuirass  is  a 
Gorgon's  head  in  relief.  The  variety  which  pervades  the  costumes 
throughout  the  frieze  is  remarkable.  Some  of  the  figures  are  clothed 
from  head  to  feet,  others  have  naked  feet,  and  others  have  boots  of 
various  kinds;  some  have  no  garment  but  the  chlamys.  Some  have 
hats,  or  helmets  ;  others  are  uncovered.  "  But  it  is  from  this  seem- 
ing confusion,"  says  Dodwell,  "this  variety  of  attitudes,  of  dress  and 
preparation,  of  precipitancy  and  care,  of  busy  movement  and  relaxed 
effort,  that  the  composition  derives  so  much  of  its  effect. " 

8.  The  other  horsemen  are  young  men  of  a  uniform  type.  But 
Nos.  8  and  15  are  of  middle  age  and  bearded.  "Their  position  seems 
to  be  that  of  guides  or  instructors  accompanying  the  procession,  and 
probably  riding  alone  at  its  side,  while  the  others  rode  in  ranks  of  two 
or  more  deep." 

2.  This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  figures  on  the  frieze.  The 
young  rider  turns  round,  and  his  cloak  flies  in  the  wind.  In  the 
ALthiopica  (third  book)  of  Heliodorus  (the  earliest  novel  which  has 
come  down  to  us)  there  is  an  account  of  another  Greek  procession 
which  is  aptly  cited  in  the  Official  Catalogue  as  a  vivid  commentary  on 
the  Parthenon  frieze.  When  we  look  at  beautiful  figures  such  as  the 
one  before  us,  we  are  reminded  of  Heliodorus's  description  of  his 
hero:  "He  rode  bareheaded  and  wore  a  purple  cloak.  A  gentle 
breeze  gave  him  further  grace,  spreading  his  hair  about  his  neck,  and 
parting  the  locks  on  his  forehead,  and  blowing  the  ends  of  his 
cloak  about  the  back  and  flanks  of  his  horse.  And  the  horse  itself 
seemed  conscious  of  the  exceeding  beauty  of  its  master,  as  it  arched 
its  neck,  and  pricked  up  its  ears,  and  frowned  its  brows,  and  advanced 
proudly,  giving  ready  obedience  to  the  rein." 

1  (North-west  angle).  Here  we  have  another  herald,  marshalling 
the  procession  :  "In  like  manner  Hippias  was  in  the  outer  Ceramicus 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


179 


'  arranging  how  each  part  of  the  Panathenaic  procession  ought  to  go 
forward,'  when  he  was  attacked  by  Harmodios  and  Aristogeiton " 
(Thuc.  vi.  57). 

THE  NORTH  FRIEZE 

We  must  now  imagine  ourselves  to  turn  the  north-west 
angle,  and  continue  our  examination  of  the  frieze  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Parthenon.  The  slabs  from  this  north  frieze  are 
hung  round  the  room  in  a  continuous  line,  past  the  door  into 
the  Ephesus  Room  and  on  until  we  reach  the  door  into  the 
Nereid  Room.  Most  of  the  slabs  are  the  originals,  removed 
by  Lord  Elgin,  but  several  are  casts  from  the  originals  now 
at  Athens.  Many  are  still  in  fine  condition,  especially  the 
long  cavalcade  of  horsemen,  and  these  are  generally  accounted 
the  most  beautiful  examples  in  the  world  of  sculpture  in  low 
relief.  It  may  be  useful  to  remind  the  spectator  of  one  or 
two  of  the  laws  which  the  nature  of  bas-relief  imposes  upon 
the  sculptor.  In  the  first  place,  he  cannot  have  any  middle 
distance  and  background,  and  hence  he  must  as  far  as  possible 
fill  his  whole  space.  Secondly,  he  has  to  adopt  the  principle 
of  isocefihalismy  i.e.  all  the  heads  in  this  frieze  are  on  the 
same  level,  whether  the  figures  are  standing  or  mounted. 
Thirdly,  the  sculptor  has  to  abandon  the  strict  laws  of  per- 
spective. These  would  require  a  diminution  in  the  size  of 
figures  seen  one  behind  the  other.  This  requirement  is  often 
violated  in  the  frankest  and  most  daring  manner.  Another 
necessary  characteristic  of  bas-relief  as  distinguished  from 
sculpture  in  the  round  is  the  greater  sketchiness  of  the  former. 
This  will  be  appreciated  in  a  moment  by  comparing  the  treat- 
ment of  the  draperies  in  the  frieze  and  in  the  pediment 
respectively.  Readers  who  desire  to  follow  out  these  technical 
points  further  will  find  much  that  is  suggestive  in  Ruskin's 
Aratra  Pentelici,  ch.  v.,  and  Eastlake's  Contributions  to  the 
Literature  of  the  Fine  Arts.  We  must  now  pass  on  to 
examine  the  slabs  in  detail : — 

110-53.  Athenian  cavalry. 

109,  no.  The  west  frieze,  as  we  have  seen,  represented  prepara- 
tions for  the  procession.  The  continuity  is  preserved  by  a  gradual 
transition  to  the  procession  itself.  Here,  therefore,  we  have  the  first 
rider  still  not  quite  ready.  He  is  pulling  his  chiton  down  in  front, 
while  a  boy  attendant  (no)  pulls  it  down  from  under  the  girdle  behind. 

107.  A  beautiful  figure. 

97.  A  lovely  head  very  well  preserved.    The  head  was  formerly  in 


i8o 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


the  Pourtales  collection,  at  the  sale  of  which,  in  1865,  it  was  purchased 
for  the  British  Museum,  and  inserted  in  its  place  on  the  frieze.  It  is 
interesting  to  notice  from  how  many  different  quarters  the  piecing 
together  of  the  frieze  has  come,  Thus  the  head  of  85  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  from  whom  it  passed  to  the 
Royal  Academy,  who  presented  it  to  the  Museum  in  181 7.  No.  75 
was  discovered  in  1850  in  the  collection  of  sculptures  at  Marbury 
Hall  in  Cheshire,  and  was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  Mr.  Smith 
Barry,  the  owner  of  that  collection.  It  is  clear  that  the  Parthenon 
was  at  one  time  a  kind  of  quarry  from  which  the  collections  of  the 
dilettanti  were  enriched.  Many  of  the  slabs,  now  preserved  in  the 
Museum  at  Athens,  have  been  unearthed  at  various  times  in  excava- 
tions at  the  base  of  the  temple. 

Figure  53  is  the  last  of  the  Athenian  cavalry,  and  before 
we  pass  on  we  may  glance  back  for  a  moment  at  this  part  of 
the  procession  as  a  whole,  and  make  a  few  general  observa- 
tions. These  observations  are  applicable  mutatis  mutandis  to 
the  frieze  as  a  whole,  but  are  perhaps  peculiarly  applicable 
here,  when  we  are  examining  the  best  preserved  portion. 
The  procession  of  Athenian  cavalry  is  famous  first  for  the 
extraordinary  skill  with  which  the  artist  combines  variety  with 
unity,  order  with  freedom. 

The  spectator  will  derive  at  once  from  the  contemplation 
of  these  slabs  "an  impression  of  uniformity  in  the  types 
of  the  youths  selected  for  the  cavalcade  —  selected,  doubt- 
less, in  a  spirit  of  solemnity  which  sees  in  the  uni- 
formity of  outward  appearance  a  symbol  of  oneness  of  mind, 
just  as  an  irregular  or  motley  crowd  is  associated  with 
diverse  amusements  and  gaiety"  (Murray,  ii.  35).  The 
particular  type  selected  by  the  sculptor  is  very  characteristic 
of  the  Greek  ideal.  The  nature  of  this  has  been  well  defined 
by  Ruskin.  It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  a  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  Greek  art  is  its  search  for  personal  beauty — 
rare,  subtle,  and  haunting.  But  this  is  hardly  so.  Rather  is 
Greek  art,  of  the  Phidian  ideal,  distinguished  by  "  everlasting 
calm  in  the  presence  of  all  fate  ;  and  joy  such  as  they  could 
win,  not  indeed  in  a  perfect  beauty,  but  in  beauty  at  perfect 
rest"  {The  Queen  of  the  Air,  §  175).  Clear-cut,  calm, 
collected,  such  are  pre-eminently  the  characteristics  which  we 
find  in  the  faces  of  the  Athenian  cavalry,  as  designed  by 
Phidias.  But  now  note,  in  the  next  place,  how  skilfully 
elements  of  diversity  are  introduced  to  relieve  the  uniformity 
of  which  we  have  spoken.     In  the  first  place,  great  variety  is 


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181 


introduced  in  the  costumes  and  accoutrements  of  the  horsemen. 
Details  of  this  variety  are  collected  in  the  Official  Catalogue, 
p.  175,  and  the  visitor  will  find  it  interesting  to  trace  them  for 
himself.  In  the  next  place,  notice  the  contrast  between  the 
calm  faces,  the  even  hand  and  well-armed  seat  of  the  riders, 
and  the  irregular  movements  and  fiery  impatience  of  the 
horses.  The  effect  has  been  compared  to  that  of  "  a  fine 
stream  with  an  infinite  play  of  light  on  its  surface,  which 
makes  you  almost  insensible  of  its  steady  onward  flow  "  (see 
Murray,  ii.  34,  37).  The  contrast  between  the  movements  is 
carried  out  also  in  the  expressions.  The  calm  of  the  young 
men's  faces  contrasts  strongly  with  the  intensity  of  expression 
often  put  into  those  of  the  horses.  They  are  like  the  horse 
in  the  "  Rhyme  of  the  Duchess  May"  : — 

And  a  look  of  human  woe  from  his  staring  eyes  did  go. 

The  horses  throughout  the  frieze  are  wrought  with  the 
utmost  skill.  Of  a  hundred  and  ten  which  are  introduced 
no  two  are  in  the  same  attitude,  but  all  are  instinct  with  life. 
"  We  possess  in  England,"  said  Flaxman,  "  the  most  precious 
examples  of  Grecian  power  in  the  sculpture  of  animals.  The 
horses  of  the  frieze  in  the  Elgin  collection  appear  to  live 
and  move,  to  roll  their  eyes,  to  gallop,  prance  and  curvet. 
The  veins  of  their  faces  and  legs  seem  distended  with  circu- 
lation ;  in  them  are  distinguished  the  hardness  and  decision  of 
bony  forms,  from  the  elasticity  of  tendon  and  the  softness  of 
flesh.  The  beholder  is  charmed  with  the  deer-like  lightness  and 
elegance  of  their  make  ;  and  although  the  relief  is  not  above 
an  inch  from  the  background,  and  they  are  so  much  smaller 
than  nature,  we  can  scarcely  suffer  reason  to  persuade  us  that 
they  are  not  alive"  {Lectures  on  Sculpture,  ed.  1865,  p.  124).1 

1  The  praise  bestowed  by  the  learned  critics  upon  the  horses  and 
riders  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  was  on  one  occasion  confirmed  by  a  pro- 
fessional gentleman  in  another  walk  of  life.  Shortly  after  the  Elgin 
Marbles  were  first  exhibited,  a  visitor  was  observed  to  enter  the  gallery 
attended  by  a  dozen  young  gentlemen.  To  them  he  made  the  following 
observations  :  ' '  See,  gentlemen,  look  at  the  riders  all  round  the  room  ; 
see  how  they  sit ;  see  with  what  ease  and  elegance  they  ride  ;  they 
have  no  saddles,  no  stirrups,  they  must  have  leaped  upon  their 
horses  in  grand  style.  You  will  do  well  to  study  the  position  of  those 
noble  fellows  ;  stay  here  this  morning,  and  I  am  sure  you  will  seat 
yourselves  better  to-morrow."  The  speaker  was  a  riding-master  who 
had  brought  his  pupils  for  a  lesson  in  the  Elgin  room  instead  of  in  the 
riding-school  (Nolleke?is  and  his  Times,  i.  316). 


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CHAP. 


52-31.  We  may  now  leave  the  cavalry  and  pass  on  to  the  procession 
of  four-horsed  chariots,  accompanied  by  apobatae  (or  warriors  on  foot) 
and  marshals.  This  portion  of  the  frieze  is  much  mutilated,  but  some 
of  the  remaining  figures  are  of  great  beauty.  Some  of  the  fragments, 
now  at  Athens,  were  only  discovered  during  the  excavations  in  1889. 

49,  41.  Especially  noticeable  are  the  figures  numbered  49  and  41. 
No.  49  —  an  apobate  armed  with  helmet  and  buckler  —  is  stepping 
into  the  chariot — a  very  fine  figure.  No.  41  is  about  to  step  off  from 
the  chariot:  "a  figure  of  such  beauty  as  goes  beyond  description. 
The  shield  is  thrown  back  in  the  natural  action  of  stepping  down,  and, 
while  in  this  way  allowing  all  the  beauty  of  the  form  to  be  clearly 
seen,  it  at  the  same  time  forms  a  frame  in  which  the  conspicuous  part 
of  the  figure  is  encircled  and  detached  from  the  lines  of  the  surround- 
ing figures.  So  unobtrusively  is  this  accomplished,  and  so  natural  is 
the  action,  that  the  very  decided  emphasis  thus  given  to  the  figure 
escapes  notice,  and  all  thought  of  the  artist's  skill  is  apt  to  disappear 
in  instinctive  admiration  of  his  ever  lovely  creation"  (Murray,  ii.  39). 

30-24.  Next  come  the  Thallophori  or  branch -bearers.  The 
carrying  of  branches  of  Athena's  olive  in  the  Panathenaic  procession 
was  a  privilege  assigned  to  elderly  citizens,  and  the  artist  is  able  to 
obtain  a  marked  contrast  between  the  sedate  march  of  the  Thallophori 
and  the  vigorous  animation  of  the  chariots  and  their  youthful  warriors. 
"The  transition  from  the  rapid  motion  of  the  chariot  to  the  quietude 
of  the  Thallophori  is  skilfully  effected  by  a  chariot  seen  in  rapid 
motion,  but  in  the  act  of  being  suddenly  checked  by  the  marshal  (31), 
who  is  represented  eagerly  pressing  back  the  plunging  horses  of  the 
chariot  which  follows  on  the  next  slab.  In  the  haste  of  his  movement 
he  has  nearly  thrown  off  his  mantle,  holding  it  from  slipping  further 
with  his  right  hand  on  his  right  thigh"  {Catalogue  of  Sculpture ',  i.  169). 

24-16.  In  contrast  with  the  elderly  branch-bearers,  who  keep  close 
together,  is  the  open  order  of  the  musicians — players  on  the  lyre  and 
flute — who  come  next,  wearing  long  chitons  and  "stepping  to  a  slow 
and  stately  tune." 

15-12.  The  next  slab  (VI.)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the 
frieze.  The  original  slab  (from  which  this  is  a  cast)  was  found  among 
the  ruins  in  1833,  an^  *s  now  m  tne  Acropolis  Museum  at  Athens. 
The  group  is  that  of  bearers  of  wine-vessels  for  the  sacrifices.  Three 
carry  the  vases,  with  exquisite  grace,  upon  their  shoulders  ;  the  fourth 
stoops  to  raise  his  vase  from  the  ground.  "Here  it  should  be 
observed  how  skilfully  the  artist  has  perceived  that  this  action  of 
stooping  low  down  is  beautiful  only  in  the  front  aspect,  and  has  hid 
the  rest  of  the  form  behind  the  next  figure  following,  thus  at  the  same 
time  intensifying  the  beautiful  eagerness  of  youth  "  (Murray,  ii.  40). 

11,  10.  The  next  figure  (11)  is  that  of  a  tray -bearer.  Other 
figures  of  the  same  kind  are  lost.  The  trays  contained  offerings  of 
cake.     After  the  tray-bearer  is  another  marshal  (10). 

9-1.  Next  come  the  victims  for  the  sacrifice.  Each  cow  is  led  by 
ropes  held  by  two  youths,  one  on  each  side  ;  each  sheep  by  one  boy. 


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THE  EAST  FRIEZE 

We  have  now  reached  the  end  of  the  slabs  on  the  north 
frieze  of  the  temple.  On  the  other  side  of  the  door  into  the 
Nereid  Room  commence  the  slabs  of  the  east  frieze  : — 

60-49.  Maidens,  with  occasional  marshals  as  before.  On  Slab 
VIII.  the  maidens  carry  sacrificial  vessels  ;  they  are  very  graceful. 
The  original  of  Slab  VII.  was  removed  from  the  Acropolis  by  Choiseul- 
Gouffier  in  1787,  and  is  now  in  the  Louvre.  Two  of  the  maidens 
(50,  49)  stand  with  empty  hands.  "  Perhaps  one  has  given  up  the 
dish  which  is  held  by  the  officer  (48).  In  that  case  these  would  be 
Canephori,  maidens  of  noble  birth,  whose  privilege  it  was  to  carry  in 
the  procession  the  dishes  in  which  sacrificial  instruments  were  usually 
brought  to  the  altar"  {Catalogue  of  Sculpture ;  i.  164). 

48-42.  Next  come  a  group  of  men,  most  of  them  elderly — usually 
called  magistrates.  They  are  partly  engaged  in  marshalling  the  pro- 
cession (48-46)  ;  the  rest  are  leaning  on  their  staffs,  and  waiting  for 
the  procession  to  arrive. 

At  this  point,  while  we  also  rest,  we  may  break  off  for  a 
moment  and  listen  to  a  further  passage  from  Heliodorus  : — 

"  The  bulls  were  followed  by  a  crowd  of  other  victims,  each  kind 
being  led  separately  and  in  order.  Meanwhile  flute  and  pipe  were 
playing  a  melody  which  was,  as  it  were,  an  introduction  to  the  sacri- 
fice. The  cattle  and  their  escort  were  followed  by  maidens  with 
flowing  hair.  They  were  in  two  troops  :  the  first  carried  baskets  of 
fruits  and  flowers  ;  the  second  troop  carried  flat  baskets  writh  sweet- 
meats and  incense,  and  filled  the  place  with  sweet  smells.  They  bore 
their  burdens  on  their  heads,  leaving  their  hands  free,  and  kept  their 
ranks  true  both  from  front  to  rear  and  from  side  to  side,  that  they 
might  march  and  dance  while  the  first  troop  gave  the  time,  singing  a 
hymn  in  honour  of  Thetis.  The  troops  were  so  harmonious,  and  the 
sound  of  marching  was  so  accurately  timed  to  the  song,  that  hearing 
seemed  better  than  seeing,  and  the  spectators  followed  the  maidens  as 
they  passed,  as  if  they  were  drawn  by  the  melody." 

An  interesting  discovery  has  recently  been  made  which 
throws  fuller  light  on  the  procession  of  maidens  in  this  frieze. 
An  Attic  decree,  of  98  B.C.,  shows  that  the  selected  maidens 
who  prepared  the  sacred  robe  took  part  also  in  the  procession. 
The  decree  records  that  these  maidens  had  performed  all  their 
duties,  and  "  had  walked  in  the  procession  in  the  manner 
ordained  with  the  utmost  beauty  and  grace." 

The  procession  which  we  have  traced  along  the  west  and 
north  sides  of  the  frieze  has  now,  as  we  have  seen,  turned  the 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


corner  on  to  the  east  side.  A  similar  procession  (which  we 
shall  trace  presently  in  the  reverse  order)  is  advancing  along 
the  south  side.  Between  the  two  processions  are  the  central 
groups  of  the  frieze.  There  has  been  much  discussion  and 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the  precise 
signification  of  these  central  groups.  We  shall  here  take  for 
granted  the  more  commonly  accepted  theory.  In  the  centre, 
then,  of  the  east  frieze  was  a  representation  of  the  ceremony 
in  which  the  festival  culminated,  viz.  the  presentation  of  the 
Peplos  (35-31;.  On  either  side  of  this  central  group  is  a 
group  of  seven  deities  (41-36  and  30-24).  The  gods  and 
goddesses  have  assembled  to  honour  the  festival  of  Athena  by 
their  presence,  and  they  must  be  conceived  by  the  spectator 
as  being  only  ideally  present,  awaiting  the  commencement  of 
the  ceremony.  In  a  picture  they  would  doubtless  have  been 
represented  in  a  semicircle  in  the  background.  The  sculptor 
is  deprived  of  this  resource,  and  has  to  adopt  various  little 
devices  to  explain  his  meaning.  Thus,  the  heads  of  the  gods 
are  on  a  higher  level  than  those  of  the  mortals  :  the  prevailing 
lines  in  the  divine  groups  are  vertical  instead  of  horizontal  : 
and  the  nearest  mortals  turn  their  backs  on  the  gods  :  this  of 
course  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  gods  were  to  be  understood 
as  actually  present  (cf.  the  sculptures  from  the  Theseum,  p.  198) 
Probably  the  distinction  was  originally  enforced  by  a  difference 
in  colour — red  instead  of  blue. 

We  may  now  continue  our  examination  of  the  figures  in 
detail :- — 

41.  A  lovely  figure  of  the  god  of  love,  Eros. 

40.  Beside  him  sits  his  mother,  Aphrodite,  extending  her  forefinger 
as  if  to  point  out  some  object  in  the  procession  to  the  boy.  , 

39-37.  Demeter,  Dionysus,  Poseidon.  The  original  marble,  from 
which  this  is  a  cast,  is  in  very  good  condition,  was  dug  up  in  1836, 
and  is  now  in  the  Acropolis  Museum.  As  a  rule,  the  faces  of  the 
gods  on  the  frieze  have  suffered  very  badly  ;  perhaps  from  being  re- 
cognised as  such  by  Christian  iconoclasts.  But  here  the  faces  are 
nearly  perfect  : — "  Two  gods  and  a  goddess  ;  the  goddess  of  a  beauty- 
mature  but  still  young,  one  of  the  gods  bearded  and  in  the  prime  of 
life,  the  other  a  beardless  youth.  This  is  all  we  know.  Each  face  is 
of  a  proud,  impersonal  beauty  ...  of  unexampled  grace.  .  .  .  The 
attitude  of  each  figure  is  perfectly  simple,  and  yet  pervaded  by  a  sort 
of  delicate  restraint  which  is  almost  a  mannerism  and  yet  never  affected. 
It  is  natural,  and  yet  something  a  little  beyond  nature.  Always  in 
looking  at  this  frieze  we  are  haunted  by  a  sense  of  something  away — 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


a  far-off  undertone  of  unearthly  serenity "  (J.   E.  Harrison,  Intro- 
diictory  Studies  in  Gi'eek  Art>  p.  214). 
36.  Hephaestus.     35.  Athena. 

34-30.  The  central  group  of  the  whole  frieze  ;  and  the  great  scene 
of  the  ceremony,  conceived  as  being  performed  in  the  interior  of  the 
temple.  A  youth  (34) — an  acolyte,  we  may  say — is  handing  to  the 
priest  (33)  the  embroidered  robe  for  presentation  to  the  goddess. 
"  The  action  is  represented  in  the  most  natural  and  life-like  way  ;  we 
see  how  the  man  has  lifted  the  heavy  piece  of  stuff  with  both  hands  to 
bring  it  near  his  face  and  examine  it  critically ;  the  attitude  of  his 
right  hand,  too,  is  just  that  of  feeling  a  piece  of  stuff  with  a  view  of 
testing  it."  Beside  the  priest  is  a  priestess  (33),  to  whom  female 
attendants  (31  and  30)  are  bringing  stools,  which  they  carry  on  their 
heads.  The  heads  are  protected  by  pads.  (There  is  a  figure  carrying 
a  stool  in  similar  fashion  on  a  vase,  E  169,  see  p.  198.)  These  figures 
also  represent  one  of  the  most  sacred  acts  of  the  ceremonial.  The 
seats  are  being  brought  in  for  the  divine  guests  expected  at  the  feast. 
What  faith  thus  conceived  as  the  invisible  sequel,  the  artist  has  repre- 
sented as  actually  taking  place.  He  shows  us  the  real  presence  of  the 
gods.  On  either  side  the  gods  have  already  arrived  and  have  taken 
their  places  on  the  seats  made  ready  for  them  in  the  temple.1 

29-23.  We  now  come  to  a  second  group  of  deities,  corresponding 
to  those  we  have  passed  on  the  other  side  of  the  Peplos  group.  First, 
comes  Zeus  (29).  There  is  much  dignity  in  his  mien,  and  it  should 
be  observed  that  he  is  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  company  of 
the  gods  by  the  ornamental  chair  on  which  he  sits. 

Then  follow  Hera  (28),  who  displays  her  beautiful  arms,  and  turn- 
ing to  her  lord  lifts  the  veil  from  her  face  ;  and  Iris  (27).  The  original 
of  the  head  of  Iris,  in  exquisite  preservation,  is  at  Athens.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1889  in  the  course  of  excavations  on  the  Acropolis;  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  removed  before  the  conversion  of  the  Parthenon 
into  a  church  and,  by  being  built  into  a  wall,  to  have  escaped  the 
mutilation  which  befell  other  pieces  of  the  marble. 

The  next  god  (26)  sits  in  a  negligent  attitude,  clasping  his  knee 
with  his  hands  as  a  relief  from  the  fatigue  of  sitting  on  a  stool  without 
a  back.  He  is  supposed  to  be  Ares.  The  remaining  deities  may  be 
Artemis  (25),  Apollo  (24),  and  Hermes  (23). 

22-19.  This  group  of  magistrates  corresponds  with  one  on  the  other 
side  (45-42).     They  stand  conversing  in  the  same  easy  attitudes. 

18,  17.  Marshals. 

16,  15.  Maidens. 

14-11.  Maidens  carrying  some  kind  of  sacrificial  instruments. 


1  This  is  Furtwangler's  interpretation  :  see  Appendix  iii.  of  his  Master- 
pieces. Other  authorities  suppose  the  seats  to  be  intended  for  the  officiat- 
ing priests,  and  the  robe  to  be  either  the  priest's  robe  or  the  old  robe  of 
the  goddess  being  carried  away.  Apart  from  other  objections,  such 
theories  reduce  the  culminating  point  of  Phidias' s  design  to  bathos. 


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CHAP. 


10-6.  Maidens  carrying  wine  jugs,  etc. 
5-2.  Maidens  carrying  bowls. 

1.  A  marshal.  He  looks  back  as  if  to  make  a  signal  to  the  pro- 
cession advancing  along  the  south  side,  and  thus  assists  to  preserve  the 
continuity. 

THE  SOUTH  FRIEZE 

We  continue  our  tour  of  the  room,  and  thus  inspect  the 
south  frieze  in  a  reverse  order  to  that  followed  in  the  case  of 
the  north  frieze.  The  arrangement  is  closely  parallel,  and 
the  south  side  is  on  the  whole  not  so  well  preserved  as  on  the 
north  ;  but  there  are  some  fragments  of  great  beauty  : — 

91-80.  Victims  for  the  sacrifice.  Here  they  are  only  cows  ;  on 
the  north  side  they  were  cows  and  sheep.  The  cows  are  very  finely 
rendered.  Notice  in  81  the  folds  of  hanging  skin  on  the  animal's 
neck  ;  the  marble  is  wrought  into  the  very  resemblance  of  softness. 

66.  (Slab  XXX.)  "  The  horses'  heads,  which  are  treated  with  more 
freedom  on  this  slab  than  elsewhere  on  the  frieze,  are  of  extraordinary 
beauty"  {Catalogue  of  Sculpture,  i.  187).  Ruskin  gives  a  drawing  of 
this  slab  to  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  the  virtue  of  handling  in 
sculpture  :  "A  great  sculptor  uses  his  tool  exactly  as  a  painter  his 
pencil,  and  you  may  recognise  the  decision  of  his  thought  and  glow  of 
his  temper,  no  less  in  the  workmanship  than  in  the  design.  .  .  .  The 
projection  of  the  heads  of  the  four  horses,  one  behind  the  other,  is 
certainly  not  more,  altogether,  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the 
flat  ground,  and  the  one  in  front  does  not  in  reality  project  more  than 
the  one  behind  it,  yet,  by  mere  drawing,  you  see  the  sculptor  has  got 
them  to  appear  to  recede  in  due  order,  and  by  the  soft  rounding  of  the 
flesh  surfaces,  and  modulation  of  the  veins,  he  has  taken  away  all  look 
of  flatness  from  the  necks.  He  has  drawn  the  eyes  and  nostrils  with 
dark  incision,  careful  as  the  finest  touches  of  a  painter's  pencil ;  and 
then,  at  last,  when  he  comes  to  the  manes,  he  has  let  fly  hand  and 
chisel  with  their  full  force  ;  and  where  a  base  workman  (above  all,  if 
he  had  modelled  the  thing  in  clay  first)  would  have  lost  himself  in 
laborious  imitation  of  hair,  the  Greek  has  struck  the  tresses  out  with 
angular  incisions,  deep  driven,  every  one  in  appointed  place  and 
deliberate  curve,  yet  flowing  so  free  under  his  noble  hand  that  you 
cannot  alter,  without  harm,  the  bending  of  any  single  ridge,  nor  con- 
tract, nor  extend,  a  point  of  them"  {Aratra  Pentelici,  §  179).  It  has 
been  well  said  of  "  the  incomparably  beautiful  low  relief  of  the 
Parthenon  frieze,"  that  "  there  are  many  parts  which  can  only  be 
compared  to  the  impression  of  a  contemporary  Athenian  gem.  In 
some  of  the  groups  the  nearest  plane  of  the  relief  is  reduced  to  a  thin- 
ness which  seems  almost  to  require  the  translucency  of  a  precious  stone 
to  show  up  the  exquisite  beauty  of  the  work,  instead  of  the  coarse 
opaque  marble"  {Quarterly  Review,  Oct.  1901). 


X 


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187 


35.  Notice  the  very  conspicuous  holes  on  the  crown  of  the  head. 
They  must  have  been  for  the  attachment  of  a  metal  wreath.  There  are 
on  some  of  the  slabs  similar  holes  on  the  horses'  crests,  showing  that 
the  reins  were  also  of  metal.  In  the  Mausoleum  Room  (Ch.  XII.)  we 
may  see  actual  remains  of  such  metal  adornments.  One  must  mentally 
supply  these  accessories  to  get  a  correct  idea  of  the  design.  The 
passage  from  Heliodorus,  already  quoted,  may  help  us  to  supply  the 
colour:  "At  length  the  appearance  of  the  youthful  cavalry  and  of  its 
leader  proved  that  a  noble  sight  was  better  than  any  music.  There 
were  fifty  youths,  in  two  troops  of  five-and-twenty,  acting  as  body- 
guard. Their  boots  were  laced  with  purple  thongs  and  tied  above  the 
ankle.  Their  cloaks  were  white  with  dark-blue  borders,  and  were 
fastened  on  their  breasts  with  golden  brooches.  The  horses  were  all 
Thessalian,  and  breathed  the  freedom  of  their  native  plains.  They 
tried  to  spue  out  their  bits  and  covered  them  with  foam,  as  if  rebellious, 
yet  submitted  to  the  will  of  the  riders.  It  seemed  as  if  there  had  been 
a  rivalry  among  their  masters  in  adorning  their  horses  with  frontlets 
and  cheek-pieces,  silver  or  gilded." 

29.  Very  beautiful. 

26.  Another  beautiful  figure.  The  faces  of  some  of  these  young 
knights  recall  that  of  the  (so-called)  young  Malatesta  in  Paolo  Uccello's 
picture  at  the  National  Gallery  (No.  583)  :  "  Erect  he  sits,  and  quiet  ; 
calm  as  if  he  were  at  a  hawking  party,  only  more  grave  ;  his  golden 
hair  wreathed  about  his  proud  white  brow,  as  about  a  statue's."  Some 
of  us,  in  examining  these  sculptures  of  young  Athenian  cavalry,  will 
recall  another  passage  in  which  Ruskin  likens  the  horses  of  the 
Parthenon  to  the  wild  white  horses  of  the  sea.  It  occurs  in  a  note  on 
Hook's  "Luff,  boy  !  "  exhibited  in  1859  :  "A  glorious  picture — most 
glorious — '  Hempen  bridle,  and  horse  of  tree.'  Nay,  rather,  backs  of 
blue  horses,  foam-fetlocked,  rearing  beside  us  as  we  ride,  tossing  their 
tameless  crests,  with  deep-drawn  thunder  in  their  overtaking  tread.  I 
wonder  if  Mr.  Hook  when  he  drew  that  boy  thought  of  the  Elgin 
Marbles  1 ;  the  helmetless,  unsworded,  unarmoured  men  of  Marathon. 
I  think  not  :  the  likeness  is  too  lovely  to  be  conscious  :  it  is  all  the 
more  touching.  They  also,  the  men  of  Marathon,  horsemen  riding 
upon  horses  given  them  of  the  sea-god.     The  earth  struck  by  the 


1  As  a  matter  of  fact  Mr.  Hook  did  carefully  study  the  Elgin  Marbles. 
In  the  second  volume  of  my  Popular  Handbook  to  the  National  Gallery 
many  references  will  be  found  to  English  artists  who  have  derived  in- 
spiration from  the  Elgin  Marbles.  M.  de  la  Sizeranne  says  on  this 
point:  "Publicists  like  Mr.  Frederic  Harrison,  who  would  restore  the 
Elgin  Marbles  to  Greece  and  who  delight  in  describing  all  that  Europe 
loses  in  not  acquiring  them,  forget  to  mention  all  that  their  compatriots 
have  gained  by  the  possession  of  them.  Many  artists  copy  them,  a  large 
number  draw  inspiration  from  them,  and  one  finds  reproductions  of  them 
in  all  the  studios.  It  is  before  these  marbles  that  most  of  the  great  artists 
of  to-day  formed  their  style." 


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CHAP. 


trident  takes  such  shape — a  white  wave,  with  its  foaming  mane  and  its 
crested  head,  made  living  for  them." 

We  follow  the  frieze  round  until  we  come  to  Figure  No.  i  — 
a  marshal.  Here  we  find  ourselves  again  at  the  south-west 
angle  from  which  we  started,  and  our  examination  of  the 
outside  of  the  Parthenon  is  complete. 

THE  STATUE  OF  ATHENA  PARTHENOS 

We  must  now  in  imagination  enter  the  temple  itself. 
Against  one  of  the  walls  of  this  room  will  be  seen  some 
statuettes  of  a  goddess.  These  are  rough  copies  in  miniature 
of  the  colossal  statue  of  Athena  Parthenos  by  Phidias,  which 
stood  inside  the  temple  itself  and  met  the  gaze  of  the  worshipper 
as  he  entered.  The  statue,  one  of  the  two  most  celebrated  in 
the  ancient  world,  stood  for  many  centuries  in  its  place  ;  but 
disappeared  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  To  us, 
who  can  never  look  upon  the  face  of  the  goddess  herself,  the  ex- 
ternal sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  are  the  object  of  study  and 
admiration.  But  among  the  ancients  these  were  but  minor 
decorations  of  a  shrine  principally  famous  for  the  great  statue 
within.  Classical  literature,  which  has  nothing  to  tell  us  of  the 
sculptures  of  the  temple,  contains  many  references  to  the  statue. 
Pausanias,  for  instance,  passes  the  pediments  of  the  temple  with 
the  barest  reference  and  does  not  notice  the  frieze  at  all,  but 
devotes  several  paragraphs  of  his  guide-book  to  the  statue  : — 

"The  image  itself  is  made  of  ivory  and  gold.  Its  helmet  is 
surmounted  in  the  middle  by  a  figure  of  a  sphinx,  and  on  either  side  of 
the  helmet  are  griffins  wrought  in  relief.  The  image  of  Athena  stands 
upright,  clad  in  a  garment  that  reaches  to  her  feet ;  on  her  breast  is 
the  head  of  Medusa  wrought  in  ivory.  She  holds  a  Victory  about  four 
cubits  high,  and  in  the  other  hand  a  spear.  At  her  feet  lies  a  shield, 
and  near  the  spear  is  a  serpent  "  (I.  xxiv.  5-7). 

The  statuettes  before  us  enable  us  to  realise  many  of  these 
details.  No.  300  (a  cast,  original  at  Athens)  is  known  as  the 
Varvakion  statuette.  It  was  found  in  1880,  in  a  shrine  in 
a  private  house  near  a  school  established  by  Mr.  Varvakis. 
Next  to  it  is  the  cast  of  a  marble  statuette,  on  a  somewhat 
larger  scale,  found  at  Patras.1    This  is  probably  the  earliest 

3  The  story  of  the  rescue  of  this  statuette  from  obscurity  and  a 
discussion  of, various  points  raised  by  it  will  be  found  in  the  A?inual  of 
the  British  School  at  Athens,  No.  111. 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


and  most  faithful  of  all  the  copies.  The  head  is  wanting,  but 
the  pose,  etc.,  is  the  same  as  in  300.  No.  301  (a  cast,  original 
at  Athens)  was  found  in  1889  near  the  Pnyx  :  it  is  rough  and 
unfinished,  but  gives  many  details  not  found  on  the  others. 
No.  302,  fragment  of  a  shield,  is  a  copy  from  the  shield  of  the 
Athena  Parthenos.1  Notice  the  figure  of  an  elderly  man 
raising  both  hands  above  his  head  to  strike.  This  is  the 
supposed  portrait  of  Phidias  himself,  referred  to  by  Plutarch  in 
his  life  of  Pericles.  A  former  assistant  of  the  sculptor  brought 
a  charge  against  him,  so  the  story  runs,  of  having  appropriated 
part  of  the  gold  and  ivory  allowed  him  for  the  statue.  Being 
acquitted  on  this  charge  he  was  next  denounced  for  introducing 
portraits  of  himself  and  Pericles  on  the  shield  of  the  goddess. 
Phidias  represented  himself,  we  read,  as  an  old  bald-headed 
man  raising  a  stone  with  both  hands  ;  while  in  another  figure, 
who  was  represented  fighting  against  an  Amazon  with  one 
hand,  holding  out  a  spear  in  such  a  way  as  to  conceal  the 
face,  the  sculptor  introduced  the  likeness  of  Pericles.  It  would 
be  pleasant  to  think  that  a  portrait  of  the  great  sculptor  had 
survived  even  on  this  small  scale,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  story  of  Plutarch  was  mythical. 

The  statuettes  which  we  have  been  examining  are  on  too 
small  a  scale  and  of  too  little  artistic  merit  to  give  us  any  idea 
of  the  style  of  the  great  statue.  It  was,  with  its  base,  40  feet 
high  (five  times  as  high  as  the  Caryatid  on  the  other  side  of 
this  room  (407).  The  value  of  the  gold  was  ,£12,500 — an 
artistic  form,  as  Pericles  told  the  Athenians,  of  banking  their 
gold  reserve  ;  and  the  whole  statue — which  showed  the  goddess 
in  her  full  majesty  and  splendour,  as  of  a  queen  giving  audience 
in  her  throne-room — must  have  been  a  personification  of  the 
greatness  and  brilliance  of  the  Athenian  State.  Least  of  all 
do  these  statuettes  enable  us  to  realise  the  ideal  of  beauty  and 
majesty  which,  as  we  have  seen,  Phidias  put  into  his  Athena, 
as  also  into  his  famous  Zeus  at  Olympia.  "  The  original 
breadth  and  simplicity  of  treatment  degenerates  in  the  small 
copies  into  ignoble  baldness,  and  majestic  calm  into  a  wooden 
mask." 

1  This  shield  was  obtained  by  Lord  Strangford  from  Athens,  and  is 
usually  known  by  his  name.  On  the  interior  are  remains  of  colour 
agreeing  with  what  Pliny  says  of  the  shield  of  the  Athena  Parthenos, 
that  on  the  concave  part  Phidias  caelavit  deoi'iim  et  giga?ihtm  dimi- 
cationes  (see  Cecil  Smith  in  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  in. 
137). 


190 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


THE  PORTRAIT  OF  PERICLES 

We  are  fortunate  in  the  British  Museum  in  being  able  to 
pass  from  the  contemplation  of  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon 
to  a  portrait  of  the  great  Athenian  statesman  under  whose 
administration  the  temple  was  built,  and  who  employed  the 
genius  of  Phidias  to  adorn  it.  The  portrait  bust  of  Pericles, 
inscribed  with  his  name  (549),  stands  near  the  door  leading 
into  the  Ephesus  Room.  This  bust  was  found  in  1781  in  the 
Villa  of  Cassius  at  Tivoli,  together  with  another  and  similar  but 
inferior  bust  now  in  the  Vatican.  Both  were  copies  of  a  con- 
temporary portrait  bust,  of  which  the  base  has  recently  been 
found  on  the  Acropolis.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
Cresilas  (of  Crete,  a  follower  of  Myron),  of  whom  Pliny  says  that 
he  made  an  Olympian  Pericles  which  was  worthy  of  the  title, 
and  was  an  example  of  the  art  that  "  makes  illustrious  men  still 
more  illustrious."  In  person  the  great  statesman  was  graceful 
and  well-made,  save  for  an  unusual  height  of  skull,  which 
suggested  the  nickname  of  " onion-headed"  to  an  Athenian  comic 
poet.  Plutarch  says  that  the  helmet  was  put  on  to  mask  this 
physical  defect.  But  more  probably  it  is  employed  to  denote 
his  military  rank  as  a  general.  For  Pericles  was  a  man  of  deeds 
as  well  as  of  words,  a  commander  as  well  as  a  politician. 
The  famous  phrase  in  which  he  expressed  the  Athenian  ideal 
of  his  time  will  be  remembered  :  "  We  are  refined  without 
display,  and  learned  without  effeminacy."  The  portrait  before 
us  represents  Pericles  in  full  maturity  : — 

"  This  portrait  of  Pericles  is  a  vivid  commentary  on  what  Thucydides 
wrote  concerning  the  temper  and  manner  of  the  great  statesman. 
Artist  and  historian  alike  show  us  a  man  raised  far  above  his  fellow- 
citizens  by  the  superiority  of  his  mind  and  the  distinction  of  his 
character.  Although  we  possess  numerous  contemporary  portraits,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  match  the  tranquil  dignity  of  this  bust  of  Pericles. 
The  pose  of  the  head,  which  is  inclined  a  little  to  one  side  and  slightly 
thrown  back,  is  so  personal  that  it  must  have  been  studied  from  the 
life.  In  this  pose  lies  the  secret  of  that  gentleness  which  is  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  the  head — a  gentleness  arising,  not  from 
weakness,  but  from  an  innate  nobility  of  soul.  The  artist,  though 
confined  to  a  bust,  has  yet  contrived  to  suggest  the  whole  personage. 
We  can  almost  fancy  that  we  see  Pericles  before  us  raising  his  head  in 
dignified  unconcern,  however  loud  the  voice  of  his  accusers  and 
slanderers  might  rise  about  him.  This  outer  security  well  expressed 
the  inner  purity  of  that  incorruptible  nature  to  which  Cresilas  and 


X 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


191 


Thucydides  bear  equal  witness.  The  mouth,  which  almost  borders  on 
ugliness,  is  specially  distinctive.  Broader  than  is  customary  with 
voluptuous  lips — the  under  lip  is  especially  full — it  is  not  the  mouth 
of  a  man  accustomed  to  impose  his  will  on  others  with  an  arbitrary  and 
iron  determination,  but  its  mobile  and  sensuous  curves  accord  admirably 
with  the  eloquent  manner  and  persuasive  grace  of  Pericles,  and  are  not 
without  a  suggestion  of  the  tender  and  faithful  lover  of  Aspasia,  and  of 
the  patron  and  protector  of  artists.  The  external  mien  of  Pericles  was 
conspicuous  not  only  for  mildness  and  tranquillity,  but  for  the  serious- 
ness of  its  expression  ;  he  had  '  a  gravity  of  countenance  which  relaxed 
not  into  laughter '  (Plutarch).  Should  any  one  interpret  this  to  mean 
starched  and  formal  dignity — a  quality,  for  the  rest,  quite  foreign  to 
the  Greek  genius — the  portrait  would  promptly  undeceive  him.  A 
profound  seriousness  pervades  the  features,  but  there  is  no  trace  of 
self-importance.  Rather  do  we  seem  to  be  looking  upon  the  ideal 
portrait  of  the  ruler  of  a  democracy,  on  whom  it  is  incumbent  to  be 
first  in  intrinsic  merit  as  in  mental  distinction''  {Masterpieces ',  p.  118). 

Furtwangler,  in  fixing  the  probable  date  of  the  portrait, 
invests  it  with  additional  interest  : — 

i  "  The  inscription  from  the  Acropolis  is  approximately  dated  B.C. 
440-430.  Within  this  period  there  is  no  event  so  likely  to  have 
occasioned  the  dedication  of  the  portrait  in  the  sanctuary  of  Athena 
Polias  as  the  return  of  the  victorious  general  from  the  most  difficult  and 
glorious  of  his  campaigns  —  the  one  undertaken  against  Samos  in 
B.C.  439.  Gratitude  for  his  successful  return  would  afford  a  specially 
suitable  occasion  for  his  friends  to  dedicate  his  portrait  to  the  goddess 
who  had  lent  him  her  aid.  The  work  would  thus  have  been  executed 
at  a  time  when  Pericles  had  roused  immense  popular  enthusiasm  by 
his  funeral  oration  over  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  war,  an  occasion  on 
which  the  women  adorned  him  with  crowns  and  chaplets.  May  be 
that  the  image  of  Pericles,  as  he  stood  there  before  the  people  on  that 
day,  inspired  the  artist  at  his  work"  {ibid,  p.  119). 

MISCELLANEOUS  SCULPTURES 

We  may  now  make  a  fresh  tour  of  the  Elgin  Room  in  order 
to  inspect,  though  more  cursorily,  such  objects  of  general 
interest  as  we  have  not  already  described.  Mere  fragments  of 
architecture  or  sculpture  we  do  not  notice.  On  either  side  of 
the  doorway  into  the  Ephesus  Room  are  casts  of  two  marble 
chairs  that  are  still  in  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus  at  Athens. 
The  one  on  the  right  as  we  enter  the  doorway — an  arm- 
chair with  lion's-claw  feet — is  very  interesting.  In  front  is 
inscribed  the  name  of  the  owner.     It  was  the  official  seat  of 


192 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


the  priest  of  Dionysus  Eleuthereus,  and  is  delicately  carved  in 
low  relief.  On  each  arm  is  a  beautiful  figure  of  a  winged 
boy  : — 

' 'This  kneeling  Angel  of  Victory  is  late  Greek  art,  but  nobly 
systematic  flat  bas-relief.  His  attitude  is  an  ancient  and  grandly 
conventional  one  among  the  Egyptians  ;  and  I  was  tracing  it  back  to 
a  kneeling  goddess  of  the  greatest  dynasty  of  the  Pharaohs — a  goddess 
of  evening  or  death,  laying  down  the  sun  out  of  her  right  hand,  when, 
one  bright  day,  the  shadows  came  out  clear  on  the  Athenian  throne, 
and  I  saw  that  my  Angel  of  Victory  was  only  backing  a  cock  at  a  cock- 
fight "  (Ruskin's  Aratra  Pentelici,  §  133). 

In  the  south-west  corner  of  the  room  we  may  notice  a  large 
bronze  urn  found  in  a  tomb  on  the  road  to  Eleusis. 

Passing  the  bust  of  Pericles,  we  come  to  a  majestic  head 
of  Hera  (504),  found  at  Girgenti.1  It  is  thought  that  this 
head  reproduces  more  or  less  freely  that  of  the  statue  in  ivory 
and  gold  at  Argos,  by  Polyclitus  : — 

"  The  head  has  suffered  considerably,  first,  from  a  polishing  down  of 
the  lips,  which  have  not  only  lost  their  finer  and  necessary  lines,  but 
now  appear  almost  to  gape  ;  and,  secondly,  from  a  cutting  down  of 
the  crown  at  both  sides,  which  destroys  the  comparison  of  the  head 
with  the  coins,  if  it  does  not  materially  injure  the  effect.  This 
reduction  of  the  crown,  and  especially  the  want  of  ornament  on  it, 
tend  to  exaggerate  the  demureness  of  the  expression,  while  the 
destruction  of  the  lips  gives  a  heaviness  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  at 
variance  with  her  character  as  a  bride.  It  may  be  also  that  something 
of  the  matronly  type  was  imported  into  the  face  by  the  copyist.  Yet, 
when  seen  in  three-quarter  view,  where  the  injuries  and  defects  are  less 
appreciable,  the  face  has  a  charm  of  natural  beauty,  not  free  and 
rejoicing  in  its  own  loveliness,  but  controlled  by  a  fascinating  reserve  ; 
in  fact,  uniting  the  more  than  mortal  grace  of  Polykleitos  with  his 
unrivalled  power  of  deducing  a  characteristic  type  from  elaborate 
observation  and  thought,  tending  always  in  the  direction  of  reserve 
in  expression  "  (Murray,  History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  i.  309). 

In  the  collection  of  coins  there  is  a  head  of  Hera  which  is 
also  supposed  to  be  copied  from  the  statue  of  Polyclitus  (see 
p.  38)  —  a  statue  which  is  described  by  Pausanias,  and  was 
hardly  less  famous  in  antiquity  than  the  masterpieces  of 

1  Furtwangler  denies  that  this  head  is  an  antique.  It  is,  he  says,  one 
of  a  series  of  heads  with  exaggerated  straightness  of  nose  and  with 
weak  chins  which  betray  an  insipid  imitation  of  the  antique,  but  which 
have  been  treated  by  acids  and  otherwise  so  as  to  suggest  an  antique 
origin  (see  Neuere  Falschungen  von  Antique?!,  1899,  p.  9). 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


193 


Phidias.  Strabo  says  that  the  works  of  Polyclitus  at  Argos 
were  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world,  though  in  size  and  cost- 
liness they  were  surpassed  by  those  of  Phidias  ;  and  Martial 
says  (x.  89)  that  Phidias  would  have  been  glad  to  claim  the 
image  of  Hera  as  his  own. 

Head  of  iEsculapius  (550). — This  noble  head  was  found 
in  1828  in  a  shrine  in  the  island  of  Melos.  With  it  was  found 
a  votive  tablet  on  which  a  leg  is  sculptured,  with  an  inscription 
dedicating  it  as  a  thank-offering  from  Tyche  to  Asklepios  and 
Hygieia  (see  809  in  the  wall  case  behind  the  model  of  the 
Parthenon,  and  cf.  p.  194).  The  numerous  rivets  which  will  be 
observed  on  the  top  of  the  head  once  fastened  a  heavy  metal 
wreath  of  laurel,  worn  by  the  god  as  the  son  of  Apollo  the 
Healer  (as  in  Poynter's  picture,  Tate  Gallery,  No.  1586)  : — 

"A  very  noble  specimen  of  Greek  sculpture.  The  countenance  is 
majestic,  as  befits  a  god,  but  with  this  majesty  the  sculptor  has  blended 
a  human  tenderness  of  expression  which  affects  our  sympathies  more 
nearly  than  the  ordinary  types  of  divinities  in  Greek  art,  and  which 
seems  singularly  appropriate  to  the  conception  of  .IEsculapius  as  the 
friend  of  man,  whose  special  attribute  it  was  to  mitigate  human  suffer- 
ing " 1  (Newton,  Guide  to  the  Blacas  Collection ,  1867). 

We  now  pass  the  Parthenon  sculptures,  and  turn  to  the 
wall  behind  the  large  model.  The  wall  case  here  contains 
several  very  interesting  votive  reliefs.  Every  traveller  in 
Italy  is  familiar  with  the  ex  votos,  or  votive  offerings  (generally 
in  the  form  of  pictures),  which  are  hung  up  in  churches  or 
sanctuaries,  in  thanksgiving  for  miraculous  escapes  or  cures.2 
This  is  a  Christian  survival  of  a  Pagan  custom,  of  which  the 
marbles  in  this  case  are  a  memorial.  These  votive  tablets 
were  discovered  by  Lord  Aberdeen  in  1803  in  the  course  of 
excavations  at  Athens.  They  are  representations  of  portions 
of  the  human  body,  with  inscriptions  (of  Roman  times)  dedi- 
cating them  to  Highest  Zeus — in  thanksgiving,  no  doubt,  for 

1  "In  the  story  which  makes  iEsculapius  incur  the  wrath  of  Zeus  in 
order  to  recall  to  life  one  who  was  dead,  and  further,  in  the  minds  of  all 
worshippers,  this  god — standing  before  Zeus  as  divine,  yet  also  human — 
is,  like  Prometheus,  a  loving  and  indulgent  friend  of  man,  even  when  other 
deities  frown.  .  .  .  He  was  worshipped  and  besought  not  always  under 
the  name  of  a  god,  but  most  frequently  under  the  designation,  familiar  to 
Christian  ears,  of  the  Son  of  God  "  (Dyer's  Gods  in  Greece,  p.  240). 

2  There  is  a  particularly  interesting  collection  at  the  Sanctuary  of 
Oropa  in  Piedmont.  These  free  health-resorts  in  Italy  assist  one  in  many 
respects  to  realise  the  character  and  office  of  ancient  shrines  of  healing. 

O 


194 


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CHAP. 


recovery  from  illness.  Among  them  are  breasts  (799,  800, 
807),  eyes  (801),  feet  (803),  arms  (806),  ears  (810).  The 
relief  of  a  leg  (809)  comes  from  the  shrine  of  ^Esculapius  in 
Melos.  No.  798,  from  Thessaly,  shows  two  plaits  of  formally 
twisted  hair,  dedicated  by  Philombrotus  and  Aphthonetus.  It 
was  the  custom  of  youths  reaching  manhood  thus  to  dedicate 
hair.     See,  further,  on  the  subject  of  votive  reliefs,  Ch.  XIII. 

Passing  on  along  the  wall,  we  may  notice  a  fragment  of  a 
colossal  head  (460).  This  was  found  in  1820  on  the  site  of 
the  Temple  of  Nemesis  at  Rhamnus,  and  is  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  famous  statue  of  Nemesis  by  Agoracritus,  a  favourite 
pupil  of  Phidias.  The  statue  was  rightly  named  Nemesis,  for 
it  was  made  out  of  a  block  of  marble  which  was  brought  by 
the  Persians,  before  the  battle  of  Marathon,  to  be  erected  as  a 
trophy  after  the  capture  of  Athens.  Note  also  a  cast  from  a 
fine  marble  head  discovered  in  the  Heraeum  of  Argos  by  the 
American  School  of  Archaeology. 

Against  the  wall,  and  also  in  a  case  in  this  part  of  the  room, 
are  various  fragments  of  architecture  and  sculpture  which  are 
of  interest  only  to  experts  and  students.  From  time  to  time 
discoveries  are  made  which  invest  even  the  smallest  fragments 
with  significance,  and  many  of  the  dry  stones  here  preserved 
may  one  day  be  made  to  live.  We  may  notice  the  cast  of  a 
lion's  head  (3  53),  from  one  of  the  angles  of  the  pediment  of 
the  Parthenon  (see  model).  In  the  next  case,  a  head  from  a 
relief,  and  the  cast  of  a  relief  showing  a  trireme,  may  be 
noticed.  The  statue  near  the  door  is  the  so-called  Eros  of  the 
Elgin  collection  : — 

' 4  With  quiver-band  ;  of  course  Apollo,  not  Eros,  who  is  excluded 
by  the  absence  of  wings.  An  original  work  from  the  Acropolis, 
unfortunately  only  a  torso,  bears  witness  to  the  influence  of  Euphranor 
on  contemporary  Attic  artists.  The  artist  has,  in  Attic  fashion, 
replaced  the  squareness  and  flatness  affected  by  Euphranor  by  more 
softly  rounded  flesh,  and  he  has  obviously  been  influenced  not  only  by 
this  master,  but  by  Praxiteles.  He  was,  however,  one  of  the  lesser 
artists;  his  work  must  be  dated  at  about  B.C.  360"  (Furtwangler's 
Masterpieces,  p.  356). 

Turning  now  to  the  other  side  of  the  room,  we  notice 
several  architectural  fragments  from  the  Erechtheum — a 

temple  of  the  Ionic  order  which  stands  near  the  north  side  of 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens  (see  model  of  the  Acropolis),  sacred, 
among  other  deities,  to  Erechtheus,  the  ward  of  Athena,  and 


X 


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195 


legendary  king  of  Athens.  This  temple  was  erected  about  thirty 
years  later  than  the  Parthenon.  Lord  Elgin  carried  off  the 
marbles  now  in  this  room,  and  in  the  subsequent  war  of  Greek 
liberation  the  temple  suffered  serious  injuries.  Of  Lord 
Elgin's  spoils  the  most  important  are  the  column  and  the 
Caryatid.  The  Column  (408),  on  the  other  side  of  the  room, 
came  from  the  north  corner  of  the  eastern  portico  of  the 
temple.  It  is  21  feet  high.  The  Erechtheum  belongs  to  the 
Ionic  order  of  Greek  architecture  (in  which  style  the  British 
Museum  itself  is  built).  The  Ionic  order  may  be  recognised 
at  once  by  its  volutes,  or  spiral  projections  at  each  side  or 
angle  of  the  capital.  The  column  before  us,  being  placed  at  a 
corner,  has  volutes  on  two  adjacent  sides,  so  as  to  show  both 
to  the  east  and  north  view.  Another  feature  distinguishing 
the  Ionic  from  the  Doric  order  is  the  presence  of  a  base  to 
the  column.  Contrast  this  with  the  model  of  the  Doric 
Parthenon.1 

The  Caryatid  (407)  is  of  great  interest  and  beauty.  It  is 
one  of  six  female  figures  which  served  as  columns  in  the 
southern  portico  of  the  temple.  The  portico  has  been  repro- 
duced in  St.  Pancras  Church,  London.  "  Poor  antique 
architecture  ! "  exclaims  M.  Taine,  "  what  is  it  doing  in  such 
a  climate  ?  "  Our  Caryatid  is  now  replaced  by  a  copy  in  terra- 
cotta. The  other  five  remain  in  their  original  position,  but 
suffered  severely  in  the  War  of  Liberation.  The  substitution  of 
human  figures  for  pillars  forms  an  interesting  chapter  in  archi- 
tectural history.  Female  figures  in  the  same  attitude  and  position 
had  previously  been  used  on  a  small  scale  for  the  supports  of 

1  Ruskin  has  some  interesting  (if  in  part  fanciful)  remarks  on  this 
feature  of  Doric  architecture  in  connection  with  the  similarly  baseless 
pillars  of  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Venice  :  "In  the  best  form  of  Greek 
architecture  the  columns  have  no  independent  base  ;  they  stand  on  the 
even  floor  of  their  foundation.  Such  a  structure  is  not  only  admirable, 
but  when  the  column  is  of  great  thickness  in  proportion  to  its  height,  and 
the  sufficient  firmness,  either  of  the  ground  or  prepared  floor,  is  evident, 
it  is  the  best  of  all,  having  a  strange  dignity  in  its  excessive  simplicity. 
It  is,  or  ought  to  be,  connected  in  our  minds  with  the  deep  meaning  of 
primeval  memorial.  '  And  Jacob  took  the  stone  that  he  had  put  for  his 
pillow,  and  set  it  up  for  a  pillar.'  I  do  not  fancy  that  he  put  a  base  for 
it  first.  If  you  try  to  put  a  base  to  the  rock-piers  of  Stonehenge,  you  will 
hardly  find  them  improved  ;  and  two  of  the  most  perfect  buildings  in  the 
world,  the  Parthenon  and  the  Ducal  Palace  of  Venice,  have  no  bases  to 
their  pillars.  .  .  .  They  were  meant  to  be  walked  beside  without 
stumbling"  [Stones  of  Venice,  I.  vii.  8  ;  St.  Marks  Rest,  ch.  ii. ). 


196 


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CHAP. 


bronze  mirrors  :  see  the  specimens  in  the  Bronze  Room.  The 
idea  of  thus  employing  them  for  architectural  purposes  may 
have  been  connected  originally  with  the  use  of  servile  labour 
— as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the  Atlantes,  the  giants  who 
supported  painfully  the  roof  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus,  at  Girgenti, 
in  Sicily.1  The  term  Caryatids,  which  is  commonly  applied  to 
these  figures  from  the  Erechtheum,  connotes  the  same  idea  ; 
for  Vitruvius,  the  Roman  writer  on  architecture,  explains  that 
women  of  Carya,  a  town  of  Arcadia,  were  represented  as 
architectural  supports  by  way  of  punishment  for  betraying  the 
Greeks  to  the  Persians.  It  should,  however,  be  noted  that 
in  a  specification  of  the  Erechtheum  which  has  been  found  on 
an  inscription  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  the  figures 
are  called  Korce^  the  maidens.  They  closely  resemble  the 
Camphoric  or  basket-bearers,  represented  on  the  Parthenon 
frieze,  and  it  is  possible  that  these  statues  illustrate  a  curious 
ritual  connected  with  the  temple  : — 

"Two  maidens  dwell  not  far  from  the  temple  of  the  Polias ;  the 
Athenians  call  them  Arrephoroi.  They  are  lodged  for  a  time  with  the 
goddess  ;  but  when  the  festival  comes  round  they  perform  the  following 
ceremony  by  night.  They  put  on  their  heads  the  things  which  the 
priestess  of  Athena  gives  them  to  carry,  but  what  it  is  she  gives  is 
known  neither  to  her  who  gives  nor  to  them  who  carry.  Now  there 
is  in  the  city  an  enclosure  not  far  from  the  sanctuary  of  Aphrodite  called 
Aphrodite  in  the  Gardens,  and  there  is  a  natural  underground  descent 
through  it.  Down  this  way  the  maidens  go.  Below  they  leave  their 
burdens,  and  getting  something  else,  which  is  wrapt  up,  they  bring  it 
back.  These  maidens  are  then  discharged  and  others  are  brought  up 
to  the  Acropolis  in  their  stead  "  (Pausanias,  i.  26.  3). 

This  rite  may  well  have  suggested  to  the  sculptor  the 
employment  of  "  Caryatids  "  as  appropriate.  Probably,  how- 
ever, Greek  architects  originally  derived  the  idea  from  Egypt, 
where  the  use  of  human  and  other  figures  for  columns  was 
common.  If  so,  the  history  of  "  Caryatids  5;  furnishes  another 
illustration  of  the  way  in  which  the  Greeks  refined  and  made 
artistically  acceptable  ideas  derived  from  other  races.  Is  it 
really  fitting  to  substitute  a  human  figure  for  an  architectural 
support  ?  This  question  of  aesthetics  has  been  much  debated. 
Ruskin,  for  instance,  agreeing  therein  with  Fergusson,  con- 

1  One  of  these  gigantic  figures,  restored  from  numerous  fragments  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  buildings,  now  lies  prostrate  in  the  middle  of  the 
cella — an  object  of  wonder  and  curiosity  to  every  visitor. 


X 


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197 


siders  the  Caryatid  to  be  "  one  of  the  chief  errors  of  the  Greek 
School"  (see  Stones  of  Venice,  I.  xxvi.  §  18).  But  in  these 
figures  from  the  Erechtheum,  the  architectural  fancy  is  treated 
with  great  skill  and  taste  : — 

"Their  rich  dress,  stately  bearing,  and  erect  heads  banish  all  idea 
of  meanness  and  servility.  The  massive  strength  of  their  frames,  com- 
pared with  the  light  weight  they  bear,  establishes  the  harmony  between 
the  bearer  and  the  borne,  which  accords  with  the  fundamental  principle 
of  Greek  architecture — that  every  member  of  a  building  must  not  only 
rest  securely  on  its  support,  but  appear  to  do  so.  They  bear  their 
burden  easily,  as  we  see  from  the  fact  that  their  hands  are  unemployed, 
except  in  slightly  lifting  the  robe.  The  knee  of  one  leg  is  a  little 
bent,  so  as  to  give  some  life  and  grace  to  the  human  pillar,  without 
interfering  too  much  with  its  architectural  character.  On  their  heads 
is  a  soft  pad,  on  which  the  basket-like  architectural  decoration  takes  the 
place  of  the  customary  Ionic  capital.  The  long  tresses  at  the  back  of 
the  head  fill  up  the  curve,  and  give  the  necessary  appearance  of  strength 
to  the  neck  "  (Perry,  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  p.  317). 

The  use  of  these  columnar  figures  became  common  after- 
wards, especially  in  the  Renaissance  architecture.  It  is  very 
instructive  to  compare  the  Attic  Caryatids  with  other  examples 
— ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern — of  the  same  experiment. 
Some  sculptors  striving  after  additional  grace  miss  the  strength 
of  the  Attic  design  ;  others,  emphasising  the  strain  in  various 
forms  of  laboured  tortuousness,  miss  the  grace.  The  Greeks 
of  the  great  time  make  their  human  column  at  once  graceful 
and  strong  : — 

Calm  as  a  grand,  far-looking  Caryatid 
Holding  the  roof  that  covers  in  a  world. 

The  remaining  marbles  from  the  Erechtheum  are  capitals, 
friezes,  and  ceilings.  They  are  of  some  architectural  and 
decorative  interest,  as  being  good  examples  of  various  Greek 
mouldings.  Among  them  is  the  curiously-named  "egg-and- 
tongue "  pattern.  Its  origin  is  obscure.  Some  see  in  the 
"  eggs  "  a  modification  of  the  lotus  buds  which  were  a  favourite 
ornament  in  Egyptian  architecture.  Others  have  seen  in  it 
"  the  bursting  of  the  prickly  rind  of  the  chestnut  fruit,  and 
then  the  egg-form  stands  for  the  chestnut  itself.  The  parallel 
lines  are  the  thickness  of  the  rind,  and  the  sharp  points  on 
either  side  are  the  characteristic  spines"  ("The  Lost  Soul  of 
Patterns,"  in  Good  Words,  Sept.  1896). 


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CHAP. 


In  the  same  part  of  the  room  stands  a  male  torso,  supposed 
to  be  a  figure  of  ^Esculapius  (551).  Farther  on  is  a  cast  of  a 
marble  owl  (560).  The  original,  found  near  the  Parthenon,  is 
at  Athens.  The  owl  is  supposed  to  have  surmounted  a  column 
found  near  it.  This  bird,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  sacred 
to  Athena,  as  the  goddess  of  wisdom — typical  of  light  in 
darkness,  of  wisdom  showing  through  obscurity. 


CASTS  FROM  THE  THESEUM 

Passing  up  the  room,  we  must  next  notice,  high  up  on  the 
wall  {above  the  Parthenon  frieze),  a  series  of  casts  from  the 
Theseum  at  Athens.  This  temple,  the  best  preserved  of  all  the 
architectural  relics  of  antiquity,  stands  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
to  the  north-west  of  the  Acropolis,  and  was  dedicated  to 
Theseus  by  the  Athenians  in  the  time  of  Cimon,  about  the  year 
469  B.C.  The  sculptures  of  this  temple  are  supposed  to  be 
somewhat  earlier  than  those  of  the  Parthenon.  The  casts  in 
the  British  Museum  are  (1)  three  of  the  eighteen  metopes 
(Nos.  400,  401,  402).  The  subjects  record  various  legendary 
exploits  of  the  Athenian  hero.  In  400  he  is  slaying  the  robber 
Periphetes.  In  401  he  is  overthrowing  Cercyon,  an  Arcadian 
wrestler,  who  challenged  all  travellers  to  wrestle  and  slew  the 
vanquished.  In  402  Theseus  is  engaged  with  a  sow  ;  "  in  the 
thickets  of  Crommyon  he  slew  the  huge  sow  that  ravaged  the 
cornfields. "  (2)  Casts  of  the  west  frieze,  where  the  subject 
was  the  battle,  in  which  Theseus  assisted,  of  the  Centaurs 
and  Lapiths  (403).  Notice  in  403  (2)  the  conflict  with  the 
invulnerable  Lapith,  Caeneus — an  incident  which  occurs  also 
on  the  Phigalian  frieze.  (3)  Casts  of  the  east  frieze,  where 
the  subject  is  obscure  :  it  seems  to  represent  some  battle  of  the 
Athenians  under  Theseus  (404).  The  battle  takes  place  in  the 
presence  of  two  groups  of  seated  deities  (404  (2)  and  (6)). 
The  deities — as  in  the  case  of  the  Parthenon  frieze — must  be 
deemed  invisible  :  "  else  one  combatant  is  in  the  act  of  rushing 
in  among  them  without  producing  any  concern."  With  regard 
to  the  style  of  these  sculptures,  they  resemble  generally  the 
metopes  of  the  Parthenon.  They  aim  at  broad  effect,  rather 
than  delicacy  of  detail.  The  human  form  is  displayed  in 
distorted  and  complicated  attitudes ;  the  sculptures  are 
generally  attributed  to  the  School  of  Myron. 


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THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


THE  CHORAGIC  MONUMENT  OF  LYS I  CRATES 

Underneath  the  Parthenon  frieze  are  casts  from  the 
choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates.  This  well-known  and 
elegant  monument  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis,  a  little 
to  the  north-east  of  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus.  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest  authenticated  examples  of  the  Corinthian  order.  For 
some  centuries  the  monument  was  encrusted  in  a  Capuchin 
convent,  a  place  where  English  travellers  at  Athens  often 
stayed.  Among  these  visitors  was  Lord  Byron,  who  is  said  to 
have  used  the  interior  of  the  monument  as  his  study.  It  was 
the  custom  of  choragi,  or  choir-masters,  to  dedicate  to  Dionysus 
the  tripods  which  they  had  gained  in  dramatic  contests.  The 
tripod  in  this  case  was  erected  on  a  shrine.  An  inscription  on 
the  monument  records  among  other  particulars  that  Lysicrates 
was  the  choragus  who  dedicated  it.  The  sculptures  of  the 
frieze  have  suffered  considerably  from  exposure  during  the  last 
ninety  years,  and  the  casts  before  us,  made  for  Lord  Elgin, 
are  the  best  record  of  them.  The  subject  is  the  story  of 
Dionysus  and  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates.  The  pirates  sought  to 
kidnap  the  god,  who  revenged  himself  by  converting  them  into 
dolphins,1  a  story  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  Homeric  hymn 
to  Dionysus  : — 

"  How  once  he  appeared  upon  the  shore  of  the  sea  unhar vested,  in 
form  like  a  man  in  the  bloom  of  youth,  with  his  beautiful  dark  hair 
waving  around  him,  and  on  his  shoulders  a  purple  robe.  Anon  came 
in  sight  certain  men  that  were  pirates  ;  in  a  well-wrought  ship  sailing 
swiftly  on  the  dark  seas  :  Tyrsanians  were  they,  and  111  Fate  was  their 
leader,  for  they  beholding  him  nodded  each  to  other,  and  swiftly  leaped 
forth,  and  hastily  seized  him,  and  set  him  aboard  their  ship  rejoicing 
in  heart,  for  they  deemed  that  he  was  the  son  of  kings,  the  fosterlings 
of  Zeus,  and  they  were  minded  to  bind  him  with  grievous  rods.  .  .  . 
But  anon  strange  matters  appeared  to  them  :  first  there  flowed  through 
all  the  swift  black  ship  a  sweet  and  fragrant  wine,  and  ambrosial 
fragrance  arose,  and  fear  fell  upon  all  the  mariners  that  beheld  it. 
And  straightway  a  vine  stretched  hither  and  thither  along  the  sail, 
hanging  with  many  a  cluster,  and  dark  ivy  twined  round  the  mast 


1  Those  who  are  interested  in  the  moralisation  of  myths  may  like  to  be 
reminded  of  the  pretty  interpretation  which  Ruskin  reads  into  the  contest 
of  Dionysus  with  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates:  "Dionysus,  who  teaches  the 
cheerful  music  which  is  to  be  the  wine  of  old  age,  has  for  adversary  the 
commercial  pirate,  who  would  sell  the  god  for  gain,  and  drink  no  wine 
but  gold"  (Fors  Clavigera,  1877,  p.  364). 


200 


THE  ELGIN  ROOM 


CHAP.  X 


blossoming  with  flowers,  and  gracious  fruit  and  garlands  grew  on  all 
the  thole-pins  ;  and  they  that  saw  it  bade  the  steersman  drive  straight  to 
land.  Meanwhile,  within  the  ship  the  God  changed  into  the  shape  of 
a  lion  at  the  bow  ;  and  loudly  he  roared,  and  in  midship  he  made  a 
shaggy  bear  :  sucli  marvels  he  showed  forth  :  there  stood  it  raging,  and 
on  the  deck  glared  the  lion  terribly.  Then  the  men  fled  in  terror  to 
the  stern,  and  there  stood  in  fear  round  the  honest  pilot.  But 
suddenly  sprang  forth  the  lion  and  seized  the  captain,  and  the  men  all 
at  once  leapt  overboard  into  the  strong  sea,  shunning  dread  doom,  and 
there  were  changed  into  dolphins  "  (Andrew  Lang's  translation). 

The  sculptor  does  not  closely  follow  the  poet,  but  represents 
the  scene  as  taking  place  on  the  rocky  shore  of  Naxos,  where 
the  pirates  found  Dionysus.  In  the  centre  of  the  composition 
the  god  himself  (i)  reclines,  fondling  his  panther.  He  is 
represented  larger  in  size  than  any  of  the  other  figures.  "  In 
direct  contrast  with  this  central  god-like  calm,  to  right  and  left 
the  scene  of  the  punishment  and  final  transformation  takes 
place.  Satyrs,  young  and  old,  are  beating,  binding,  and 
burning  the  miscreants,  and  in  despair  those  half-metamorphosed 
already  leap  into  the  sea"  (Miss  Harrison,  Mythology  and 
Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens,  p.  247).  The  mention  of  a 
magistrate's  name  on  the  inscription  fixes  the  date  of  the  monu- 
ment to  335-334  B.C.  It  is  thus  one  hundred  years  later  than 
the  other  sculptures  in  this  room — belonging  to  the  time  of 
the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  the  Demeter  of  Cnidus,  and  the 
Mausoleum.  Comparing  the  casts  before  him  with  the 
marbles  of  the  Parthenon,  the  visitor  will  note  many  differences 
marking  the  later  style.  The  form  of  Dionysus  is  softer,  and 
there  is  more  humour  in  the  whole  treatment : — 

"  The  attendant  satyrs,  with  sticks  hastily  torn  from  the  trees  (5),  or 
with  the  torches  used  in  their  revels  (3),  pursue  and  chastise  the 
robbers  with  a  boyish,  boisterous  delight.  For  the  latter  there  is  no 
escape.  Even  those  whom  the  satyrs  cannot  overtake  are  subject  to 
the  magic  influence  of  the  god,  and  we  see  them,  in  the  process  of 
transformation  into  dolphins  (5),  leaping  with  desperate  eagerness  into 
the  new  element  which  is  to  be  their  future  home.  The  inevitable 
serpent,  too,  the  constant  attendant  at  Dionysiac  festivals,  is  biting  a 
terrified  pirate  in  the  shoulder  (10)  "  (Perry,  p.  475). 

The  composition  of  the  frieze  is  admirable  as  an  example  of 
variety  combined  with  symmetry. 

§3F  The  side  door  in  the  Eight  Room  leads  into  the  Nereid  Room, 
which  is  described  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 

Ye  elves  of  hills,  brooks,  standing  lakes,  and  groves  ; 
And  ye  that  on  the  sands  with  printless  foot, 
Do  chase  the  ebbing  Neptune,  and  do  fly  him, 
When  he  comes  back. 

Shakespeare's  Tempest. 

"  In  respect  of  natural  beauty,  and  the  general  excellence  of  its  climate, 
New  Zealand  may  be  compared  with  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
engravings  in  Fellows'  Asia  Minor  of  the  wooded  mountains  round 
the  city  of  Xanthus  might  pass  for  the  beautiful  heights  behind 
Otaki,  or  some  of  the  hills  round  Nelson.  But  how  different  the 
civilisation  of  the  two  places  !  Science  thrives  in  New  Zealand  ; 
art  flourished  in  Lycia.  Two  centuries  hence,  should  English 
civilisation  and  power  be  overthrown,  a  few  ruined  embankments, 
bridges,  fragments  of  locomotives  and  dynamos,  and  ugly 
buildings  of  all  sorts,  would  alone  testify  that  here  the  English 
empire  had  been  planted.  But  two  thousand  years  ago  Xanthus, 
with  its  Boule  and  its  Gerusia,  presided  over  the  Lycian  cities, 
and  her  citizens  had  such  a  passion  for  the  beautiful,  and  such 
a  reverence  for  her  divinities,  that  the  immortal  sculptures  in  which 
their  feelings  were  expressed  have  defied  the  lapse  of  time,  and 
the  Briton  from  the  distant  isle,  "  which  the  imperial  Roman 
shivered  when  he  named,"  can  present  his  capital  city  with  no 
more  precious  gift  than  the  exquisite  tombs  and  bas-reliefs  of 
Xanthus  —  if  not  for  imitation,  at  least  for  wondering  love" 
(Thomas  Arnold,  Passages  in  a  Wandering  Life ,  p.  121). 

The  sculptures  and  architectural  fragments  in  this  room  come 
from  the  Nereid  Monument,  an  Ionic  Trophy  Tomb  found  by 
Sir  Charles  Fellows  at  Xanthus  in  Lycia.  The  monument 
derives  its  name  from  the  graceful  figures  which  stood  in  the 
intervals  between  the  columns,  and  which  were  supposed  to 
represent  the  Nereids,  daughters  of  the  sea,  as  described  by 

201 


202 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Apollonius  :  "  At  once  raising  their  draperies  on  their  white 
knees,  high  as  the  very  rocks  and  the  breach  of  the  waves, 
they  rushed  on  either  side  at  intervals  from  each  other. "  The 
Nereid  Marbles  were  found  by  Fellows  on  the  occasion  of  his 
third  expedition  in  1841-42  —  an  expedition  made  with  the 
primary  object,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  100),  of  removing  the 
tombs  discovered  by  him  on  his  former  visits.  In  1842  he 
found  a  lofty  stone  basis,  and  near  it  a  large  quantity  of  reliefs 
and  fragments  of  architecture.  These  he  brought  to  England, 
leaving  the  basis  where  it  stood.  The  fragments,  reconstructed 
as  far  as  possible,  are  now  around  us. 

"The  9th  of  January  [1842]  was  Sunday,  when  all  the  men  after 
service  generally  rambled  about,  and  it  often  happened  that  it  was  the 
most  prolific  day  for  discoveries.  In  endeavouring  to  catch  a  scorpion, 
I  crept  into  a  hole  among  a  pile  of  large  blocks  of  white  marble,  and 
to  my  great  joy  saw  above  me,  upon  the  under  side  of  a  stone,  an 
Amazon  on  horseback,  and  a  fine  naked  figure  with  a  shield,  the  whole 
as  white  and  perfect  as  when  first  sculptured.  .  .  .  On  the  east  of  the 
foundation  I  found  four  pieces  of  frieze  and  a  keystone  of  the  cornice  or 
border  of  a  pediment ;  on  the  apex  of  this  was  a  square  cutting  to  receive 
a  statue.  Another  piece  of  this  cornice,  forming  one  of  the  extreme 
angles,  was  also  cut  to  receive  a  statue  about  9  inches  distant  from  the 
end.  These  made  me  hope  to  discover  some  statues,  and  on  the 
following  day  we  dug  up  two  figures  lying  close  together,  and  one  a 
few  feet  apart ;  these  were  of  about  the  same  scale,  and  had  probably 
surmounted  the  pediment  of  a  temple.  Each  of  these  statues  dis- 
played the  emblems  of  Venus  beneath  their  feet ;  one  had  a  dove, 
another  a  dolphin,  and  the  third  a  tortoise.  The  pleasure  and  excite- 
ment of  these  discoveries  were  entered  into  even  by  the  sailors,  who 
often  forgot  the  dinner-hour  or  worked  after  dusk  to  finish  the  getting 
out  of  a  statue  ;  indeed,  great  care  was  needed  to  prevent  their  being 
in  too  much  haste  to  raise  up  the  figures,  for  while  the  marble  was 
saturated  with  the  moisture  of  the  earth  the  slightest  blow  chipped  off 
the  light  folds  of  the  drapery  ;  these  hardened  as  they  dried  in  the  air. 
.  .  .  These  stones  I  found  pe*ll-mell,  one  over  the  other ;  and  yet 
from  the  metal  ties  remaining,  and  the  fragments  of  heads  or  arms 
broken  off  in  their  fall  still  lying  close  to  the  stone  from  which  they 
had  been  separated,  I  feel  sure  that  all  are  as  when  first  shaken  down 
by  an  earthquake  "  [Asia  Minor  and  Lycia,  pp.  438,  443,  444). 

The  building,  of  which  the  fragments  were  thus  discovered, 
was  in  all  probability  a  trophy  tomb.  The  trophy  was  sup- 
posed by  Fellows  to  have  been  in  memory  of  the  conquest  of 
Lycia  by  the  Persians  under  Harpagus  as  described  by 
Herodotus  (i.  176)  in  545  B.C.     But  the  style  of  the  architec- 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


203 


ture  and  sculpture  show  that  the  monument  must  be  ascribed 
to  a  much  later  date,  and  the  theory  now  suggested  by  many 
archaeologists  is  that  it  was  erected  to  commemorate  the 
capture  of  Telmessus  by  the  Lycian  prince,  Pericles,  in 
375  B.C.  This  is  the  theory  which  we  shall  accept  in  the 
following  description. 

The  sculptures  when  discovered  were  in  a  confused  mass  ; 
the  visitor  should  study  the  model  of  the  monument  as  recon- 
structed by  Fellows.1  Remains  of  nearly  every  portion  of  the 
building  as  thus  shown  surround  us  in  this  room. 

Taking  our  stand  in  front  of  the  model,  we  observe  first, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  room,  a  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
short  sides  of  the  building,  the  height  of  the  base  being, 
however,  considerably  reduced.  Below  are  some  coffers  from 
the  ceiling. 

Examining  the  model  again,  we  shall  see  that  on  the 
summits  of  the  pediments  were  groups  sculptured  in  the  round. 
Fragments  of  these  are  exhibited.  One  (926)  is  on  the  top 
of  the  restored  pediment  (923).  The  other  is  on  the  floor. 
Each  group  represents  a  male  figure  carrying  off  a  female. 
Fragments  were  also  found  of  four  draped  female  figures. 
Fellows  placed  these,  one  on  each  angle  of  the  pediment  (as 
shown  on  the  restoration,  922,  923).  Dr.  Murray  proposes  to 
"  bring  these  female  figures  close  to  the  two  central  groups, 
and  thus  form  on  the  apex  of  each  pediment  a  compact  com- 
position consisting  of  Castor  or  Pollux  carrying  off  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Leukippos,  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  female 
companion  rushing  away  in  fear  "  {History  of  Greek  Sculpture, 
ii.  213).  In  that  case  the  lionesses  (see  below)  may  have 
stood  at  the  four  angles  of  the  pediments. 

The  pediments  themselves  were  filled,  as  we  see  in  the 
model,  by  sculptures.  Those  from  the  east  pediment  (924)  are 
placed  over  the  doorway  to  the  Mausoleum  Room.  According 
to  the  theory  stated  above,  these  sculptures  give  us  the  clue  to 
the  monument 2  : — - 

"  The  hero  of  whom  the  Lomb  is  a  memorial  is  seated  in  state, 
sceptre  in  hand  ;  his  wife  sits  opposite,  and  the  children  are  grouped 

1  This  reconstruction  should  be  corrected,  according  to  the  views  now 
generally  held,  so  as  to  show  six  columns  at  the  sides,  instead  of  five. 

2  According  to  another  theory,  these  sculptures  represent  divinities, 
seated,  like  Hades  and  Persephone,  at  the  entrance  to  another  world,  and 
approached  by  worshippers. 


204 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


CHAP. 


about  them.  Farther  to  the  right  are  attendants  on  a  smaller 
scale.  One  dog  is  asleep  under  the  master's  chair,  another  lies  in  the 
corner  of  the  pediment "  (P.  Gardner,  Sculptured  Tombs  of  Hellas , 
p.  217). 

A  fragment  from  the  west  pediment  is  placed  high  up  in  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  room  (925).  The  relief  represents  a 
battle  between  cavalry  and  infantry,  and  the  motive  may  be 
thus  reconstructed  : — 

"  The  midmost  figure,  doubtless  the  hero  again,  is  on  horseback 
charging  an  overthrown  foe,  to  whose  aid  his  companions,  clad  as 
Greek  hoplites,  hurry  forward.  The  representation  here  is  no  doubt 
of  some  notable  feat  of  arms  of  the  owner  of  the  tomb.  To  the 
warlike  scene  the  peaceful  scene  first  described  corresponds.  At  first 
sight  it  seems  merely  a  picture  out  of  daily  life  ;  but  if  we  bear  in 
mind  the  ordinary  symbolism  of  the  Greek  tomb  we  may  fairly  find  in 
it  some  sepulchral  significance.  The  grouping  of  the  children  about 
their  parents  reminds  us  of  many  Attic  sepulchral  reliefs,  and  the  train 
of  attendants  bears  a  decided  resemblance  to  the  group  of  votaries 
usual  on  heroizing  reliefs.  The  Asiatic  custom  of  regarding  a  tomb 
as  a  monument  of  the  fame  and  a  record  of  the  exploits  of  some  great 
ruler  or  leader  of  men  is  penetrated  by  the  genius  of  Attic  sepulchral 
art,  and  takes  new  and  more  beautiful  forms"  (Gardner,  ibid.  pp. 
217-218). 

Returning  next  to  the  model,  we  notice  that  underneath 
the  pediments,  and  above  the  columns,  a  frieze  ran  round  the 
building — "the  frieze  of  the  order,"  as  it  is  called.  The 
remains  of  this  frieze  are  the  four  lower  rows  of  slabs  on  the 
north  walls  of  the  rooms.  The  sculptures  represent  a  battle  of 
horsemen  and  warriors  on  foot,  and  hunting  scenes  (885-897). 

A  similar  narrow  frieze  encircled  the  cella,  or  inside 
chamber  of  the  monument,  as  shown  on  the  model.  The  slabs 
of  this  frieze  are  placed  low  down  on  the  south-west,  south,  and 
west  sides  of  the  room.  The  sculptures  represent  a  banquet, 
with  a  sacrifice  of  rams,  bulls,  and  goats  (898-908).  This 
and  the  preceding  frieze  are  of  indifferent  workmanship. 

On  the  floor  of  the  room,  and  also  between  the  restored 
columns,  are  placed  the  statues  of  the  Nereids,  from  which 
the  monument  takes  its  name  (909-923).  They  originally 
stood  between  the  columns  in  the  manner  shown  on  the 
restored  end  of  the  building  and  in  the  model.  They  repre- 
sent young  maidens  in  airy  garments  sailing  by  the  aid  of 
their  mantles  over  sea  and  shore,  indicated  by  a  fish,  a  dolphin, 


XI 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


205 


a  waterfowl,  a  crab,  and  a  shell.  These  figures  are  remarkable 
for  their  lightness  and  grace.  A  general  resemblance  to  the 
flying  figure  of  Nike  at  Olympia  (see  p.  114)  will  be  noticed. 
The  Nereid  numbered  909  is  the  finest  of  the  series.  The 
thin  drapery  seems  to  cling  to  her  body,  and  reveals  carefully 
sculptured  forms.  With  regard  to  the  idea  of  these  Nereids, 
vases  in  the  Museum  show  several  of  them  in  very  similar 
attitudes.  They  are  seen  hastening  in  alarm  towards  Nereus 
and  Triton,  and  the  cause  of  their  alarm  is  the  seizure  of 
Thetis  by  Peleus,  which  is  painted  on  the  centre  of  the  com- 
position. The  same  subject  may  be  that  of  the  groups  on  the 
pediment  of  this  monument  also,  the  Nereids  being  repre- 
sented as  flying  in  panic  at  the  sound  of  battle.  According 
to  another  theory,  these  beautiful  figures  are  spirits,  not  of  the 
waves,  but  of  the  breezes.  They  hover  over  the  water,  it  is 
pointed  out,  but  do  not  touch  it,  as  is  seen  by  the  swimming 
waterfowl  beneath  one  of  them.  This  representation  is  not 
suitable,  it  is  urged,  to  the  Nereids,  who,  as  the  spirits  of  the 
waves,  form  part  of  the  sea,  and  are  figured  either  as  playing 
on  the  shore  or  as  riding  across  the  deep.  If  this  objection 
be  accepted,  the  so-called  "Nereids"  may  symbolise  the 
Breezes  that  blow  over  the  water.  Pliny  {N.U.  xxxvi.  29) 
describes  two  marble  statues  of  Breezes,  as  sailing  by  aid  of 
their  garments.  Pindar  (01.  ii.  70)  says  that  "round  the 
Islands  of  the  Blest  the  Ocean-breezes  blow."  The  idea  may 
therefore  have  been  to  represent  the  Breezes  that  blow  round 
the  abode  of  the  occupants  of  the  tomb.  "  In  the  burning 
clime  of  Xanthus  none  of  the  felicities  of  the  Isles  of  the 
Blest  would  be  more  readily  understood"  (J.  Six  in  J.H.S. 
xiii.  131). 

We  can  derive  no  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  the  statues 
from  the  expression  of  their  faces,  for  none  of  the  heads  were 
found ;  they  had  probably  been  destroyed  by  Christian 
iconoclasts.  Whatever  may  be  the  interpretation,  the  artistic 
interest  of  the  statues  is  the  same.  They  are  among  the  most 
graceful  monuments  of  Greek  sculpture,  and  are  beautiful 
examples  of  the  artistic  treatment  of  drapery.  This  is  indeed 
the  most  valuable  means  of  expressing  past  as  well  as  present 
motion  in  the  figure.  Hence  the  Greeks,  though  they  so  often 
avoided  it,  "  availed  themselves  of  it  gladly  in  all  representa- 
tion of  action,  exaggerating  the  arrangements  of  it  which 
express  lightness  in  the  material  and  follow  gesture  in  the 


206 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


CHAP. 


person."  1  As  one  gazes  at  these  light  and  airy  figures,  they 
seem  to  realise  Shelley's  vision  : — 

The  marble  shapes  do  seem  to  quiver, 
And  their  fair  limbs  to  float  in  motion. 

Reverting  to  the  model,  we  observe  next  that  the  base  of  the 
monument  was  ornamented  by  two  friezes.  The  slabs  of  the 
uppermost  and  narrower  frieze  are  fixed  as  the  top  row  along 
the  south-east,  south,  west,  north,  and  north-east  walls  of  the 
room  (866-884). 

"  Here  are  unfolded  to  us  the  successive  scenes  of  the  siege  and 
capture  of  a  hostile  city,  the  battle  before  the  walls,  the  attempt  to 
storm  the  defence,  the  parleying  and  surrender,  the  escape  of  some  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  leading  into  captivity  of  others.  In  the  scene 
of  capitulation  (879),  the  central  figure  is  an  eastern  king  or  ruler  in 
Persian  cap  ;  behind  him  an  attendant  bears  a  sunshade  ;  around  him 
stand  his  guards.  .This  potentate  is  approached  by  two  elderly  men, 
staid  and  dignified,  who  are  clearly  the  representatives  of  the  city,  and 
come  asking  for  terms.  In  other  scenes  we  find  a  bold  but  a  necessarily 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  represent,  without  due  perspective,  the  city 
walls  with  the  heads  of  the  defenders  showing  above  them,  the  women 
wailing  (868-870),  the  attacking  force  adjusting  the  ladders  for  scaling, 
or  repulsing  sorties  of  the  besieged  (871-872).  The  sculptural  history 
of  the  siege  is  too  detailed  and  precise  to  be  a  rendering  of  a  merely 
typical  or  ideal  siege.  The  two  emissaries  of  the  besieged  must  have 
had  prototypes,  and  recent  prototypes,  in  real  life ;  and  the  king 
before  whom  they  stand  is  no  mythical  chief,  but  the  ruler  for  whom 
the  tomb  was  made"  (Gardner,  ibid.  pp.  218-220). 


1  Seven  Lamps  of  A?'chitecture,  ch.  iv.  Ruskin  goes  on  to  draw  an 
interesting  contrast  in  this  respect  between  Greek  and  Christian  sculp- 
ture : — "  The  Christian  sculptors,  caring  little  for  the  body,  or  disliking  it, 
and  depending  exclusively  on  the  countenance,  received  drapery  at  first 
contentedly  as  a  veil,  but  soon  perceived  a  capacity  of  expression  in  it 
which  the  Greek  had  not  seen  or  had  despised.  The  principal  element  of 
this  expression  was  the  entire  removal  of  agitation  from  that  which  was  so 
pre-eminently  capable  of  being  agitated.  It  fell  from  their  human  forms 
plump  down,  sweeping  the  ground  heavily,  and  concealing  the  feet ;  while 
the  Greek  drapery  was  often  blown  away  from  the  thigh.  The  thick  and 
coarse  stuffs  of  the  monkish  dresses,  so  absolutely  opposed  to  the  thin  and 
gauzy  web  of  antique  material,  suggested  simplicity  of  division  as  well  as 
weight  of  fall.  There  was  no  crushing  nor  subdividing  them.  And  thus 
the  drapery  gradually  came  to  represent  the  spirit  of  repose  as  it  before 
had  of  motion — repose,  saintly  and  severe.  The  wind  had  no  power 
upon  the  garment,  as  the  passion  none  upon  the  soul  ;  and  the  motion  of 
the  figure  only  bent  into  a  softer  line  the  stillness  of  the  falling  veil, 
followed  by  it  like  a  slow  cloud  by  drooping  rain  ;  only  in  links  of  lighter 
undulation  it  followed  the  dances  of  the  angels." 


XI 


THE  NEREID  ROOM 


207 


Last,  we  have  to  examine  the  sculptures  from  the  lower 
and  broader  frieze  on  the  base  of  the  monument.  These 
form  the  second  row  of  slabs  along  the  south-east,  south,  and 
west  walls  of  the  rooms  (850-865).  These  represent  a  battle 
between  Asiatic  warriors,  some  of  whom  are  mounted,  and 
Greeks.  Dr.  Murray,  in  discussing  this  frieze,  calls  attention 
to  the  excellence  of  its  composition.  Note,  for  instance,  the 
slab  (863)  with  two  Greeks  following  hard  on  a  mounted 
Persian ;  the  slab  (864)  in  which,  with  clashing  shields,  a 
Greek  meets  two  Persians,  who  defend  one  of  their  comrades 
fallen  on  his  knees;  and  the  slab  (861)  with  a  Persian 
trying  to  step  down  from  his  fallen  steed.  There  is  also  a 
certain  pictorial  method  of  treatment  discernible  which  may 
have  been  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Athenian  painter 
Polygnotus  (see  on  these  points  Murray's  History  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  ii.  pp.  208-210). 

We  have  now  called  attention  to  all  the  marbles  in  this 
Room,  except  a  few  miscellaneous  fragments  and  the  two 
crouching  lions,  which  now  flank  the  doorway  of  the  Mausoleum 
Room  (929-930).  These  were  found  by  Fellows  at  the  base 
of  the  monument,  and  were  conjectured  by  him  to  have  stood 
(as  shown  in  the  model)  within  the  colonnade  (but  see  p.  203 
above).  The  lionesses  have  the  manes  of  lions,  and  are 
curiously  archaic  in  workmanship. 

63T  Frotn  the  Nereid  Room  steps  descend  into  the  Mausoleum 
Room,  which  should  next  be  visited. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 

/.  Marbles  from  Halicarnassus.  II.  Marbles  from  Prie?ie. 
III.  Lycian  Tombs.  IV.  The  Lion  of  Cnidzis.  V.  Mis- 
cellaneous  Sculptures. 

I.  MARBLES  FROM  HALICARNASSUS 

"  The  sepulchre  called  the  Mausoleum  was  erected  by  Artemisia  to  her 
husband  Mausolus.  That  this  work  is  reckoned  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  is  due  mainly  to  these  artists  : — Scopas  wrought  the 
sculptures  on  the  eastern  side,  Bryaxis  on  the  north,  Timotheus 
on  the  south,  and  Leochares  on  the  west.  The  queen  died  before 
they  finished,  but  they  did  not  abandon  the  work  until  it  was 
completed,  thinking  it  was  a  memorial  of  their  own  fame  and 
artistic  skill,  and  even  to-day  their  handiwork  still  contends  for 
the  mastery.  There  was  a  fifth  artist  besides  ;  for  on  the  top 
of  the  colonnade  is  a  pyramid  equal  in  height  to  the  one  below, 
with  twenty-four  steps  running  up  into  the  form  of  a  cone  ;  and 
on  the  top  of  this  is  a  marble  chariot,  made  by  Pythis  "  (Pliny, 
Natural  History,  xxxvi.  30). 

"{Diogenes) — Why  art  thou  so  scornful,  man,  as  if  one  was  not 
worthy  to  look  at  thee  ? 

"  (Mausolus) — Because  I  have  been  a  king,  Diogenes,  and  have  ruled 
over  a  large  country,  not  to  make  mention  of  my  beauty,  nor  my 
valour.  Moreover  I  have  a  noble  tomb  in  Halicarnassus,  adorned 
with  marble  figures  insomuch  that  there  are  few  churches  that 
equal  my  grave ;  after  all  this,  is  it  without  reason  that  I  am  proud  ? 

il  (Diogenes) — What!  for  thy  Beauty,  Valour,  Kingdom,  and  Grave? 
Why,  friend,  here  thou  hast  nothing  of  all  that ;  and  if  thou'lt 
pitch  upon  a  judge,  he'll  tell  thee  that  thy  carcass  differs  in 
nothing  from  mine  ;  as  for  thy  sepulchre,  it  belongs  to  those 
of  Halicarnassus  to  brag  of  that,  and  show  it  to  strangers  as  a 
wonder  of  the  world,  and  a  masterpiece  in  architecture  ;  but  I 
don't  see  what  use  it  can  be  to  thee,  unless  it  be  to  crush  thee 
wiih  its  weight"  (LuciAN,  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  xxv. ). 

208 


CHAP.  XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


209 


The  tomb  of  Mausolus,  the  fame  of  which  is  recorded  in  the 
passages  quoted  above,  and  the  remains  of  which  are  now  one 
of  the  chief  glories  of  the  British  Museum,  has  given  the  name 
of  Mausoleum  to  great  sepulchral  monuments  in  all  subse- 
quent ages.  Mausolus,  son  of  Hekatomnus,  was  a  Prince  of 
Caria,  the  province  adjoining  Lycia.  He  figures  in  Lucian's 
Dialogues  of  the  Dead  as  a  type  of  regal  magnificence. 
According  to  Carian  custom,  he  was  married  to  his  sister 
Artemisia,  who,  upon  his  death,  set  herself  to  enshrine  his 
memory  in  a  building  of  unequalled  splendour.  It  was  com- 
menced in  352  B.C.,  the  year  after  his  death,  and  the  most 
eminent  sculptors  of  the  day  were  summoned  from  Athens  to 
adorn  it.  It  was  erected  in  the  city  of  Halicarnassus  (the 
modern  Budrum),  which  Mausolus  had  made  the  capital  of  his 
province.  Pliny,  as  we  have  seen,  referred  to  it  as  still  exciting 
the  admiration  of  the  learned  world  in  his  day  (died  79  A.D.), 
and  it  is  believed  to  have  stood  intact  till  it  was  thrown  down 
by  an  earthquake  in  the  twelfth  century.  Two  centuries  later 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  occupied  the  promontory  of  Budrum 
and  used  some  of  the  fragments  of  the  Mausoleum  for  building 
the  Castle  of  St.  Peter.  In  1522,  when  the  Sultan  Suleyman  I. 
was  preparing  to  attack  Rhodes,  the  Grand  Master  sent  some 
knights  to  repair  the  castle  : — 

"  After  four  or  five  days  these  knight-builders  having  laid  bare  a  great 
space,  one  afternoon  saw  an  opening  as  into  a  cellar.  Taking  a  candle, 
they  let  themselves  down  through  this  opening,  and  found  that  it  led 
into  a  fine  large  square  apartment,  ornamented  all  round  with  columns 
of  marble,  with  their  bases,  capitals,  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornices, 
engraved  with  sculptures  in  half-relief.  Having  at  first  admired  these 
works,  and  entertained  their  fancy  with  the  singularity  of  the  sculpture, 
they  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  broke  up  the  whole  of  it,  applying  it  to 
the  same  purpose  as  the  rest"  (Guichard  (1581),  quoted  in  Newton's 
Travels,  ii.  126). 

Some  slabs  of  the  principal  frieze  were  thus  built  into  the 
castle  walls,  and  the  history  of  the  recovery  of  the  Mausoleum 
begins  in  1846,  when  Lord  Stratford  de  RedclifTe,  British 
Ambassador  at  Constantinople,  obtained  a  firman  from  the 
Sultan  authorising  him  to  remove  the  slabs  to  the  British 
Museum.  Sir  Charles  Newton  took  much  interest  in  these 
relics,  and  in  1847  wrote  a  monograph  on  the  Mausoleum.  In 
1855  he  visited  the  castle  of  Budrum  and  made  some  further 
discoveries  there  of  ancient  marbles.    On  the  strength  of  these, 

p 


2IO 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


permission  was  obtained  from  the  Sultan  for  excavations  on  the 
site  of  the  Mausoleum,  and  Newton  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an 
expedition — one  of  H.M.  ships  with  a  lieutenant  of  engineers, 
four  sappers,  and  a  crew  of  i  50  men  being  held  at  his  disposal.1 
The  lieutenant  of  engineers  was  Lieutenant  (afterwards  Major- 
General  Sir)  Robert  Murdoch  Smith,  to  whose  subsequent 
explorations  in  the  Cyrenaica  we  have  already  referred  (p.  44). 
Excavations  were  begun  in  November  1856;  the  site  of  the 
Mausoleum  was  explored,  and  the  remains  of  this  wonder  of 
the  world  were  safely  deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is 
worth  noticing  that  the  remains  were  discovered  on  the  precise 
spot  which,  in  a  memoir  written  ten  years  previously,  Newton 
had  arrived  at  by  a  process  of  reasoning  as  the  site  of  the 
building.2  His  account  of  his  first  striking  the  site  is  very 
interesting  : — - 

"  It  was  on  the  1st  of  January  (1857)  that  I  first  broke  ground  on 
this  memorable  site.  After  a  few  spadefuls  had  been  thrown  up,  I 
examined  the  character  of  the  soil.  It  was  a  loose  black  mould,  full 
of  small  splinters  of  fine  white  marble  and  rubble.  The  whole 
appearance  of  this  soil,  and  the  absence  of  stratification  in  it,  suggested 
the  notion  that  it  was  a  recent  accumulation,  such  as  might  have  taken 
place  in  the  400  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  building  of  the 
Castle  of  Budrum  by  the  Knights.  The  fragments  of  marble  were 
evidently  from  some  Ionic  building.  After  a  short  time  a  mutilated 
leg  turned  up ;  this  was  evidently  from  a  frieze.  I  began  to  have 
vague  hopes.     More  bits  of  sculpture  appeared, — always  legs  and 


1  The  bluejackets  entered  with  good  humour  into  their  strange  work. 
The  following  letter  was  picked  up: — "Dear  father  and  mother,  with 
god's  help  i  now  take  up  my  pen  to  right  these  few  lines  to  you,  hopeing 
to  find  you  in  good  health  and  sperits  as  thank  god  it  leaves  me  at  present. 
Dear  father  of  all  the  drill  that  a  seaman  was  put  to  i  think  the  Supply  s 
company  have  got  the  worst,  for  here  we  are  at  Boderumm  a  using  the 
pike,  madock,  and  shovel.  Never  was  there  such  a  change  from  a  seaman 
to  a  navy  ;  yes  by  george  we  are  all  turned  naveys,  sumetimes  a  diging  it 
up  and  sometimes  a  draging  it  down  to  the  water's  edge  and  then  embark- 
ing it.  Dear  father  this  is  the  finest  marble  that  ever  i  saw  ;  we  get  on 
so  very  slow  that  i  fear  we  shall  be  hear  a  long  time  ;  the  city  of  Ninevea 
as  has  been  sunk  such  a  long  time  that  we  find  nothing  but  marble  ;  every- 
thing els  is  compleatley  roled  away.  What  is  most  to  be  seen  is  the 
crockery  ware  that  they  used  in  those  days"  (Newton's  Travels,  ii.  211). 

2  It  appears  that  it  was  Lieutenant  Smith  who  hit  upon  the  real  site 
of  the  Mausoleum,  and  discovered  the  key  to  Pullan's  restoration  (see 
Parliamentary  Papers,  1857-58,  lx.  694-709  ;  Sir  C.  Wilson's  memoir  of 
Smith  in  the  Royal  Engineers  Journal,  1st  September  1900  ;  and  W.  K. 
Dickson's  Life  of  Sir  Robert  Murdoch  Smith,  1901,  pp.  22,  33). 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


211 


scraps  of  frieze,  till  at  last  I  got  a  piece  of  foot  with  the  moulding  of 
the  frieze  still  remaining.  I  at  once  recognised  this  to  be  the  moulding 
of  the  frieze  from  the  castle,  which  Lord  Stratford  obtained  for  the 
British  Museum  in  1846.  About  the  same  time  that  I  made  this  dis- 
covery, I  happened  to  be  examining  a  wall  near  where  I  was  digging, 
and  found  that  a  battered  fragment  of  a  marble  lion  formed  one  of  the 
foundation  stones.  From  that  day  I  had  no  doubt  that  the  site  of  the 
Mausoleum  was  found.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  to  you,  the  moment 
of  making  this  great  discovery  was  not  at  all  one  of  great  joy  and 
exultation.  I  cast  a  wistful  eye  on  the  site  covered  with  houses 
and  plots  of  garden  land,  each  belonging  to  a  different  proprietor, 
and  asked  myself  how  will  it  be  possible  to  buy  all  these  people 
out  "  [Travels  and  Discoveries,  ii.  pp.  &6-8J). 

It  required  great  patience,  much  diplomacy,  and  liberal 
expenditure  on  Newton's  part  to  proceed  with  his  diggings. 
"They  tell  me,"  said  one  Turkish  proprietor,  "you  are  a  man 
who,  when  once  you  get  your  foot  into  a  field,  contrive  to  get 
your  whole  body  in  after  it." 


Before  examining  the  remains  of  the  Mausoleum,  the 
visitor  will  do  well  to  study  the  conjectural  restorations  of  the 
building,  exhibited  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  room,  and 
including  a  very  pretty  water  -  colour  drawing  by  C.  R. 
Cockerell,  R.A.  A  knowledge  of  these  restorations  will  add 
greatly  to  the  interest  and  appreciation  of  the  remains.  All 
restorations  are,  however,  merely  conjectural.  In  the  official 
Catalogue  of  Sculpture  (vol.  ii.  pp.  76,  77),  illustrations  are 
given  of  eight  restorations  ;  no  two  of  them  are  alike.  In  all 
probability  much  of  the  original  marble  still  remains  in  the 
Castle  of  Budrum  ;  if  that  Turkish  fortress  should  ever  be 
razed  to  the  ground  and  made  to  disclose  all  its  secrets,  the 
mystery  of  the  Mausoleum  will  perhaps  be  solved.1  The 
building,  which,  according  to  Pliny,  was  1 40  feet  high,  appears 
to  have  consisted  of  (1)  a  lofty  basement,  on  which  stood  (2) 

1  Visitors  to  Rome  may  be  interested  in  Fergusson's  conjecture  that  the 
famous  horses  of  the  Monte  Cavallo  once  adorned  an  angle  of  the  base  of 
the  Mausoleum  (see  Antiquities  of  Ionia,  part  iv.  p.  18)  ;  but  this  is 
not  probable.  One  of  the  more  recent  restorations  of  the  Mausoleum  is 
that  made  by  the  late  Mr.  Edmund  Oldfleld  (an  assistant  in  the  Museum 
at  the  time  when  these  marbles  were  brought  over)  in  Archceologia,  liv.  273 
and  lv.  343.  Martial,  in  one  of  his  epigrams,  speaks  of  the  Mausoleum 
as  "hanging  in  empty  air."  Mr.  Oldfield's  conjectural  restoration  meets 
this  description.  Mr.  Pullan's,  which  Sir  C.  Newton  adopted,  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  remarkable  for  its  heaviness. 


212 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


an  oblong  edifice,  surrounded  by  an  Ionic  colonnade,  and 
encircled  by  a  frieze,  and  surmounted  by  (3)  a  pyramid  of 
twenty-four  steps  ;  which  was  crowned  by  (4)  a  chariot  group. 
We  shall  examine  the  remains  of  the  last  three  portions  of  the 
edifice  in  the  reverse  order. 

In  the  centre  of  the  room  are  the  remains,  partially 
reconstructed,  of  The  Chariot  Group  (1000- 1004J.  It  is  not 
explicitly  stated  by  Pliny  that  statues  stood  in  the  chariot, 
but  when  excavated  by  Newton,  the  remains  of  the  chariot 
and  horses,  and  of  the  two  figures,  were  found  together,  lying 
in  a  confused  heap  as  they  had  fallen.  The  reconstruction 
has  a  very  grand  effect.1  The  visitor  will  find  it  grow  upon 
him  the  more  he  looks  ;  it  is  best  seen  from  the  steps  leading 
from  the  Nereid  Room. 

The  colossal  statue  of  Mausolus  himself,  which  has  been 
put  together  out  of  sixty-five  fragments,  is  evidently  a  portrait, 
though  treated  in  an  ideal  manner  : — 

"  The  cast  of  the  features  resembles  (says  Newton),  so  far  as  I  know, 
no  other  type  to  be  met  with  in  Hellenic  art.  The  hair  springing 
upwards  from  the  forehead,  falls  in  thick  waves  on  each  side  of  the 
face  ;  the  beard  is  short  and  close  ;  the  face  square  and  massive,  with 
proportions  somewhat  shorter  and  broader  than  those  usually  observed 
in  Greek  art  ;  the  eyes,  deep-set  under  overhanging  brows,  have  a  full 
and  majestic  gaze  ;  the  mouth  is  well  formed,  with  a  set  calm  about  the 
lips,  indicating  decision  of  character  and  the  habit  of  command.  The 
drapery  is  grandly  composed,  and  the  majestic  aspect  of  true  figure 
accords  very  well  with  the  description  which  Mausolus  is  made  to  give 
of  himself  in  Lucian's  Dialogue.  'I  was,'  he  says,  1  a  tall  handsome 
man,  and  formidable  in  war'"  [Travels,  ii.  114,  115). 

The  female  figure  was  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  a 
goddess  standing  by  the  side  of  Mausolus  in  the  chariot,  and 
acting  as  his  charioteer — the  group  being  thus  typical  of  his 
translation  to  heaven.     But  more  probably  the  lady  also  is  a 

1  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  this  restoration,  like  every- 
thing else  connected  with  the  Mausoleum,  is  conjectural.  It  cannot 
conclusively  be  proved  that  the  magnificent  statues  of  Mausolus  and 
Artemisia  belonged  to  the  chariot  on  the  top  of  the  monument.  Reasons 
to  the  contrary  have  been  urged,  e.g.  that  statues  at  such  a  height  in  a 
chariot,  and  behind  gigantic  horses,  would  have  been  almost  invisible  from 
below.  Both  the  horses  and  wheel  of  the  chariot  are  on  a  far  larger  scale 
than  the  two  statues.  An  empty  chariot  would  have  been  very  appropriate 
to  the  tomb.  These  are  some  of  the  arguments  adduced  by  Professor 
P.  Gardner  (/.U.S.  xiii.  188,  and  Sculptured  Tombs  of  Hellas,  ch.  xiv. ) 
For  Mr.  Oldfield's  powerful  reply,  see  Archcsologia,  lv.  365-372. 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


213 


portrait  figure,  in  which  case  she  must  be  Artemisia  herself. 
Newton  calls  special  attention  to  the  drapery  and  the  foot  in 
this  figure  : — 

"  Each  fold  is  traced  home  to  its  origin  and  wrought  to  its  full 
depth  ;  a  master  hand  has  passed  over  the  whole  surface,  leaving  no 
sign  of  that  slurred  and  careless  treatment  which  characterises  the 
specious  and  meretricious  art  of  a  later  period.  One  foot  of  this 
statue  has  been  preserved,  and  is  an  exquisite  specimen  of  sculpture, 
and  more  valuable  because,  in  the  few  statues  from  the  best  Greek 
schools  which  we  possess,  the  extremities  are  generally  wanting  "  {ibid. 
ii.  116). 

The  colossal  horse  was  discovered  early  in  the  course  of 
the  diggings  : — 

"  After  being  duly  hauled  out,  he  was  placed  on  a  sledge  and  dragged 
to  the  shore  by  eighty  Turkish  workmen.  On  the  walls  and  house- 
tops, as  we  went  along,  sat  the  veiled  ladies  of  Budrum.  They  had 
never  seen  anything  so  big  before,  and  the  sight  overcame  the  reserve 
imposed  upon  them  by  Turkish  etiquette.  The  ladies  of  Troy,  gazing 
at  the  wooden  horse  as  he  entered  the  breach,  could  not  have  been 
more  astonished"  (ibid.  ii.  110). 

The  original  bronze  bit  is  still  in  the  horse's  mouth.  The 
wheel  has  been  restored  from  a  few  fragments,  which  have 
been  of  value  in  determining  the  height  of  the  chariot ;  the 
diameter  of  the  wheel  was  found  to  be  7  feet  7  inches. 

At  the  north  end  of  the  room  (east  corner)  are  several  of  the 
marble  steps  of  the  pyramidal  roof  which  was  surmounted  by 
the  chariot  (987).  A  fragment  with  a  hoof  of  one  of  the  horses 
has  been  inserted  into  the  upper  step  to  show  the  arrangement. 
Here  too  is  placed  an  alabaster  jar  (1099),  found  near  a  great 
stone,  which  probably  had  closed  the  entrance  to  the  sepulchral 
chamber.  (This  stone,  by  the  way,  showed  signs  of  not  having 
been  securely  fastened  ;  and  Newton  suggests  that  this  may 
have  been  a  case  of  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  with 
the  same  motive  as  actuated  the  builder  of  the  treasury  of  the 
Egyptian  king  Rhampsinitus,  about  which  Herodotus  tells  one  of 
his  most  amusing  anecdotes. — Herod,  ii.  i  21.)  Jars  were  often 
deposited  at  the  entrance  to  tombs  by  mourners,  after  libations 
to  the  dead  had  been  made  from  them.  This  jar  is  inscribed 
in  Persian,  Median,  Assyrian,  and  Egyptian,  with  the  words, 
"  Xerxes  the  great  king,"  and  may  have  been  an  heirloom 
preserved  from  the  time  of  Xerxes  and  offered  as  a  precious 
gift  by  Artemisia  to  the  manes  of  her  departed  lord. 


2I4 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


We  now  come  to  the  slabs  and  fragments  of  the  principal 
frieze,  which  are  attached  to  the  east  wall  of  the  room.  The 
history  of  the  recovery  of  these  is  interesting.  Twelve  of  them 
were  obtained,  as  we  have  seen,  from  the  Castle  of  Budrum  in 
1846.  Four  more  were  discovered  in  1856-59  on  the  site  of 
the  Mausoleum.  In  1865  another  slab  (1022)  was  purchased 
from  a  palace  at  Genoa,  to  which  place  it  had  probably  been 
taken  from  Budrum  by  one  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  some 
time  in  the  fifteenth,  or  early  in  the  sixteenth,  century.  In 
1876  two  fragments  of  another  slab  (1023)  were  obtained  from 
a  Turkish  house  in  the  town  of  Rhodes.  Finally,  in  1879  tne 
present  Sultan,  Abdul  Hamid,  presented  a  fragment  (10 17) 
which  was  formerly  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  Constantinople. 
Fragments  found  by  Newton  on  the  site  have  since  been 
fitted  to  the  slabs  thus  collected  from  so  many  quarters. 

The  subject  of  the  frieze  is  a  series  of  combats  between 
Greeks  and  Amazons,  of  whom  the  legend  was  that  these 
women-warriors  of  Scythia  had  founded  an  empire  in  Asia 
Minor.  In  examining  the  sculptures  as  works  of  art,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  frieze  was  designed  to  be  seen  from 
below  at  a  considerable  height : — 

"  The  composition  is  distinguished  by  the  wonderful  animation  and 
energy  which  pervade  the  whole.  A  happy  boldness  of  invention  is 
shown  in  the  incidents  which  represent  the  varied  fortunes  of  a  combat 
in  which  neither  side  can  claim  a  decisive  victory.  A  consummate 
technical  knowledge  is  applied  throughout  to  render  the  expression  of 
each  group  and  figure  as  emphatic  as  possible,  and  proportions  are 
boldly  exaggerated  to  produce  more  telling  effects.  Tried  by  the 
standard  of  the  school  of  Phidias,  and  viewed  simply  as  a  composition 
in  relief,  without  regard  to  its  original  architectonic  purpose,  the 
frieze  may  perhaps  be  considered  a  little  strained  and  overwrought  in 
style  ;  it  may  be  thought  that  such  intensity  in  the  action  needs  the 
contrast  of  forms  expressive  of  repose,  such  as  we  see  introduced  in 
the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon  and  in  the  Phigaleian  frieze.  We  seem 
to  miss,  too,  in  the  whole  treatment  of  the  subject,  that  grand  ethical 
spirit  which  pervades  the  art  of  Phidias,  and  which  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  groups  where  a  mortal  struggle  is  represented.  We 
have  not,  as  in  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon,  the  highest  human 
heroism  contrasted  with  mere  brute  passion  ;  but  the  combatants  on 
both  sides  seem,  in  some  groups,  to  be  animated  by  a  rage  which 
weakens  rather  than  develops  the  nobler  part  of  their  nature.  In 
short,  the  composition,  if  compared  with  similar  subjects  as  treated  by 
Phidias,  seems  less  Ethical  and  more  Pathetic.  Moreover,  in  the 
representations  of  the  Amazons,  forms  occur  which  seem  rather  too 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


215 


voluptuous  for  such  an  heroic  type,  and  we  may  here  detect  the  first 
germs  of  that  sensual  element  which  gained  so  powerful  an  ascendency 
in  the  later  schools  of  art,  but  of  which  we  have  no  trace  in  the  works 
of  Phidias"  (Newton,  Guide  to  the  Mausoleum  Room,  p.  7). 

The  whole  frieze  was  originally  coloured.  The  ground  of 
the  relief  was  ultramarine  blue ;  the  flesh,  a  dun  red  ;  the 
drapery  and  armour  were  picked  out  with  colour.  In  1007 
there  were  traces  of  red  on  the  sleeve  of  the  Amazon  ;  in  1  o  1  5 
on  the  shield  of  the  Greek  ;  and  in  1017  on  the  right  arm  of  the 
Greek.  The  bridles  of  the  horses  were  of  metal.  Several  of 
the  horses'  heads  are  pierced  for  the  attachment  of  metal, 
and  in  101  5  the  end  of  the  leaden  fastening  still  remains  in  the 
jaw  of  the  horse. 

We  may  now  examine  the  slabs  more  in  detail  : — 

Slabs  1006-1012  (from  the  Castle  of  St.  Peter).  "The  artist 
transports  us  into  the  thickest  of  the  battle  at  its  hottest  moment.  On 
the  whole  the  Greeks  are  prevailing,  but  they  have  no  easy  task.  A 
Hercules  is  needed  (1008)  to  ensure  a  victory.  .  .  .  The  Greeks  are 
all  on  foot,  and  for  the  most  part  nude.  They  are  armed  with  sword 
or  javelin  and  buckler,  and  some  wear  a  Corinthian  helmet.  The 
Amazons  are  on  foot  or  horseback,  and  most  of  them  wear  the  sleeveless 
chiton  alone,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  part  of  the  person  exposed." 
Some  wear  closely-fitting  trousers.  "The  tendency  of  the  age  to 
sacrifice  everything  to  beauty  is  shown  in  the  treatment  of .  the 
Amazons.  The  female  warrior,  who  in  earlier  art  had  thrown  off  the 
characteristic  softness  and  weakness  of  the  sex,  becomes  the  lovely, 
charming  woman,  against  whom  we  wonder  to  see  the  manly  warrior 
raise  his  sword"  (Perry,  p.  412).  The  first  Amazon  in  Slab  No.  1006 
is  an  example.  Two  Greeks  are  about  to  despatch  her.  She  is 
disarmed,  and  supports  herself  on  one  arm  and  knee  in  a  very  beautiful 
attitude.    Slab  10 12  is  the  finest  in  this  series  (see  Murray,  ii.  289). 

Slabs  1013-1016  were  found  by  Newton  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Mausoleum,  which,  according  to  Pliny,  was  wrought  by  Scopas,  and 
they  may  be  the  work  of  that  master.  They  are  certainly  superior  to 
most  of  the  other  slabs  in  spirit  of  composition  and  mastery  of  execu- 
tion. The  warrior  in  I013,  who,  already  wounded,  looks  up  at  his 
adversary  with  undaunted  gaze,  is  a  very  noble  figure.  In  10 1 4  both 
groups  are  very  fine.  In  the  group  on  the  left  the  attitude  of  the 
Amazon  is  remarkable  for  the  boldness  and  novelty  of  the  conception. 
In  the  group  on  the  right,  where  a  Greek  warrior  is  bending  over  an 
Amazon  whom  he  is  about  to  despatch,  there  is  a  fine  contrast.  The 
ruthless  intent  expressed  in  his  face,  and  the  calm  upward  look  with 
which  the  heroine  awaits  the  deadly  stroke,  are  inimitably  given.  The 
expression  of  the  bearded  Greek  —  one  of  the  best -preserved  heads 
in  the  whole  frieze — is  very  like  that  of  one  of  the  warriors  in  the 


2l6 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


bronzes  of  Siris  (see  p.  443).  In  1015  an  Amazon  sits  upon  her  horse 
with  her  face  to  his  tail,  and  seems  to  be  drawing  her  bow,  after  the 
Parthian  fashion,  at  an  enemy  behind  her.  On  the  right  a  helmeted 
Greek  is  shrinking  back  from  the  suspended  blow  of  an  Amazon,  who 
has  grasped  the  rim  of  his  shield  and  thrusts  it  aside  to  get  a  fair 
stroke.  The  Amazons,  it  has  been  remarked  by  a  German  critic,  are 
veritable  furies  in  attack,  but  in  defeat  (as  we  see  in  other  slabs)  their 
woman-nature  prevails,  and  they  beg  piteously  for  their  lives  (Upcott's 
Introduction  to  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  82). 

Slab  1 01 6  has  a  most  beautiful  figure  of  a  mounted  Amazon,  which 
resembles  the  equestrian  group  in  the  round.  The  beauty  of  the 
modelling  is  increased  by  the  preservation  of  the  surface,  and  this  is 
the  finest  representation  of  a  horse  on  the  frieze.  This  was  the  first 
slab  which  Newton  discovered  in  his  excavations.  4  4  One  general 
expression  of  wonder  and  admiration  burst  forth,"  he  says,  "from  the 
lips  of  my  Turkish  workmen  when  they  beheld  the  4kiz,'  or  girl,  as 
they  called  this  figure.  It  Was  the  first  time  that  they  had  fairly 
recognised  likeness  in  anything  which  I  had  discovered "  ( Travels , 
ii.  95). 

Slab  1 01 7.  This  figure  of  an  Amazon  rushing  forward  with  her 
battle-axe  is  very  fine.  Newton  in  1853  recognised  it  in  the  Imperial 
Museum  in  Constantinople  as  a  fragment  of  the  Mausoleum  frieze. 
4  4  Its  connection  with  the  Mausoleum  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
fragment  which  contains  the  left  knee  and  lower  part  of  the  left  thigh 
was  found  in  the  course  of  the  excavations  on  the  site  of  the  Mausoleum 
in  1856-59,  and  has  been  fitted  into  its  place  since  the  larger  fragment 
was  presented  by  the  Sultan  "  (Newton's  Travels,  i.  44  ;  and  Guide  to 
the  Mausoleum  Rocen,  p.  21), 

Slabs  10 1 8- 1 02 1  (from  the  Castle  of  St.  Peter). 

The  original  Slab  1021  has  been  placed  in  the  restored  order  of  the 
Mausoleum  ;  its  place  in  the  frieze  is  here  represented  by  a  cast. 

Slab  1022  (from  Genoa)  is  one  of  the  finest  of  the  series.  It  is 
better  preserved  than  any  of  those  from  the  Castle,  and  it  was  probably 
selected  at  the  time  when  the  Knights  of  St.  John  were  at  Budrum  as 
worthy  to  be  sent  to  Genoa.  The  Serra  family,  from  whose  palace 
it  comes,  are  unable  to  trace  back  its  possession  beyond  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century.     It  was  purchased  for  the  Museum  in  1865. 

Nos.  1023- 1030  are  fragments  of  the  same  frieze.  The  history  of 
the  fragments  in  1023  is  a  curious  example  of  the  way  in  which  the 
disjecta  membra  of  ancient  sculptures  are  sometimes  reunited.  44  The 
lower  part  of  both  figures  was  found  on  the  site  of  the  Mausoleum, 
but  the  upper  half  both  of  the  Greek  and  of  the  Amazon  was  discovered 
in  the  courtyard  of  a  Turkish  house  in  the  town  of  Rhodes,  and  pur- 
chased from  the  owner  by  the  Museum  in  1876.  On  comparing  the 
fractured  edges  of  both  fragments  with  the  fragments  found  on  the  site  of 
the  Mausoleum  in  1856-59,  it  was  found  that  they  could  be  perfectly 
adjusted.  The  house  at  Rhodes,  in  the  courtyard  of  which  the  two 
upper  parts  of  the  figures  were  found,  was  certainly  one  of  the  old 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


217 


houses  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  presumed 
that  these  two  fragments  had  been  conveyed  from  Bud  rum  to  Rhodes 
while  the  knights  still  held  the  Castle  of  St.  Peter.  The  surface  of 
both  the  Rhodian  fragments  has  been  damaged  by  fire "  (Newton's 
Guide  to  the  Mausoleum  Room,  p.  30). 

In  addition  to  the  principal  frieze,  fragments  of  two  others 
were  found.  The  fragments  of  the  chariot  frieze  are 
arranged  above  the  slabs  which  we  have  been  examining. 
One  figure  from  this  frieze  is  of  great  beauty.  It  is  exhibited 
uon  the  line"  elsewhere  in  the  room  (see  p.  219),  and  is 
represented  in  its  place  here  by  a  cast.  The  remains  of  the 
Centaur  frieze  are  arranged  in  continuation  of  the  principal 
frieze.  Above  the  first  slabs  of  the  principal  frieze  are  some 
well-preserved  remains  of  a  cornice  richly  decorated  with  pro- 
jecting lions'  heads. 

Turning  now  to  the  opposite  (west)  side  of  the  room,  and 
commencing  at  the  far  end,  we  come  to  a  restored  sample  of 
the  colonnade  (980),  represented  by  one  of  the  Ionic  columns, 
surmounted  by  original  pieces  of  the  architrave,  frieze,  and 
cornice,  and  showing  part  of  a  coffered  casting  (stretching 
back  to  the  wall  of  the  room) ;  the  sunk  panels,  or  coffers, 
are  richly  ornamented.  The  ground  of  all  the  architectural 
ornaments  was  painted  blue  ;  the  mouldings  were  picked  out 
with  red.  All  the  ornaments,  adds  Newton,  "are  finished 
with  an  exquisite  delicacy.  This  is  particularly  seen  in  the 
cornice,  where  every  leaf  in  the  floral  ornaments  is  wrought 
with  that  labour  of  love  which  distinguishes  Greek  architecture 
in  its  best  age,  but  which  ceases  to  be  its  characteristic  after 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great." 

We  have  next  to  examine  (a)  various  isolated  pieces  of 
sculpture  found  at  the  Mausoleum  or  of  interest  in  con- 
nection therewith  ;  and  {b)  several  sculptured  lions  from  the 
Mausoleum. 

(a)  We  begin  our  examination  of  the  sculptures  in  the 
recess,  to  the  right  of  the  stairs  leading  from  the  Nereid  Room. 
Here  we  must  notice  first  casts  of  two  heads  from  Tegea 
(now  in  the  Athens  Museum),  which  have  been  identified  as 
works  of  Scopas,  and  are  commonly  taken  as  standards  of  his 
style  : — 

Scopas  is  one  of  the  most  individual  of  all  the  Greek  sculptors. 
Like  the  marble  in  which  he  preferred  to  work,  he  came  from  Paros  ; 
but  he  lived   at  Athens.     The  years  of  his  activity  were  about 


218 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


395-349  B.C.  He  was  somewhat  older  than  Praxiteles.  Praxiteles, 
it  has  been  said,  excelled  in  the  representation  of  moods  ;  Scopas, 
in  that  of  passions.  Among  works  attributed  to  him  was  a  group 
representing  three  phases  of  Love — Passion,  that  inspires  the  lover  ; 
Desire,  that  breathes  from  the  presence  of  the  beloved  ;  and  Yearning, 
in  absence.  This  group  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  kind  of 
effects  which  the  fiery  genius  of  Scopas  sought  to  breathe  into  the 
marble.  Subtle  shades  of  strong  feeling,  passionate  and  excited 
motion,  overmastering  impulse  were  the  effects  he  aimed  at.  In  the 
heads  before  us  we  can  catch,  even  from  the  casts,  an  impression  of 
extraordinary  life  and  intensity.  The  eyes  gaze  outwards  and  upwards, 
with  an  intense  expression.  The  mouth  is  half  open  ;  the  upper  lip 
is  drawn  up  in  excitement.  A  Greek  epigram  said  of  a  Bacchante  by 
Scopas  that  the  sculptor  mingled  frenzy  with  stone.  This  is  the  note 
of  Scopas — an  expression  of  impatience,  restlessness,  intensity.  There 
are  in  the  British  Museum  no  original  sculptures  which  can  certainly 
be  identified  with  Scopas.  But  he  worked,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the 
Mausoleum,  and  many  of  the  sculptures  may  be  attributed  to  his 
school.  The  characteristics  noticed  above  as  distinguishing  the  frieze 
are  in  keeping  with  what  we  know  of  his  style  ;  so  also  is  the  figure 
of  the  charioteer,  which  we  shall  presently  see.  We  know  too  that 
Scopas  sculptured  one  of  the  columns  at  Ephesus,  and  the  Hermes 
(p.  131)  has  by  some  been  attributed  to  him.  The  bronze  head  of 
Sleep  (p.  433)  has  also  been  referred  to  his  inspiration. 

Among  the  other  marbles  in  this  recess  we  may  notice 
the  head  of  a  satrap  (1057).  probably  some  member  of  the 
family  of  Mausolus,  wearing  the  Persian  conical  cap  ;  and  an 
heroic  head  (1056),  much  defaced,  but  remarkable  for  the 
pensive  expression  and  deep-set  eyes. 

Passing  down  the  long  wall  we  come  to  the  so-called 
"Aberdeen  Head."  This  head  was  obtained  direct  from 
Greece  by  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  and  is  believed  to  be  an 
original  work  by  Praxiteles,  probably  representing  a  youthful 
Hercules.  Its  technical  similarity  to  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles 
is  the  basis  of  the  attribution  : — 

"Though  the  hair  in  the  Aberdeen  head  is  conceived  as  a  lighter, 
less  abundant  mass  than  in  the  Hermes,  the  form  of  the  curls  that 
play  about  the  forehead,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  temples,  is 
identical  in  both  heads,  while  on  the  top  it  is  treated  in  the  same 
broad  masses  calculated  to  produce  impression,  rather  than  to  render 
formal  detail.  One  point,  however,  should  be  noted  to  which,  at 
present,  I  can  instance  no  parallel:  it  is  the  deeply  -  scooped  -  out 
grooves  which  separate  the  masses  of  hair,  and  which  are  doubtless 
intended  to  help  out  the  effects  of  light  and  shade.  In  both  heads 
the  structure  and  modelling  of  the  forehead  correspond  in  their  every 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


219 


part ;  further,  the  nose,  with  the  great  width  between  the  eyes,  the 
form  of  the  eyeball,  and  the  modelling  of  both  upper  and  lower  lids, 
are  precisely  similar,  even  the  little  furrow  indicated  between  the 
eyebrow  and  the  eyelid  being  rendered  in  both  heads  with  identical 
personal  touch.  .  .  .  The  Aberdeen  head  has  fuller  and  more 
sensuous  lips  than  the  Hermes,  but  their  form  is  the  same.  The 
chin  has  the  same  full  rounded  character  as  the  lips  ;  it  is  shorter, 
and  has  a  more  marked  dimple  than  that  of  the  Hermes.  Finally, 
the  close  correspondence  in  the  measurements  of  the  two  heads 
cannot  be  without  significance "  (Eugenie  Sellers  in  Furtwangler's 
Masterpieces,  p.  346). 

Next  we  must  notice  the  beautiful  slab  representing  a 
charioteer  standing  in  a  quadriga,  of  which  half  the  wheel 
only  has  been  preserved  (1037).  "His  body  is  thrown 
forward,  and  his  countenance  and  attitude  express  the  eager- 
ness of  the  contest.  The  features  are  finished  almost  with 
the  delicacy  of  a  gem"  (Newrton's  Travels,  ii.  133)  : — 

"  Perhaps  the  finest  of  the  relics  of  the  Mausoleum.  The  charioteer 
is  represented  as  leaning  forward  in  his  car,  while  the  long  chiton, 
which  reaches  to  his  feet,  curves  to  the  wind  in  sweeping  folds.  But 
it  is,  above  all,  the  expression  of  the  face,  with  its  intense  and  eager 
straining  towards  the  distant  goal,  that  gives  this  figure  its  unique 
character.  The  forehead  is  deeply  furrowed,  and  there  is  a  heavy  bar 
of  flesh  on  the  brow,  overshadowing  the  deep-set  eyes,  which  gaze 
upwards  into  the  distance.  It  is  difficult  to  image  a  finer  rendering 
of  the  ideal  charioteer,  as  described  by  Shelley  : — 

Others,  with  burning  eyes,  lean  forth  and  drink 
With  eager  eyes  the  wind  of  their  own  speed, 
As  if  the  thing  they  loved  fled  on  before, 
And  now,  even  now,  they  clasped  it." 

(E.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  390). 

''The  workmanship  of  the  whole  body,"  says  Mr.  Farnell,  in 
ascribing  this  work  to  Scopas,  "the  forms  and  expression  of  the 
face  are  worthy  of  the  great  sculptor's  hand  ;  no  other  part  of  the 
Mausoleum  sculptures  can  be  compared  to  it  for  the  warm  and  soft 
treatment  of  the  surface  ;  and  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  drapery,  the  simplicity  of  the  lines,  recall  an  older  style,  of 
which  traces  would  seem  to  have  been  found  in  Scopas.  .  .  .  The 
expression  is  in  kind  the  same  (as  in  the  Tegean  heads),  an  expression 
of  fresh  and  buoyant  vitality,  of  the  ardour  of  action  upon  which  the 
mind  is  set"  {J.H.S.  vii.  121). 

Near  the  Aberdeen  head  is  a  bearded  head  (1054),  of 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  right  side  has  been  split  off,  with 


220 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


a  mild  and  dignified  expression — not  unlike  Alcibiades,  but 
more  probably  the  portrait  of  some  ancestor  of  Mausolus. 

Not  far  off  is  a  colossal  equestrian  torso  (1045),  the 
position  of  which  on  the  monument  has  not  been  determined. 
The  rider  wears  the  close-fitting  trousers  (anaxyrides),  a  dress 
characteristic  of  Asiatics  in  ancient  art.  The  rearing  movement 
of  the  horse  and  the  firm  seat  of  the  rider  are  admirably 
rendered.  From  the  marks  of  many  bullets  on  the  shoulder, 
Newton  concluded  that  the  torso  had  at  some  time  served  as  a 
target  for  the  muskets  of  the  residents  at  Budrum. 

Continuing  along  the  west  wall,  we  come  to  a  torso  (1047) 
of  a  ruler,  seated  :  "  The  drapery  is  a  little  heavy  in  treatment, 
and  is  certainly  not  so  delicately  wrought  as  that  of  Mausolus 
and  his  companion "  (Newton)  ;  and,  lastly,  to  an  Apollo 
(1058),  in  which  the  style  is  rich  and  flowing.  This  completes 
our  survey  of  the  busts  and  statues  from  the  Mausoleum. 

{p)  Next,  we  see  on  this  same  west  wall,  and  also  in  the 
south  corner  of  the  room,  a  series  of  lions  (107 5- 1086), 
which  probably  served  as  emblematic  guardians  of  the  tomb. 
These  lions  were  built  into  the  Castle  of  the  Knights,  wrhere 
Newton  first  saw  them  in  1855,  and  their  discovery  had 
important  results  : — 

"  It  was  with  a  feeling  of  eager  curiosity  that  I  passed  over  the 
old  drawbridges,  once  so  jealously  guarded.  Very  few  travellers  had 
ever  enjoyed  this  privilege  before, — indeed,  there  is  a  story  that  an 
adventurous  Englishman  once  obtained  a  firman  at  Constantinople 
authorising  him  to  visit  the  castle,  but  that  on  presenting  it  at 
Budrum  to  the  commandant,  he  got  a  hint  that  the  firman  only 
authorised  his  entry  into  the  castle,  but  said  nothing  about  his  exit.1 
On  walking  round  the  ramparts  on  the  side  overlooking  the  harbour, 
I  made  a  sudden  halt.     What  I  saw  was  so  surprising  that  I  could 


1  On  another  occasion  some  "  Franks"  had  obtained  an  order  from 
Constantinople  to  go  "round  the  fortifications  at  Budrum."  The 
governor  of  the  castle  received  them  with  every  mark  of  respect  and 
offered  the  usual  hospitality  of  the  East  ;  after  which  he  told  them  that  the 
mandate  could  not  admit  them  within  the  castle,  but  that  they  were  at 
perfect  liberty  to  walk  round  it.  Another  traveller  obtained  permission  to 
"take  down"  some  sculpture  from  a  gateway  at  Ephesus.  This  he 
accomplished  without  difficulty  ;  whereupon  the  Turkish  Aga  interposed, 
stating  that  the  authority  did  not  extend  to  taking  the  stones  away 
(Fellows,  Asia  Minor  and  Lycia,  p.  432).  Such  anecdotes  serve  to 
remind  us  how  much  persistence,  ingenuity  and,  perhaps,  more  material 
resources  have  been  required  in  order  to  enrich  the  Museum  with 
antiquities  from  Turkish  lands. 


XII 


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221 


hardly  believe  the  evidence  of  my  own  eyes.  In  the  embattled  wall, 
between  the  embrasures,  was  the  head  and  forehead  of  a  colossal  lion, 
in  white  marble,  built  into  the  masonry  and  looking  towards  the 
interior  of  the  castle.  I  saw  at  a  glance  that  this  lion  was  the  work  of 
a  Greek  chisel,  and  that  it  belonged  to  the  finest  period  of  ancient  art. 
There  could  be  but  one  mode  of  accounting  for  its  presence  in  the 
castle, — the  supposition  that  it  originally  formed  part  of  the  Mausoleum. 
On  looking  over  the  battlements,  I  saw  in  the  face  of  the  wall  below 
five  other  lions,  inserted  at  intervals  as  ornaments,  all  of  the  finest 
white  marble  ;  and  in  another  part  of  the  castle  two  more,  placed  on 
each  side  of  an  escutcheon  as  supporters"  {Travels,  i.  334). 

Newton  at  once  communicated  his  interesting  discovery 
to  Lord  Stratford  de  RedclifTe,  who  set  about  obtaining  the 
necessary  firman  for  the  removal  of  the  lions.  Two  years 
later  Newton  returned  to  Budrum  to  remove  them,  but  a  hitch 
at  the  last  moment  almost  deprived  the  Museum  of  its  prize. 
There  was  some  delay  in  the  arrival  of  the  firman,  and  the 
Turkish  Commandant  proceeded  to  steal  a  march  on  the 
Giaour  by  removing  the  lions  and  embarking  them  on  board  a 
caique.  Newton,  who  meanwhile  had  sent  swift  messengers  to 
the  English  Ambassador,  gulped  down  his  mortification  as  best 
he  could  as  he  saw  the  caique  under  sail.  In  the  very  nick  of 
time  a  despatch-boat  arrived  from  Constantinople  with  the 
firman  on  board  ;  but  the  Commandant  had  another  card  up 
his  sleeve.  "  The  firman,"  quoth  he,  "  makes  mention  of  lions, 
but  the  animals  in  the  walls  of  the  castle  are  leopards."  A 
little  strong  language  and  baksheesh,  however,  overcame  these 
verbal  subtleties,  and  the  Commandant  ultimately  threw  in  a 
leopard's  head  not  specified  in  the  firman.  Portions  of  the 
bodies  belonging  to  the  lion's  heads  were  discovered  in  the 
course  of  excavations  ;  as  also  another  beast,  nearly  whole. 
The  tongue,  when  first  discovered,  was  painted  bright  red. 
There  were  also  traces  of  blue  and  red  on  the  slabs  of  the  frieze, 
but  on  exposure  to  the  air  the  colour  disappeared. 

Of  these  lions  there  must  in  all  have  been  at  least  twenty, 
and  they  must  have  formed  a  marked  feature  in  the  sculptural 
decoration  of  the  tomb,  though  their  place  on  it  is  still  matter 
of  conjecture.1    The  sculpture  is  of  very  unequal  merit.  The 

1  In  one  of  the  latest  restorations  of  the  monument  (by  Dr.  Adler)  the 
lions  are  placed  in  a  row  on  a  platform  above  the  columns  of  the  pteron. 
"  In  a  plan  now  in  my  possession,"  says  Professor  P.  Gardner,  '  -  Newton 
had  placed  these  lions  on  the  steps  of  the  pyramid  ;  Dr.  Adler* s  disposition 
of  them  seems  certainly  happier,  if  it  is  consistent  with  existing  remains  " 
{Classical  Review,  March  1902,  p.  139). 


222 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Pentelic  marble  of  which  they  were  cut  must  have  been  of  the 
choicest  quality,  for  in  some  of  them  the  surface  is  as  fresh 
to-day  as  it  was  when  it  left  the  chisel,  2250  years  ago. 
Newton  supposes  that  they  were  represented  standing  on  some 
wall  as  sentinels.  Their  heads,  which  seem  to  have  been  all 
placed  nearly  on  the  same  level,  are  turned  with  a  vigilant  look 
in  different  directions,  "  as  if  they  were  guarding  the  approaches 
to  the  tomb.  Their  expressions  and  attitudes  are  beautifully 
varied.  In  some  the  countenance  has  an  angry  look,  in  others 
the  natural  savageness  of  the  animal  seems  tempered  with  a 
certain  earnestness  and  pathos  in  the  expression  which  is  very 
peculiar"  (Travels,  ii.  135-136). 

It  MARBLES  FROM  PRIENE 

The  next  group  of  marbles  to  be  examined  in  this  room 
comes  from  the  Temple  of  Athene  Polias  at  Priene  (Samsun) 
— another  Ionic  settlement  in  Asia  Minor,  south  of  Ephesus 
and  over  against  the  island  of  Samos.  At  Priene  excavations 
carried  on  for  the  Berlin  Museum  since  1895  have  revealed 
another  Pompeii.  The  remains  of  the  temple  were  excavated, 
not  without  danger  from  fever  and  brigands,  by  Mr.  R.  P. 
Pullan  for  the  Society  of  Dilettanti  in  1869,  the  cost  of  con- 
veying the  heavier  marbles  to  England  being  borne  by  Mr. 
Ruskin.  An  inscription  found  on  the  site,  and  now  in  the 
Museum  (see  p.  2),  fixes  the  date  of  the  temple,  and  shows 
that  it  must  have  been  erected  about  fifteen  years  later  than 
the  Mausoleum.  The  architect  was  Pythios,  who  was  also 
the  builder  of  the  Mausoleum. 

A  plan  and  conjectural  restoration  of  the  temple  are  placed 
on  a  screen.  The  marbles  include  (1)  capitals  and  other 
architectural  fragments  ;  (2)  reliefs  from  a  frieze  ;  (3)  some 
portrait  heads  ;  and  (4)  fragments  of  a  colossal  statue. 

The  subject  of  the  reliefs  is  a  battle  of  gods  and  giants  ;  the 
frieze  perhaps  decorated  a  balustrade  in  front  of  the  statue  of 
the  goddess  within  the  temple. 

Among  the  sculptures,  a  female  head  (1151)  closely  re- 
sembles one  from  the  Mausoleum,  now  on  the  balcony  (105 1). 
The  same  set  of  curls,  the  same  sort  of  coif,  and  apparently 
the  same  face,  seem  at  first  sight  to  suggest  the  same  school, 
if  not  the  same  artists  as  the  Mausoleum.  But  the  Priene 
head  is  wanting  in  the  combination  of  refinement  with  largeness 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


223 


of  style  which  characterises  the  Mausoleum  head  (see  Anti- 
quities of  Io?tia,  pt.  iv.  p.  34  ;  Murray's  History  of  Greek 
Sculpture,  ii.  302).  The  man's  head  (n 52)  is  also  re- 
markable : — 

"  The  features  are  finely  modelled,  and  the  work  belongs  to  a  good 
period.  The  portrait  may  represent  one  of  the  Diadochi,  and  bears 
some  resemblance  to  one  of  the  kings  of  Bithynia  as  represented  on 
coins,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  a  diadem.  The  portrait  is  remarkable 
for  simplicity  of  treatment  and  for  realistic  force.  It  is  probably  one 
of  the  very  few  original  portraits  by  a  Greek  sculptor  anterior  to  the 
Augustan  age  which  has  come  down  to  us"  (C.  T.  Newton  in  the 
Portfolio,  1874,  p.  105). 

Notice  against  the  wall  the  foot  and  arm  of  a  colossal 
statue  (1150),  which  must  have  been  20  feet  high.  These 
probably  belonged  to  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  which  the 
traveller  Pausanius  mentions  as  one  of  the  things  most  to 
be  admired  in  that  part  of  the  world  (vii.  5.  5).  Under  its 
pedestal,  found  in  the  temple  by  Mr.  Pullan,  an  interesting 
discovery  was  made  by  another  visitor  a  year  later.  Greek 
temples,  as  we  know,  were  frequently  used  as  banks  of 
deposits  ;  and  the  historians  tell  us  of  a  deposit  of  400  talents 
made  as  a  resource  in  time  of  need  at  Priene  by  the  King 
Orophernes  (possibly  the  original  of  the  Holofernes  in  the 
Apocrypha),  who  usurped  the  throne  of  Cappadocia  in  158 
B.C.  His  rival  Ariarethes  was  subsequently  established  as 
sole  king,  and  demanded  these  400  talents  from  the  people  of 
Priene.  They,  however,  restored  the  money  to  Orophernes, 
as  the  depositor.  Inscriptions  found  on  the  temple  confirm 
these  statements  of  the  historians,  and  under  the  pedestal  of 
the  statue  of  the  goddess  six  coins  were  found  in  1870,  bearing 
the  hitherto  unknown  portrait  of  King  Orophernes  {Antiquities 
of  Ionia,  pt.  iv.  p.  25).  One  of  these  coins,  now  in  the 
Museum,  is  included  in  the  exhibition  of  electrotypes  (vi.  A. 
23,  see  p.  535).  Orophernes  may  have  dedicated  the  statue 
in  gratitude  for  the  fidelity  of  the  people  of  Priene. 

III.  LYCIAN  TOMBS 

At  one  end  of  the  Mausoleum  Room,  on  either  side  of  the 
staircase,  are  two  Lycian  tombs,  brought  from  Xanthus  by 
Sir  Charles  Fellows — very  beautiful  specimens  of  the  kind, 
which  have  Gothic-formed  tops  :  — 


224 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


"  The  structure  generally  consists  of  a  base  or  pedestal,  which  has 
contained  bodies,  the  Platas,  surmounted  by  a  plinth  or  solid  mass 
of  stone,  which  is  often  sculptured  ;  above  this  is  a  sarcophagus, 
generally  imitative  of  a  wood-formed  cabinet,  the  principal  receptacle 
for  the  bodies,  the  Soros ;  upon  this  is  placed  a  Gothic  lid,  sometimes 
highly  ornamented  with  sculpture,  which  also  served  as  a  place  of 
sepulture"  (Sir  Charles  Fellows,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Asia 
Alinor,  p.  497). 

The  tombs  in  this  room  are  later  in  date  than  the  Harpy 
tomb  (p.  1 01). 

On  the  right,  as  one  faces  the  staircase,  is  the  "  Tomb  of 
Merehi,"  or  the  u  Chimsera  Tomb"  (951) : — 

"  The  lid  of  this,  which  I  found,"  says  Fellows,  "  in  1840,  is  perfect, 
but  had  been  thrown  to  the  ground  by  the  effect  of  earthquakes  ;  the 
chamber  from  off  which  it  had  slidden  was  inclining  towards  the  lid  ; 
beneath  the  chamber  a  few  stones  forming  the  foundation  and  step  in 
the  same  block  are  alone  to  be  found.  There  is  here  no  trace  of  the 
two  first  stories,  and  from  the  rock  approaching  the  surface  of  the 
ground  I  found  no  depth  of  earth  for  research.  Upon  the  chamber  of 
this  tomb  is  a  Lycian  inscription,  of  which  I  have  casts  "  ( Travels  and 
Researches,  p.  497). 

The  tomb  has  here  been  reconstructed,  with  the  cast  of 
the  Lycian  inscription  ;  the  lid  alone  is  part  of  the  original 
structure. 

On  the  side  of  the  ridge,  facing  the  wall,  is  a  battle  scene  ; 
on  the  side  facing  the  staircase,  a  banquet,  a  figure  crowning 
an  athlete,  and  a  group  of  aged  figures  conversing.  Below 
these  reliefs,  on  each  side  of  the  roof,  is  Bellerophon  in  a 
chariot,  accompanied  by  a  charioteer,  attacking  the  Chimaera,  a 
fabulous  monster  of  Lycia,  part  lion,  part  goat,  and  part  serpent. 
The  inscription  states  that  the  tomb  was  built  by  Merehi, 
"a  captain  of  Caricas,"  for  his  household. 

On  the  left,  as  one  faces  the  staircase,  is  the  "  Tomb  of 
Payava,"  called  by  Fellows  the  "  Horse  "  or  "  Winged  Chariot 
Tomb"  (950).  This  tomb  consists  entirely  of  the  original 
stones.  The  removal  (by  a  naval  expedition  sent  for  the 
purpose  in  1842)  was,  as  may  be  imagined,  no  light  matter, 
and  was  not  unattended  with  some  accidents  : — 

"  The  means  adopted  appeared  to  me  to  be  more  sailor-like  than 
scientific ;  the  men  placed  slings  and  cords  over  the  top,  which 
probably  weighed  10  tons,  and,  making  blocks  fast  to  the  neighbouring 
rocks,  hauled  them  off,     As  I  anticipated,  the  centre  fell  in  pieces,  but 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


225 


the  sculptured  parts  did  not  receive  more  injury  than  they  probably 
would  have  done  from  a  more  scientific  operation.  The  whole  may  be 
easily  restored,  and  will  again  form  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  interest- 
ing monuments  I  have  ever  seen  "  ( Travels  and  Researches,  p.  448). 

The  tomb  was  discovered  by  Fellows  on  his  first  visit  to 
Xanthus,  and  greatly  excited  his  admiration.  It  stood  "  on 
the  side  of  a  hill  rich  with  wild  shrubs, — the  distant  mountains, 
of  the  silvery  gray  peculiar  to  marble  rocks,  forming  the  back- 
ground" (An  Account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia,  p.  228.  A 
plate  in  the  Museum  Catalogue  of  Greek  Sculpture^  vol.  ii., 
gives  a  reproduction  of  Scharfs  view  of  the  tomb  in  its 
surroundings). 

On  the  side  of  the  ridge  facing  us  is  a  combat  of  warriors 
on  horse  and  on  foot  ;  on  either  side,  a  hunting  scene.  On 
each  side  of  the  roof  is  an  armed  figure  in  a  chariot,  which  is 
of  the  early  simple  form,  with  wheels  of  four  spokes  only,  and 
is  driven  by  a  man  leaning  forward,  with  his  arms  stretched 
out,  holding  the  reins  and  a  whip  or  goad  ;  four  beautifully 
formed  horses,  prancing  in  various  attitudes,  are  drawing  the 
car.  On  each  of  these  sloping  sides  of  the  roof  are  two  stones 
projecting  about  a  foot,  as  found  on  all  these  Lycian  tombs, 
carved  in  this  case  into  lions5  heads  crouching  on  their  paws. 
In  the  gable  at  the  far  end  is  a  small  door  for  introducing  the 
body  of  the  person  buried  in  the  tomb.  On  the  lower  part  of 
the  tomb,  on  the  side  facing  the  staircase,  is  a  relief  of  warriors 
on  foot  attacking  cavalry  ;  the  horse  of  the  principal  character 
is  ornamented  with  a  plume.  On  the  opposite  side  is  a  satrap 
seated,  apparently  receiving  a  deputation  ;  one  of  these  is  in 
the  attitude  of  a  counsellor  pleading  for  the  others.  On  the  far 
end  is  a  relief  which  Fellows  thus  describes  :  "  One  figure, 
clothed  in  a  loose  robe,  stands  in  a  commanding  attitude  front- 
ing the  spectator,  with  an  arm  raised  over  the  head  of  a  naked 
figure,  also  standing.  Were  this  marble  found  elsewhere,  the 
group  might  be  taken  to  represent  the  baptism  of  our  Saviour.5' 
(In  all  probability  it  was  a  representation  of  a  judge  placing  a 
wreath  on  the  head  of  a  victorious  athlete.)  On  the  opposite 
end  are  two  figures,  armed  with  cuirasses,  one  of  whom  appears 
to  be  crowning  the  other. 

The  inscriptions,  in  the  Lycian  character,  state  that  this 
tomb  was  built  by  Payava.  They  mention  also  the  name  of  a 
Persian  satrap  who  authorised  the  tomb,  and  who  may  perhaps 
be  identified  with  a  satrap  called  by  the  Greeks  Autophradates  ; 

Q 


226 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


he  may  have  held  power  at  Xanthus,  between  about  380  and 
362  B.C. 

"In  general  form  this  monument,  like  its  companion,  and 
like  many  of  the  Lycian  tombs,  is  remarkable  for  its  frank, 
and  probably  conscious,  imitation  of  a  wooden  building,  the 
frame  of  which  is  morticed  together,  according  to  a  simple 
system  of  carpentry.  The  ends  of  the  beams  are  left  project- 
ing, and  the  mortices  are  in  some  cases  made  firm  with 
wedges"  {Catalogue  of  Greek  Sculpture,  ii.  46).  Many  other 
similar  tombs  were  described  by  Fellows.  They  were  used, 
he  found,  by  the  peasants  as  barns. 

IV.  THE  LION  OF  CNIDUS 

This  colossal  lion  (1350)  was  discovered  near  Cnidus  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  in  1858  by  Mr.  R.  P.  Pullan,  the 
architect  who  accompanied  Sir  Charles  Newton's  expedition. 
The  task  of  removing  the  marble  devolved  on  Lieut.  Murdoch 
Smith,  who  has  given  an  interesting  account  of  his  adventures 
and  difficulties  in  transporting  this  weighty  prize.1 

Describing  the  lion  when  first  discovered,  Newton  says  : — 

"  He  is  truly  a  magnificent  beast,  measuring  10  feet  in  length  and 
6  feet  in  height,  and  cut  out  of  one  block  of  Pentelic  marble.  He  lay 
on  his  side,  his  nose  buried  in  the  ground.  The  side  which  has  been 
exposed  to  the  weather  is  much  worn  and  has  assimilated  so  much  in 
colour  to  the  surrounding  rock,  that  when  I  showed  him  to  inhabitants 
of  the  district  and  asked  why  they  had  never  pointed  out  to  me  where 
he  lay,  they  told  me  that  they  had  often  seen  a  great  rock  lying  there, 
but  had  never  perceived  that  it  represented  a  lion  till  I  told  them  so. 
.  .  .  While  he  had  been  lying  grovelling  on  the  earth  we  had  never 
seen  his  face  at  all ;  so  that,  when  we  had  set  him  on  his  base,  and 
our  eyes  met  for  the  first  time  his  calm,  majestic  gaze,  it  seemed  as  if 
we  had  suddenly  roused  him  from  his  sleep  of  ages.  I  should  mention 
that  he  has  no  eyeballs,  only  deeply-cut  sockets,  of  which  the  solemn 
chiaroscuro,  contrasting  with  the  broad  sunlight  around,  produces  the 
effect  of  real  eyes  so  completely  as  to  suggest  the  notion  that  the  artist 
here,  as  in  many  instances  in  ancient  sculpture,  preferred  representation 
by  equivalents  to  the  more  direct  imitation  of  nature.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  have  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  coloured  eyes, 
composed  of  vitreous  paste,  were  sometimes  combined  with  marble  in 


1  In  W.  K.  Dickson's  Life  of  Sir  Robert  Murdoch  Smith,  pp.  1 19-133. 
See  also  Newton's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  ch.  xlvi.  The  weight  of  the  lion  is 
over  9  tons. 


Xil 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


227 


ancient  statuary.1 .  .  .  The  contemplation  of  the  Cnidian  lion  in  the  bright 
and  delicate  atmosphere  for  which  he  was  originally  designed,  taught  me 
much  as  to  the  causes  why  modern  artists  fail  so  generally  when  they 
attempt  public  monuments  on  a  colossal  scale.  Their  work  is  designed, 
executed,  and  criticised  in  small  studios,  where  they  can  form  no  true 
judgment  as  to  distant  open-air  effects.  The  genial  climate  in  which 
Greek  artists  lived  must  have  enabled  them  to  finish  their  colossal 
sculptures  in  the  open  air,  and  on  the  very  site  for  which  they  were 
designed.  When  I  stood  very  near  the  lion,  many  things  in  the 
treatment  appeared  harsh  and  singular  ;  but  on  retiring  to  the  distance 
of  about  thirty  yards,  all  that  seemed  exaggerated  blended  into  one 
harmonious  whole,  which,  lit  up  by  an  Asiatic  sun,  exhibited  a  breadth 
of  chiaroscuro  such  as  I  have  never  seen  in  sculpture ;  nor  was  the 
effect  of  this  colossal  production  of  human  genius  at  all  impaired  by 
the  bold  forms  and  desolate  grandeur  of  the  surrounding  landscape. 
The  lion  seemed  made  for  the  scenery,  and  the  scenery  for  the  lion  " 
{Travels ,  ii.  215-217). 

The  lion  originally  surmounted  a  Doric  tomb,  which  had 
been  constructed  to  receive  a  number  of  bodies.  The  monu- 
ment, 40  feet  high,  overlooked  a  headland  with  a  sheer  depth 
of  200  feet.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  tomb  was  built 
to  commemorate  the  naval  victory  gained  off  this  coast  by  the 
Athenians  under  Conon  over  the  Lacedaemonians  in  394  B.C. 
— a  victory  which  deprived  the  latter  of  the  empire  of  the  sea  : — 

"  The  majestic  repose  of  the  lion  seems  the  fit  expression  of  the 
calm  and  conscious  strength  of  victory.  The  summit  of  the  pyramid 
commands  an  extensive  panoramic  view  over  the  archipelago.  No 
nobler  trophy  could  have  been  chosen  than  this  lion,  planted  on  his 
lofty  pedestal  as  a  conspicuous  sea-mark,  to  remind  the  passing 
mariners  for  centuries  to  come  of  the  supremacy  of  Athens  on  the  sea  " 
{ibid.  226,  227). 

This  lion  is  "  singularly  like  in  style  and  proportions  to 
one  of  the  four  carried  of!  from  Athens  in  1687  by  Morosini, 
and  now  in  the  Arsenal  at  Venice"  (Portfolio,  1874,  p.  102). 

V.   MISCELLANEOUS  SCULPTURES 

On  the  landing  or  raised  gallery  are  placed  various  marble 
heads : — 


1  The  eyes,  now  wanting,  were  probably  of  glass  or  vitreous  paste,  or 
perhaps  of  precious  stones.  "  Pliny  tells  us  {N.H.  xxxvii.  6)  of  a  marble 
lion,  on  the  tomb  of  a  prince  in  Cyprus,  with  emerald  eyes  so  bright  that 
the  fish  were  terrified  until  the  stones  were  changed  "  {Guide  to  the  Depai't- 
menty  1899,  p.  62). 


228 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Youthful  Bacchus,  "wearing  long  hair  and  a  wreath  of 

ivy,  is  a  beautiful  head,  sensuous  and  dreamy ''  [Guide  to  the 
Department,  1899,  p.  64). 

Aphrodite,  from  the  Pourtales  collection,  of  a  broad,  ideal 
type. 

Colossal  Female  Head  '105  i,. — This  very  fine  head  was 
found  at  the  Mausoleum.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  largeness 
and  simplicity  of  treatment,  in  the  manner  of  Scopas.  The 
hair  is  arranged  in  the  manner  of  the  Artemisia  : — 

ft  Round  the  face  is  a  triple  row  of  curls  symmetrically  arranged, 
each  curl  forming  a  perfect  volute  [a  survival  of  an  archaic  custom]. 
The  head  is  remarkable  for  the  largeness  and  simplicity  of  treatment, 
and  the  pathos  of  expression.  The  cast  of  features,  though  ideal,  does 
not  recall  any  of  the  known  types  of  goddesses 'v  (Newton's  Travels, 
ii.  112). 

Head  in  Asiatic  Attire. — A  similar  head-dress  occurs  on 
the  Nereid  monument. 

A  Portrait  Bust  of  Sir  Charles  Newton,  K.C.B.— the 

discoverer  of  the  Mausoleum — is  very  appropriately  placed  in 
the  centre  of  this  platform,  from  which  he  looks  down,  as  it 
were,  on  some  of  his  principal  triumphs.  To  him,  says  Mr. 
Ruskin.  "we  owe  the  finding  of  more  treasure  in  mines  of 
marble  than,  were  it  rightly  understood,  all  California  could 
buy":— 

Newton  (born  1816,  died  1894)  was  connected  for  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  with  the  British  Museum.  In  1840  he  was  appointed 
a  junior  assistant  in  the  Department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities. 
From  1852  to  1S61  he  was  engaged  in  travel  and  discovery,  having 
been  appointed  Yice-Consul  at  Mitylene  :  in  reality,  though  not  in 
form,  an  archaeological  mission.  His  book  of  travels,  from  which  we 
have  often  quoted,  is,  as  Mr.  Jebb  says,  a  charming  Odyssey  lit  up  with 
all  the  colour  and  humour  of  Anatolia,  such  as  it  was  half  a  century 
ago.  The  third  section  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  administration  ;  from 
1 86 1  to  1885  he  was  keeper  of  the  department.  His  social  and  diplo- 
matic abilities  greatly  enabled  him  to  increase  the  national  collections. 
Special  grants  of  £  100,000  were  entrusted  to  him,  and  these  enabled 
him  to  secure  the  pick  of  the  Farnese,  Pourtales,  Blacas,  and  Castellani 
collections.  Among  research  expeditions  which  he  sent  out  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Smith  and  Porcher  (Cyrenej,  Wood  iEphesus', 
Pullan  (Priene),  Dennis  (vases),  and  Salzmann  and  Biliotti  (Cyprus, 
etc.  ).  To  the  work  of  arrangement  and  cataloguing  of  the  collections, 
and  to  that  of  fostering  the  study  of  archaeology,  Newton  brought  an 
admirable  taste  and  width  of  range.  He  was  never  a  specialist  in  the 
limited  modern  sense.     "It  was  classical  antiquity  as  a  whole  that 


XII 


THE  MAUSOLEUM  ROOM 


229 


had  a  spell  for  him.  It  was  in  the  intense  desire  to  reconstruct  and 
revivify  this  antiquity  that  he  so  closely  and  indefatigably  scanned 
every  monument  of  any  kind  that  could  tell  him  anything  about  it." 
Mr.  Jebb,  from  whom  we  have  been  quoting,  calls  him  the  English 
Winckelmann.  "  In  both  the  mainspring  of  a  devotion  which  ended 
only  with  life  was  a  native  instinct,  intensely  strong  and  lucid,  for  the 
spirit  and  charm  of  classical  antiquity"  {/.U.S.  xiv.  1). 

6^  Turning  to  the  left  as  we  face  the  sculptures  last  described^  we 
enter  the  Phigalian  Room. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 

L  The  "Frieze  of  Phigalia"  II.  The  Temple  of  Wingless 
Victory.    III.  Sepulchral  Reliefs.    IV.  Votive  Reliefs. 

I.  THE  PHIGALIAN  MARBLES 

"  Of  all  the  temples  in  Peloponnese,  next  to  the  one  at  Tegea,  this  may 
be  placed  first  for  the  beauty  of  the  stone  and  the  symmetry  of 
its  proportions.  Apollo  got  the  name  of  Succourer  for  the  succour 
he  gave  in  time  of  plague,  just  as  at  Athens  he  received  the  sur- 
name of  Averter  of  Evil  for  delivering  Athens  also  from  the  plague. 
It  was  at  the  time  of  the  war  between  the  Peloponnesians  and 
Athenians  that  he  delivered  the  Phigalians  also,  and  at  no  other 
time ;  this  is  proved  by  his  two  surnames,  which  mean  much  the 
same  thing,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  Ictinus,  the  architect  of 
the  Temple  of  Phigalia,  was  a  contemporary  of  Pericles,  and  built 
for  the  Athenians  the  Parthenon  as  it  is  called  "  (Pausanias,  viii. 
41.  5,  Frazer's  translation). 

The  most  important  of  the  marbles  in  this  room  are  those 
discovered  in  1 8 1 2  among  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius  (the  helper)  at  Bassae,  in  the  territory  of  Phigalia 
in  Arcadia.  The  temple,  built  430  B.C.,  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
highly  praised  by  Pausanias,  and  is  by  far  the  best  preserved 
of  any  in  the  Peloponnese.  It  remained,  however,  unknown 
in  modern  times,  except  to  the  shepherds  of  the  country,  until 
discovered  in  1765  by  a  French  architect  in  the  employ  of  the 
Venetians  at  Zante.  Even  then  the  inaccessibility  of  the  place 
and  its  evil  repute  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  brigandage 
led  to  no  further  excavations  until  the  party  of  explorers  who 
had  discovered  the  ^Eginetan  marbles  turned  their  attention 
to  it.  After  depositing  those  marbles  they  set  out,  in  July 
1 8 1 1 ,  with  arms  and  a  strong  guard.    Their  excavations  had 

230 


chap,  xii  THE  PH1GALIAJST  ROOM  * 


231 


not  proceeded  far  when  the  local  men  objected  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  work  until  the  consent  of  the  Vizier  at  Tre- 
polizza  had  been  obtained.  This  he  granted  in  the  following 
year  on  condition  that  he  received  half  the  value  of  the  spoils 
— a  fact  which  was  doubtless  taken  into  account  in  fixing  the 
prices  of  the  marbles  ultimately  removed.  The  excavations,  on 
which  eighty  labourers  were  employed,  were  very  successful, 
and  the  spoils  now  adorn  the  walls  of  this  room.  Cockerell's 
account  of  the  work  is  interesting  : — 

"The  pastimes,  the  bivouac,  the  bonfires  of  aromatic  shrubs,  the 
lambs  and  kids  roasted  entire,  the  generous  contributions  of  Bacchus, 
proffered  to  us,  as  is  still  the  custom,  in  the  primitive  goat's  skin,  added 
to  the  enjoyment  of  hourly  discovery  of  the  noblest  productions  of 
Grecian  art,  and  constituted  a  memorable  adventure  of  rare  interest 
and  enjoyment.  Apollo  himself  might  have  been  roused  from  his  long 
repose  by  these  carousals,  and  have  thought  that  the  glorious  days  of 
old  were  about  to  return." 

It  is  curious  to  know  that  the  explorers  were  guided  to  the 
discovery  of  one  of  the  slabs  of  the  frieze  by  a  fox  which  crawled 
into  cover  under  the  confused  ruins  of  the  temple.  The  marbles 
were  "  conveyed  to  the  coast  over  the  rugged  ground  which 
separates  Bassae  from  the  sea  on  the  backs  of  150  Arcadian 
shepherds.  They  were  then  shipped  to  Zante,  and  thence  to 
England,  the  British  Government  having  purchased  them  for 
,£19,000.  The  difficulties  which  the  enterprising  discoverers 
encountered  on  the  way,  by  land  from  greedy  and  treacherous 
Archons,  mutinous  workmen,  and  the  terrible  Arcadian  flies, 
and  by  sea  from  storms  and  the  presence  of  French  cruisers, 
were  enough  to  daunt  the  most  resolute,  and  ought  to  be  re- 
membered by  us  with  gratitude"  (Perry,  p.  307).  Views  and 
plans  of  the  temple  which  these  marbles  decorated  are  exhibited 
in  a  table-case.  Nearly  all  the  pillars  are  still  standing,  2332 
years  after  their  erection,  in  their  original  places.  The  temple 
is  situated  on  a  mountain  slope  at  a  height  of  3700  feet  above 
the  sea,  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  scenery.  "  Nothing  can  be 
stranger,"  says  Mahaffy,  "  than  the  remains  of  a  beautiful 
temple  in  this  Alpine  solitude.  Greek  life  is  a  sort  of  protest 
for  cities  and  plains  and  human  culture  against  picturesque 
Alps  and  romantic  scenery.  Yet  here  we  have  a  building  of 
the  purest  age  and  type  set  up  far  from  the  cities  and  haunts 
of  men,  and  in  the  midst  of  such  a  scene  as  might  be  chosen 
by  the  most  romantic  and  sentimental  modern  "  {Rambles  in 


232 


THE  PH1GAL1AN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Greece,  p.  318).  "That  which  forms,  on  reflection,"  says 
Leake,  "  the  most  striking  circumstance  of  all  is  the  nature  of 
the  surrounding  country,  capable  of  producing  little  else  than 
pasture  for  cattle,  and  offering  no  conveniences  for  the  display 
of  commercial  industry  either  by  sea  or  land.  If  it  excites  our 
astonishment  that  the  inhabitants  of  such  a  district  should  have 
had  the  refinement  to  delight  in  works  of  this  kind,  it  is  still 
more  wonderful  that  they  should  have  had  the  means  to  execute 
them"  (Travels  in  the  Morea,  1830,  ii.  9). 

The  most  important  of  the  marbles  removed  from  the 
temple  in  18 12  are  the  twenty-three  slabs,  arranged  round 
the  walls  of  this  room,  which  formed  the  frieze  of  the  cella. 
This  frieze  was  placed  inside  the  cella  (where  it  would  be  well 
seen),  and  not,  as  usual,  outside  (where,  owing  to  the  narrow 
space  between  the  cella  and  the  outer  columns,  it  could  not  be 
well  seen,  and  could  not  all  be  seen  from  any  one  point). 
"  I  cannot  but  fancy,"  says  MahafTy,  "that  this  transference  of 
the  friezes  to  the  inner  side  of  the  wall  was  caused  by  the 
feeling  that  the  Parthenon  friezes,  upon  which  such  great  labour 
and  such  exquisite  art  had  been  employed,  were  after  all  badly 
seen,  and  in  a  place  not  worthy  of  them.  Any  one  who  will 
look  up  at  the  remaining  band  on  the  west  front  of  the 
Parthenon  will,  I  think,  agree  with  me"  (Rambles  in  Greece, 
p.  3 1 9).  There  is  a  restoration  of  the  frieze  on  a  small  scale 
in  the  Taylorian  at  Oxford — the  beautiful  classical  building 
designed  by  one  of  the  discoverers  of  this  temple,  the  architect 
Cockerell. 

The  subjects  represented  on  the  slabs  are  (1)  Battle  of  the 
Lapiths  and  Centaurs,  eleven  slabs,  beginning  on  the  west 
wall  of  the  room  ;  (2)  Battle  of  Greeks  and  Amazons,  twelve 
slabs  on  the  north-east  and  south  walls. 

Comparing  these  sculptures  with  the  work  of  nearly  the 
same  date  on  the  Parthenon,  we  shall  be  struck,  from  the 
artistic  point  of  view,  with  two  main  differences — (1)  First,  the 
subjects  are  broken  up  into  a  series  of  groups  representing 
simultaneous  scenes,  instead  of  giving  a  continuous  procession. 
The  artists  have  utilised  the  freedom  thus  obtained  to  display 
an  inexhaustible  variety  in  the  composition  of  the  groups. 
"If,"  says  Overbeck,  "we  leave  out  of  consideration  style  in 
the  strict  sense — that  is,  the  design  and  modelling  of  the 
figures — and  consider  simply  the  contents  of  the  frieze,  we 
shall  find  that  in  sheer  power  of  inventive  imagination  it 


XIII 


THE  PHI  G A  LI  AN  ROOM 


233 


surpasses  most  of  its  possible  rivals,  and  that  hardly  anywhere 
can  we  point  to  a  composition  which  in  respect  of  variety  of 
theme  and  wealth  of  thrilling  interest  can  vie  with  the  frieze  of 
Phigalia."  (2)  Combined,  however,  with  this  variety  we  may 
notice  great  violence  in  the  treatment  of  the  themes  :  — 

"  Short  as  is  the  distance  of  time,"  says  Mr.  Perry,  "  which  separates 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  from  the  one  before  us,  we  seem  to  have 
passed  into  a  different  moral  and  artistic  world.  Instead  of  the 
disciplined  freedom  which  prevails  even  in  the  liveliest  representations 
of  the  former,  we  are  introduced  in  the  latter  to  a  scene  of  uncontrolled 
savagery,  in  which  the  wildest  passions  rage  unchecked.  There  is 
scarcely  a  composition  in  the  whole  range  of  ancient  art  in  which  the 
wild  excesses  of  wine  and  lust  are  more  vividly  depicted  than  in  the 
Phigaleian  Centauromachia''-  [Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  p.  311). 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  the  battle  of  the 
Amazons  many  touches  of  humanity  are  introduced.  It  is  only 
in  the  fight  between  men  and  monsters  that  all  is  ferocity, 
fury,  and  lust.  There  is  therefore  a  certain  artistic  appropriate- 
ness in  the  violence  of  style  referred  to  above.  Critics  have 
noticed  other  points  which  seem  to  differentiate  the  Phigalian 
frieze  from  Athenian  work.  "The  individual  figures,"  says 
Mr.  Upcott,  "  are  thick-set  and  the  faces  are  devoid  of  expres- 
sion. Generally  the  impression  made  on  the  beholder  is  one 
of  force  rather  than  of  beauty  and  grace  "  {An  Introduction  to 
Greek  Sculpture,  p.  63). 

These  considerations  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  the 
frieze,  though  designed  by  an  Attic  artist,  was  executed  by 
local  artists  in  Phigalia  itself.  The  subject  of  the  frieze,  like 
the  style  of  the  building  which  it  adorned,  is  distinctly  Attic. 
The  treatment,  as  we  have  seen,  diverges  from  the  Attic  mode. 
"  The  Phigalian  marbles  arrived,"  writes  B.  R.  Haydon  in 
his  diary  (i.  329)  ;  "  I  saw  them.  Though  full  of  gross  dispro- 
portions they  are  beautifully  composed,  and  were  evidently  the 
design  of  a  great  genius,  executed  provincially."  The  marble 
has  been  identified  by  some  as  Peloponnesian,  from  quarries 
near  Tegea  (see  Gardner's  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p. 
322  ;/.    Others  dispute  this.    See  Frazer's  Pausanias,  iv.  400). 

We  may  now  illustrate  the  general  points  above  noticed  by 
some  detailed  examination  of  the  slabs. '  Beginning  on  the  west 
wall,  we  may  notice  in  520  the  curl  of  the  woman's  foot,  very 
expressively  rendered.  In  521  notice,  in  contrast  to  other 
slabs,  that  the  fallen  man's  face  is  almost  expressionless.  In 


234 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


522  the  Lapith  woman  has  a  child  on  her  left  arm.  Children 
are  introduced  into  several  of  the  groups  in  order  to  heighten 
the  horror  of  the  scene.  In  523  we  see  Apollo  and  Artemis 
coming  to  the  aid  of  the  Lapiths  against  the  Centaurs.  Apollo 
has  dismounted  and  is  drawing  his  bow.  Artemis  grasps  the 
reins  of  the  chariot,  which  is  drawn  by  two  stags.  Pausanias 
tells  us  that  at  the  annual  festival  in  honour  of  Artemis  at 
Patras  one  of  the  sights  was  "  a  virgin  priestess  riding  on  a 
car  drawn  by  deer"  (vii.  1.  87).  Their  introduction  here  is  "  a 
happy  device,  not  only  to  indicate  the  god,  but  as  a  contrast 
to  the  equine  forms  so  abundant  in  this  part  of  the  frieze " 
(Murray,  ii.  172).  In  524  we  see  that  the  sanctity  of  religion 
no  less  than  the  laws  of  humanity  is  defied  in  this  monstrous 
combat.  Two  women  have  taken  refuge  at  a  statue  of  the 
goddess  (note  the  stiff  archaic  type  of  this  image).  One 
stretches  out  her  arms  in  despair,  the  other  clings  to  the 
statue,  while  a  brutal  Centaur  is  tearing  her  mantle  from  her 
body.  In  526  notice  the  characteristic  violence  of  the  scene. 
The  Centaur  bites  a  Lapith  in  the  neck- with  his  human  face, 
while  he  kicks  out  at  another  foe  with  his  horse's  heels.  In 
528  a  Centaur  has  been  thrown  down  by  two  Lapiths,  one  ot 
whom  drags  the  Centaur  by  the  hair,  while  the  other,  placing 
his  knee  upon  the  Centaur's  back,  prepares  to  strike  a  blow 
as  if  with  a  sword,  but  is  prevented  by  a  second  Centaur. 
"  The  Lapiths,  whose  right  hands  are  represented  in  the  act 
of  grasping  weapons,  are  presumed  to  have  been  armed  with 
swords,  the  blades  of  which  were,  in  many  cases,  of  bronze. 
The  holes  into  which  these  blades  were  fastened  are  still 
visible  in  the  marble"  {Elgin  and  Phigaleian  Marbles^  ii.  188). 
The  subject  of  530  is  the  attempt  of  two  Centaurs  to  crush  the 
invulnerable  Caeneus  under  a  mighty  stone  ;  the  same  subject 
occurs  on  the  frieze  of  the  Theseum  at  Athens  (403,  2). 

With  531  the  battle  of  the  Greeks  and  Amazons  begins 
and  the  treatment  becomes  more  restrained.  The  expression 
of  the  wounded  Amazon  on  the  right  is  fine.  As  in  several  other 
slabs,  the  Amazon  wears  the  "  split  chiton,"  or,  as  we  should 
say,  the  divided  skirt.  In  532  a  wounded  Amazon  is  defended 
by  a  companion.  In  533 — as  also  in  534  and  535 — we  may 
notice  a  point  in  which  the  sculptor  has  sacrificed  grace  to 
force.  The  skirt  is  tightly  stretched.  The  effect  is  in  itself 
unpleasing,  but  it  adds  to  the  sense  of  rapid  movement.  In 
539  a  Greek  who  has  been  killed  in  battle  is  borne  off  the  field 


XIII 


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235 


on  a  companion's  back.  Another,  badly  wounded,  is  led  away 
by  a  companion.  541 — the  central  slab  of  this  series  and  one 
of  the  best  preserved — is  very  fine  alike  in  treatment  and  in 
subject.  Note  first  the  symmetry  of  the  composition.  The 
centre  of  the  slab  is  occupied  with  a  single  combat  between 
Hercules  (with  the  lion's  skin  on  his  left  arm).  He  raises  his 
club  against  a  mounted  Amazon  (the  greater  part  of  whose 
figure  is  lost).  Between  the  two  is  another  Amazon  on  foot ; 
her  attitude  is  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  Greek's,  and  the 
lines  of  the  two  figures  form  a  diagonal  cross.  The  central 
group  is  bounded  at  either  end  by  the  figure  of  a  horse  ;  exact 
symmetry  is  here  modified  by  the  horse  on  the  left  being 
upright,  while  that  on  the  right  has  fallen  on  its  knees.  This 
group  on  the  right  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  series. 
The  Amazon  has  received  her  death  wound,  and  the  Greek, 
with  gesture  and  expression  of  pity,  lifts  her  tenderly  from  the 
fallen  horse.  The  scene,  as  Mr.  Upcott  reminds  us,  recalls 
the  legend  of  Achilles,  who  slew  Penthesilea,  and  was  smitten 
with  remorse  when  he  beheld  the  beautiful  face  of  the  Amazon 
queen.  In  the  next  slab,  542,  a  similar  feeling  of  pity  is 
expressed.  One  Amazon  seems  to  be  begging  the  life  of  a 
young  Greek  from  her  sister  warrior.  Mercy  towards  a  fallen 
foe  is  very  unusual  in  the  ancient  world.  "  In  the  market- 
place of  Athens,"  says  Pausanias,  "  there  is  an  altar  of  Mercy, 
to  whom,  though  he  is  of  all  gods  the  most  helpful  in  human 
life  and  in  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  the  Athenians  are  the 
only  Greeks  who  pay  honour"  (i.  17.  1). 

Some  other  marbles  were  removed  at  the  same  time  with 
the  frieze,  and  are  now  in  this  room.  Some  are  architectural 
fragments  (505-509) ;  others  are  from  the  metopes  (510-519); 
and  there  are  also  pieces  of  a  colossal  temple  image  (543,  544). 
But  these  are  all  too  fragmentary  to  be  of  any  general  interest. 


II.  THE  TEMPLE  OF  WINGLESS  VICTORY 

The  next  set  of  sculptured  marbles  to  be  examined  in  this 
room  hang  on  the  west  wall,  and  come  from  the  beautiful 
Temple  of  Wingless  Victory.  This  little  temple — "  the  pearl 
of  Ionic  architecture,"  as  it  has  been  called — originally  stood, 
and  now  again  stands,  on  a  lofty  projecting  buttress  of  the 
south  wall  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  (see  the  model  in  the 


236 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


CHAP- 


Elgin  Room),  the  spot  from  which  the  unhappy  ^Egeus  is  said 
to  have  thrown  himself  in  despair  at  seeing  the  black  sails  stiii 
hoisted  on  the  ship  of  Theseus  when  he  returned  from  the 
slaughter  of  the  Minotaur.  In  1685  the  Turks  took  down  the 
temple  in  order  to  construct  a  battery  on  the  site,  and  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  its  disjointed  stones  lay  hidden  and 
unheeded.  Four  slabs  from  the  frieze  were,  however,  dis- 
covered in  Lord  Elgin's  excavations,  and  were  removed  by 
him  (421-424).  A  few  years  later,  in  1835,  some  German 
antiquaries  succeeded  in  discovering  nearly  all  the  fragments, 
and  the  temple  was  reconstructed  in  its  original  form,  minus 
the  four  slabs  removed  with  the  Elgin  Marbles.  No.  425  is  a 
cast  of  another  slab.  The  lofty  bastion  on  which  the  temple 
stood  was  originally  surrounded  for  safety  with  a  balustrade 
consisting  of  a  frieze  of  sculpture,  facing  outwards.  Several 
fragments  of  this  frieze  were  discovered  in  1835  and  subse- 
quently. The  originals  are  preserved  in  the  Acropolis  Museum 
at  Athens.  Xos.  426-429  here  are  casts.  The  temple  was 
dedicated  to  "  Victory  Athena,15  i.e.  Athena  in  the  character 
and  with  the  attributes  of  Victory.  In  Greek  art  the  regular 
personification  of  Victory  was  a  woman  with  wings,  for  victory 
comes  suddenly  and  with  overpowering  force,  just  as  sometimes, 
too,  it  has  wings  and  flies  away.  (In  the  Room  of  Archaic 
Sculpture  we  have  already  seen  the  beautiful  Flying  Victory 
from  Oiympia,  192.)  Here,  however,  "  as  the  goddess  of  this 
temple  was  not  a  mere  personification  of  victory  but  the 
goddess  Athena  herself,  who  was  always  wingless,  it  was  per- 
fectly natural  that  she  should  be  represented  without  wings  n 
(Frazers  Pauscuiias,  ii.  p.  257).  The  theory  of  Pausanias 
himself  (ii.  15.  5)  is  interesting.  *' The  Athenians,55  he  says, 
''have  a  notion  about  the  Victory  called  Wingless,  that  she 
will  always  stay  where  she  is  because  she  has  no  wings.5' 

There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  among  the  learned 
about  the  date  of  the  temple  and  the  subject  of  the  frieze. 
The  slabs  before  us  are,  however,  so  mutilated  that  a  discus- 
sion of  these  matters  would  here  be  out  of  place.  The  better 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  temple  was  built  about  432  B.C., 
a  few  years  after  the  completion  of  the  Parthenon,  and  that 
the  frieze  represents  not  any  historical  battle  or  battles,  but  a 
generalised  victory  of  Athenians  over  Greeks  and  Barbarians. 
In  slabs  421  and  422  we  see  Greek  meeting  Greek;  in  423. 
424.  and  425  (this  latter  a  cast)  Greeks  righting  with  Persians. 


XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


237 


The  sculptures  of  the  balustrade  consisted  of  figures  of 
Victories,  in  various  attitudes,  and  are  among  the  most  cele- 
brated works  of  Greek  art.  Mr.  A.  H.  Smith  points  out  that 
they  M  seem  to  reveal  a  combination  of  different  schools  and 
methods."  No.  426  is  severely  draped,  and  shows  the  stiff 
dignity  of  an  earlier  style.  "  In  427  and  428  the  artist  dwells 
on  and  emphasises  the  nude  form,  displaying  it  through 
transparent  drapery  in  a  manner  that  may  well  be  supposed  to 
have  been  that  of  the  transition  from  Pheidias  to  Praxiteles. 
Finally,  in  the  figure  leading  the  cow  (429)  there  is  a  florid 
wealth  of  drapery  which,  among  early  works,  only  finds  a 
partial  analogy  in  the  frieze  of  Phigaleia.  This  want  of 
uniformity  in  style  suggests  a  time  of  transition  in  which  the 
traditions  of  the  school  of  Pheidias  were  still  to  some  extent 
operative,  while  newer  tendencies  were  beginning  to  make 
themselves  felt"  {Catalogue  of  Sculpture,  i.  p.  247).  From 
the  artistic  point  of  view,  slab  No.  427  deserves  particular 
attention.  The  original  from  which  it  is  taken  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  creations  of  Attic  art : — 

"  It  is  a  miracle  of  art,  an  astonishing  proof  of  the  power  which  the 
human  hand  can  attain  of  moulding  dead  matter  so  as  to  embody 
human  thought.  There  is  no  high  idealism  in  the  conception,  but  the 
easy  grace  of  the  figure  and  of  the  flowing  drapery,  which  half  hides 
and  half  reveals  the  form  beneath,  is  beyond  praise"  (Frazer's 
Pausanias,  ii.  260). 

No.  429  is  also  very  fine.  Two  Victories  are  leading  a 
cow  to  be  sacrificed  ;  one  holds  it  back  by  a  rope  attached  to 
the  horns,  while  the  other  moves  swiftly  forward  to  avoid 
them.  "  The  latter  figure,"  says  Mr.  Upcott,  "  is  a  perfect 
study  of  the  swirl  of  loose  drapery  in  quick  movement " 
{Introductio?i  to  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  53). 

III.  SEPULCHRAL  RELIEFS 

No  longer  caring  to  embalm 

In  dying  songs  a  dead  regret, 
But  like  a  statue  solid-set, 

And  moulded  in  colossal  calm. 

Tennyson. 

There  is  nothing  more  characteristic  of  the  genius  of  Greek 
art  than  the  Athenian  tombstones.  Of  these  there  is  a  small 
but  representative  collection  in  this  room.    What  is  specially 


238 


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CHAP. 


noticeable  in  them  is  their  simplicity  and  reserve.  There  is 
no  trace  of  ostentation  such  as  we  are  all  familiar  with  in  the 
tombs  of  the  Renaissance  period,  in  our  own  Westminster 
Abbey,  or  in  modern  cemeteries.  On  many  of  the  Greek 
monuments  there  is  no  inscription  beyond  the  mere  name. 
When  anything  else  was  added  the  commonest  epitaph  was  a 
simple  xa^P€)  "  farewell."  This  reserve  is  very  characteristic  of 
Greek  art.  On  Christian  tombs  of  the  Renaissance  and  later 
periods  the  grief  of  the  survivors  is  represented  by  violent 
attitudes  or  dramatic  conceits  :  cherubs  weep  Gargantuan 
tears,  and  sprawling  angels  bear  the  dead  man  aloft.  But 
on  the  Greek  tombstones  there  is  no  violence,  no  despair,  no 
extravagance.  The  direct  allusion  to  death  is  generally  very 
slight,  and  the  grief  of  the  survivors  is  indicated  only  by  some 
quiet  hint.  A  favourite  attitude  is  that  of  hand-clasping 1  (see, 
e.g.)  702,  692,  687,  690,  691,  689).  Sometimes  one  of  the 
figures  is  standing  and  one  seated ;  sometimes  both  are 
standing.  The  sculptured  figures  are  as  simple  and  reserved 
as  the  inscriptions,  and  represent  merely  a  scene  of  farewell. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  monuments  under  this  head  is  to 
be  seen  in  the  Ephesus  Room,  No.  710 — a  circular  pedestal  on 
a  square  plinth,  on  one  side  of  which  is  a  sepulchral  relief. 
A  man  clasps  the  right  hand  of  a  seated  woman.  Behind  her 
stands  Hermes,  about  to  conduct  her  shade  to  Hades.  On  the 
extreme  left,  behind  Hermes,  is  a  sun-dial,  to  which  his  hand  is 
pointing;  the  hour  has  come  when  she  must  go  "from  sunshine 
to  the  sunless  land."  By  such  quiet  hints  as  this  the  pathos 
of  the  scene  is  implied  rather  than  expressed.  The  grief  of 
the  bystanders  is  subdued.  Thus  in  694,  in  this  room,  the 
man  leans  on  his  staff  and  looks  downwards.  In  695  the 
woman  stands  in  an  attitude  of  grief,  with  bowed  head.  This 
chastened  and  modest  expression  of  sorrow  is  characteristic  of 
Greek  art.2    The  spirit  of  the  Athenian  tombstones  is  that  of 

1  The  meaning  of  these  "Scenes  of  Parting"  has  been  much  disputed 
among  archaeologists.  Do  they  refer  to  the  past?  to  the  moment  of 
death?  or  to  the  future?  Do  they  mark  a  mere  family  group  in  an 
attitude  of  daily  life?  or  express  the  idea  of  parting?  or  the  reception  of 
the  dead  in  Hades  by  those  who  have  gone  before  ?  In  the  text  I  have 
adopted  the  second  theory,  which  accords  with  the  inscribed  "farewell." 
The  English  reader  will  find  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  whole  question 
in  Professor  Percy  Gardner's  Sculptured  Tombs  of  Hellas, 

2  Miss  Harrison  combats  the  views  adopted  above.  She  maintains 
that  the  Attic  monument  was  derived  from  an  earlier  type  which  repre- 


XIII 


THE  PHIGAL1AN  ROOM 


239 


Tennyson's  lines  quoted  above  from  the  end  of  In  Memoriam, 
or  of  Milton's  in  Samson  Agonistes : — 

Nothing  is  here  for  tears,  nothing  to  wail 
Or  knock  the  breast ;  no  weakness,  no  contempt, 
Disgrace,  or  blame  ;  nothing  but  well  and  fair, 
And  what  may  quiet  us  in  a  death  so  noble. 

In  their  simplicity  and  reserve  the  sculptured  tombs  of 
Hellas  resemble  the  Christian  monuments  of  the  early  period 
of  mediaeval  art.  But  in  another  respect  the  Greek  tombs  are 
very  different.  The  Christian  tombs  represent  the  dead  man 
as  dead  ;  the  Greek  tombs  for  the  most  part  represent  him  in 
life. 

4 'The  manner  in  which  men  adorn  the  sepulchre  confesses  the 
difference  in  their  manner  of  regarding  death.  To  the  devout  Christian 
death  came  as  the  comforter  and  the  friend,  rest  in  his  right  hand,  hope 
in  his  left ;  and  therefore  we  find  the  early  tombs  at  once  simple  and 
lovely  in  adornment,  severe  and  solemn  in  their  expression,  confessing 
the  power  and  accepting  the  peace  of  death  openly  and  joyfully,  and 
in  all  their  symbols  marking  that  the  hope  of  resurrection  lay  only  in 
Christ's  righteousness ;  signed  always  with  this  simple  utterance  of  the 
dead  :  *  I  will  lay  me  down  in  peace,  and  take  my  rest  ;  for  it  is  thou, 
Lord,  only  that  makest  me  dwell  in  safety ' "  (Ruskin's  Stones  of  Venice, 
vol.  iii.  ch.  ii.  §  46). 

Thus  in  the  Christian  tombs  of  the  best  period  the  dead  are 
represented  as  resting  peacefully  in  the  sure  and  certain  hope 
of  the  resurrection.  The  Greek  had  no  such  assured  hope. 
To  him  death  was  the  final  parting,  when  all  the  good  and 
pleasant  things  are  remembered  ;  and  he  sculptured,  therefore, 
on  his  tombs  not  the  present  or  the  future,  but  the  past. 
Sometimes,  as  we  have  seen,  these  tombstones  show  the 
simple  grief  of  parting ;  others  show  the  recollection  of 
pleasant  days  of  love  and  friendship  : — 

"A  well-known  monument  in  the  Street  of  the  Tombs  at  Athens 
shows  us  Dexileos  of  the  Athenian  cavalry  riding  down  and  trans- 
fixing an  overthrown  foe,  who  vainly  strives  to  strike  back.  The 
inscription  proves  that  the  relief  was  executed  in  memory  of  a  horseman 


sented  a  worshipper  approaching  a  seated  deity  with  an  offering.  ' '  The 
real  main  reason"  for  the  calm  of  the  monuments  is  because  "  the  scene 
of  actual  human  sorrow  was  cast  in  the  type  already  fixed  of  divine 
worship"  {Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens,  p.  592).  But 
why  was  the  type  found  acceptable?  May  we  not  say  because  it  responded 
to  some  instinct  of  reserve  in  the  Greek  genius  ? 


240 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


who  fell  in  the  Corinthian  war  of  394  B.C.  History  records  that  in 
the  battle  the  Athenians  were  defeated,  and  one  is  tempted  to  pause 
for  a  moment  to  consider  how  a  modern  sculptor  would  have  repre- 
sented Dexiieos.  An  artist  such  as  those  who  have  modelled  the 
tombs  at  St.  Paul's  and  Westminster  would  probably  have  sculptured 
him  smitten  to  death,  falling  back  in  the  arms  of  a  grateful  country  ; 
perhaps  would  have  added  above  an  angel  crowning  him  with  a  wreath 
of  celestial  reward.  But  the  Greek  artists  of  the  good  period  could 
not  find  in  defeat  and  death  any  elements  worthy  of  their  art ;  they 
must  represent  those  whom  they  portrayed  in  the  moment  of  success 
and  victory,  not  in  that  of  overthrow.  The  difference  is  very  suggestive. 
Infinitely  inferior  to  Greek  art  in  charm,  in  simplicity,  and  dignity, 
modern  art  introduces  higher  elements  than  were  usually  taken  into 
account  in  Hellas.  From  the  artistic  point  of  view  the  ancients  were 
right,  but  from  the  ethical  point  of  view  there  may  be  more  to  be  said 
for  the  moderns.  .  .  .  Religious  hope  and  consolation  are  among  us  ;  a 
chill  resignation  was  the  national  attitude  of  the  Greeks  in  the  presence 
of  death  ;  and  yet  we  counterbalance  the  superiority  of  our  religion  by 
the  inferiority  of  our  taste  and  perception"1  (P.  Gardner,  Sculptured 
Tombs  of  Hellas,  pp.  147,  163). 

The  Greek  tombs,  then,  show  us  Greek  men  and  women  in 
their  daily  life.  And  there  is  no  other  series  of  monuments 
which  so  readily  makes  us  feel  that  the  Greeks  were  men  and 
women  of  like  nature  with  ourselves,  no  longer  cold  and 
classic,  but  full  of  the  warm  blood  and  the  gentle  affections  of 
ordinary  humanity. 

Of  the  reliefs  of  domestic  scenes  we  have  several  interest- 
ing examples  in  this  room.  On  the  end  wall  (north)  are  casts 
from  two  of  the  most  beautiful  tombs  at  Athens.  In  619 
a  Hegeso,  daughter  of  Proxenus,"  is  seated  on  a  chair  (admir- 
ably shaped  for  comfort  and  steadiness),  and  is  taking  some 
article  from  a  jewel-box  which  is  held  by  the  servant  standing 
in  front.  The  girl's  simple  dress  contrasts  with  the  more 
sumptuous  apparel  of  her  mistress.  In  620  Ameinocleia, 
daughter  of  Andromenes,  steadies  herself  by  resting  a  hand  on 
the  girl's  head,  while  the  latter  ties  her  mistress's  sandal.  On 
the  ground  below  these  casts  is  the  monument  of  Glykylla, 

1  Can  good  taste  be  enforced  by  Act  of  Parliament  ?  Successful 
attempts  seem  to  have  been  made  at  Athens.  When  a  tendency  towards 
magnificent  tombs  was  observed,  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  the  erection 
of  any  monument  more  elaborate  than  could  be  made  by  ten  men  in  three 
days,  and  severely  restricting  the  use  of  laudatory  inscriptions.  Subse- 
quently, when  the  luxury  of  tombs  again  increased,  a  further  law  was 
passed  restricting  funeral  monuments  to  pillars  not  more  than  three  cubits 
in  height  or  flat  slabs  or  vases  (Cicero,  De  Legibus,  ii.  26). 


XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


241 


from  Thebes  ;  she  is  putting  on  a  bracelet  which  she  has  taken 
from  the  box  held  by  her  maid.  This  stone  was  sold  to  the 
Museum  in  1894  by  a  sailor  trading  in  the  Levant.  In  620 
Ameinocleia  is  clearly  setting  out  on  a  journey  ;  there  is  no 
actual  suggestion  of  death,  but  there  is  a  reference  to  the  last 
long  journey  from  which  there  is  no  return.  In  the  scenes  of 
personal  adornment  there  may  be  a  similar  reference,  for  the 
Greek  lady  especially  adorned  herself  when  she  was  preparing 
to  go  abroad. 

Farther  along  on  the  same  wall  are  two  curious  reliefs  with 
references  to  disease.  In  628,  the  monument  of  Xanthippus, 
we  see  a  group  of  a  father  with  his  children — very  dignified 
and  charming  in  style.  In  one  hand  Xanthippus  holds  the 
model  of  a  foot,  intended  perhaps  to  represent  a  shoemaker's 
last  as  a  trade  mark,  or  more  probably  a  votive  offering,  a 
memorial  of  a  cure  wrought  on  his  feet.  His  other  hand  rests 
on  the  neck  of  his  little  daughter.  This  bas-relief,  from 
Athens,  was  bought  by  Mr.  Townley  for  six  and  a  half  guineas. 
Close  by  is  the  curious  monument  of  Jason,  a  physician,  629. 
He  is  examining  a  patient,  whose  swollen  belly  and  wasted 
limbs  show  that  he  is  suffering.  On  the  right  is  a  vessel 
resembling  a  cupping-glass,  but  on  a  scale  out  of  all  proportion. 
In  many  of  these  reliefs  there  is  a  similar  want  of  proportion  ; 
the  subordinate  figures,  for  instance,  are  often  made  very 
diminutive,  as  in  the  case  of  the  doctor's  patient  here.  Round 
the  corner  on  the  east  wall  is  the  monument  of  a  woman 
leaving  an  infant  to  the  care  of  a  nurse,  one  of  many  monu- 
ments to  women  who  died  in  childbirth.  This  stone  (acquired 
by  the  Museum  in  1894)  nas  a  curious  history.  It  was  found 
face  downwards  serving  as  a  flagstone  in  the  cellar  of  an  old 
farmhouse  in  Jersey.  Probably  it  had  at  some  time  been 
brought  over  as  ballast  by  a  sailor  from  the  East. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
monuments  seem  to  have  been  set  up  in  memory  of  the 
young.  They  come  not  from  the  tombs  of  parents  dedicated  by 
children,  but  from  those  of  children  dedicated  by  their  sorrow- 
ing parents.  It  would  appear  that  at  Athens  ordinary  citizens 
who  died  in  due  course  of  nature  were  buried  in  family  vaults. 
Separate  tombs  with  sculptural  ornaments  were  reserved  for 
special  cases  of  untimely  death  and  poignant  grief. 

No.  626  in  the  middle  of  the  east  wall  is  typical  of  the 
monuments  of  young  men.     It  is  inscribed  "  Tryphon,  son  of 

R 


242 


THE  PHI  G  A  LI  AN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Eutychus,"  and  shows  an  athlete  holding  in  his  right  hand  the 
strigil,  an  instrument  used  for  scraping  off  the  oil  and  sweat 
of  the  gymnasium.  These  memorials  of  the  dead  are,  as  Mr. 
Pater  puts  it,  "selected  pages  from  daily  domestic  life"  : — 

"  See,  for  instance,  at  the  British  Museum,  Trypho,  1  the  son  of  Euty- 
chus,'  one  of  the  very  pleasantest  human  likenesses  there,  though  it  came 
from  a  cemetery — a  son  it  was  hard  to  leave  in  it  at  nineteen  or  twenty. 
With  all  the  suppleness,  the  delicate  muscularity  of  the  flower  of  his 
youth,  his  handsome  face  sweetened  by  a  kind  and  simple  heart,  in 
motion,  surely,  he  steps  forth  from  some  shadowy  chamber,  strigil  in 
hand,  as  of  old,  and  with  his  coarse  towel  or  cloak  of  monumental 
drapery  over  one  shoulder.  But  whither  precisely,  you  may  ask,  and 
as  what,  is  he  moving  there  in  the  doorway  ?  Well  !  in  effect, 
certainly,  it  is  the  memory  of  the  dead  lad,  emerging  thus  from  his  tomb 
— the  still  active  soul,  a  permanent  thought  of  him  as  he  most  liked  to 
be"  {Greek  Studies,  p.  286). 

Of  singular  beauty  is  the  fragment  of  a  relief  with  the  figure 
of  a  youth  leaning  on  a  staff  (acquired  in  1901). 

Farther  along  on  this  side  is  the  figure  of  a  man  on  a 
prancing  horse,  638.  The  inscription  is:  "After  many 
pleasant  sports  with  my  comrades,  I  who  sprang  from  the  dust, 
am  dust  once  more.  I  am  Aristocles,  of  the  Piraeus,  son  of 
Menon." 

By  way  of  exception  from  these  monuments  of  the  young, 
we  may  take  note  of  656  on  the  east  wall.  Here  an  old 
woman  is  seated  wrapped  in  her  mantle,  with  a  pomegranate  in 
her  left  hand,  while  a  girl  at  her  side  holds  a  box  and  a  purse. 
The  inscription  shows  that  the  woman's  age  was  eighty.  This 
monument  comes  not  from  Athens,  but  from  Kertch  (the 
ancient  Panticapaeon)  in  the  Crimea,  a  Greek  colony  which 
has  yielded  a  rich  harvest  to  modern  excavators. 

Another  type  of  sepulchral  relief  is  the  Banquet  Scene. 
The  meaning  of  these  scenes  as  decorations  of  actual  tombs 
or  as  commemorative  reliefs  has  been  much  discussed. 
Formerly  it  was  thought  that  they  commemorated  familiar 
scenes  of  daily  life  on  earth,  or  that  they  described  the 
pleasures  of  the  dead  in  Hades.  The  belief,  now  more 
commonly  accepted,  traces  these  representations  back  to  the 
offerings  of  food  and  drink  made  by  primitive  peoples  at  the 
tombs  of  the  dead.  The  Greeks  refined  and  de-materialised 
these  beliefs,  and  their  periodical  offerings  assumed  a  symbolic 
and  ritualistic  character.     The  sculptures  may  thus  be  taken 


XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


243 


as  representing  by  substitution  the  offerings  of  actual  food. 
On  the  north  and  west  walls  of  this  room  are  casts  from  the 
rock-cut  tombs  discovered  by  Sir  Charles  Fellows  in  Lycia. 
No.  766,  from  a  tomb  at  Cadyanda,  is  interesting  in  our  present 
connection.  It  appears  to  represent  a  banquet  scene,  with  four 
couches,  on  each  of  which  two  persons  recline.  There  are 
several  attendants,  and  at  the  end  on  our  right  is  a  nude 
dancer.  These  sculptures  represent  scenes  from  daily  life,  and 
resemble  some  of  the  vase  paintings.  The  habit  of  reclining 
at  meals  had  long  been  customary  in  the  East.  In  the  famous 
sculptures  from  Nineveh  (in  the  Assyrian  Saloon  of  the 
Museum)  we  see  King  Ashur-bani-pal  and  his  queen  feasting 
in  their  palace  in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  From  the  East 
the  custom  spread  to  the  Ionians  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was 
thence  introduced  to  Greece  itself  with  other  traits  of  Ionian 
luxury  (Gardner,  p.  89).  A  later  sepulchral  relief,  in  which 
the  motive  is  of  the  more  symbolic  character,  described  above, 
may  be  seen  in  the  Ephesus  Room,  No.  724.  A  man  reclines 
on  a  couch  with  a  table  of  food  before  him.  He  holds  a  bowl 
in  his  left  hand,  and  clasps  with  his  right  hand  the  hand  of  a 
woman  who  is  seated  at  the  foot  of  the  couch.  A  boy  stands 
on  the  left.  There  is  a  wreath  on  the  pilaster  to  the  right. 
This  was  a  tablet  in  memory  of  Hellanion  of  Tarsus. 

The  next  group  of  monuments  we  have  to  consider  consists 
of  what  are  called  Heroic  Reliefs.  In  these  the  deceased 
person  is  heroified,  and  represented  as  receiving  libations  or 
worship.  No.  750,  on  the  floor,  standing  against  the  east  wall 
of  this  room,  is  a  good  specimen  of  this  class.  In  the  centre 
is  a  warrior  in  armour  standing  near  a  trophy.  Beside  this 
stands  a  female  figure  pouring  a  libation.  A  serpent,  coiled  about 
the  trophy,  drinks  from  the  cup.  The  snake,  from  its  rapid, 
mysterious  movements  and  from  living  in  caves  and  holes,  is 
naturally  associated  with  the  grave. 

We  may  next  consider  the  historical  development  of 
the  sepulchral  monuments.  The  earliest  form  was  a  plain 
stele  or  pillar,  surmounted  by  an  acanthus,  and  inscribed  with 
the  name  of  the  deceased  and  with  two  rosettes  below.  These 
rosettes  perhaps  represented  the  two  breasts,  and  we  may  see 
here  a  hint  that  the  stele  takes  the  place  of  a  portrait  figure 
(Gardner,  p.  110).  No.  599  on  the  west  side  of  the  room  is 
an  example  of  this  early  form  ;  it  is  inscribed  "  Smikylion,  son 
of  Eualkides,  of  the  deme  of  the  Cerameicos  "  ;  other  specimens 


244 


THE  PH1GALIAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


of  this  earliest  type  are  600,  605,  and  606,  Sometimes  the 
figure  of  an  animal  surmounted  the  tombstone.  The  bull  in 
the  centre  of  this  room  (No.  680)  is  believed  to  have  occupied 
that  position.  A  sphinx  is  often  figured  on  these  monuments 
{e.g.  693,  on  the  north  wall) — a  monster  which  the  Greeks  derived 
from  Egyptian  art,  but  which  they  characteristically  tamed  and 
refined  into  the  kindly  and  gentle  minister  of  early  death. 

The  next  development  consisted  in  utilising  the  smooth 
surface  of  the  stone  for  a  portrait  of  the  deceased,  either 
alone  or  in  a  family  group.  In  connection  with  these  portraits 
another  characteristic  of  Greek  art  may  be  noticed  —  its 
preference,  namely,  for  the  general  over  the  particular,  the 
typical  rather  than  the  individual.  Just  as  in  the  case  of 
national  memorials  the  Greeks  represented  not  a  specific  and 
particular  victory  but  one  that  was  mythical  or  typical,  so  in 
the  case  of  personal  memorials  it  was  not  so  much  the 
individuality  as  the  general  type  of  the  departed  that  was 
dwelt  upon  : — - 

i:  It  seems  to  me  that  the  tombs  before  us  are  remarkable,  as 
exemplifying  with  the  tact  of  genius  the  true  and  perfect  reserve. 
There  is  no  exaggeration  nor  speciality — no  individuality  —  in  the 
picture.  I  fancy,  from  the  unity  of  type  shown  in  many  of  them, 
that  they  may  even  have  been  designed  by  the  artist  without  regard 
to  the  special  case,  and  purchased  by  the  family  of  the  deceased  ready 
made.  The  figures  upon  them  do  not  seem  to  me  personal 
likenesses.  I  feel  no  curiosity  to  inquire  who  these  people  are,  for 
I  am  perfectly  satisfied  with  an  ideal  portrait  of  the  grief  of  parting 
— a  grief  that  comes  to  us  all,  and  lays  bitter  hold  of  us  at  some 
season  of  life  ;  and  it  is  this  universal  sorrow — this  great  common 
flaw  in  our  lives  —  which  the  Greek  artist  has  brought  before  us, 
and  which  calls  forth  our  deepest  sympathy  "•(Mahaffy,  Rambles  and 
Studies  in  Greece,  3rd  ed.  p.  69). 

There  is,  then,  little  attempt  at  individual  portraiture  on 
these  reliefs  ;  the  attitudes  also  were  conventional.  A  man  in 
middle  life  was  usually  represented  in  arms  (but  sometimes  in 
the  exercise  of  his  profession)  ;  a  youth  as  an  athlete  {e.g. 
626)  ;  a  married  woman,  occupied  with  her  wool  ;  a  girl,  play- 
ing with  a  bird  or  dog. 

From  the  plain  slab,  the  next  development  is  to  what  has 
been  called  the  temple  form  of  monument,  or  more  correctly  a 
door.  The  sepulchral  slab  is  recessed,  enclosed  with  terminal 
pillars,  and  surmounted  by  a  gable.  Examples  of  this  form 
are  numerous  in   this    room  —  e.g.   625,   626,    630,  656. 


XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


245 


This  architectural  form  does  not  connect  the  tomb  with  the 
temple,  for  the  domestic  architecture  of  Greece  was  similar  to 
the  ecclesiastical.  There  is  little  doubt  that  nothing  was 
intended  but  a  door,  and  that  the  idea  was  the  portal  of 
Hades.  This  idea  was  one  which  occurred  very  early  in 
Greek  art,  for  a  sarcophagus  from  Rhodes,  in  the  primitive 
style  (see  Ch.  XVII.),  is  in  the  likeness  of  a  doorway.  On  a  terra- 
cotta bowl  recently  acquired  by  the  Museum,  the  Rape  of 
Persephone  is  represented  in  relief.  In  front  of  the  chariot 
of  Hades  is  a  stele,  on  which  is  inscribed  the  word  tvcrefim 
(  "  with  reverence  " ),  and  beyond  it  are  the  reeds  of  Acheron, 
and  the  Danaides  filling  in  vain  their  pitchers.  "  This  may, 
perhaps,  be  taken  as  conclusive  evidence  that  the  usual  form 
of  Greek  tombstones,  representing  a  portal,  was  intended  to 
indicate  the  portal  of  Hades  "  (British  Museum  Return  for 
1897,  p.  60).    The  figure  passed  from  art  to  literature — 

When  life  grows  heavy,  death  remains,  the  door 
To  endless  rest  beside  the  Stygian  shore — 

and  from  pagan  to  Christian  Thought :  "  Through  the  gate  of 
death  we  pass  to  a  joyous  resurrection." 

Another  form  is  the  sepulchral  vase,  which  again  is  some- 
times quite  plain  and  sometimes  ornamented  with  reliefs. 
"  It  was  probably  at  the  time  when  the  custom  of  placing 
terra-cotta  vases  on  the  tombs  was  dying  out  that  it  occurred 
to  the  sculptors  to  replace  them  by  making  the  stele  itself  in 
the  form  of  a  vase."  In  other  cases  the  vase-tomb  was  sculp- 
tured in  the  shape  of  the  bridal  vase,  and  was  set  up  in 
memorial  of  those  who  had  died  unmarried.  "  What  is  the 
proof,"  asks  Demosthenes  in  one  of  his  speeches,  "  that 
Archiades  died  unmarried  ?  A  memorial  vase  is  set  upon  his 
tomb." 

We  have  said  that  these  tombstones  are  specially  character- 
istic of  the  Greek  genius.  It  must  be  remembered  that  for 
the  most  part  they  are  mere  specimens  of  ordinary  stone- 
masons' work.  For  this  reason  they  have  the  greater  auto- 
biographical interest.  "  The  acts  of  a  nation  may  be 
triumphant  by  its  good  fortune,  and  its  words  mighty  by  the 
genius  of  a  few  of  its  children  ;  but  its  art,  only  by  the  general 
gifts  and  common  sympathies  of  the  race"  (Ruskin).  Some- 
times, indeed,  these  Greek  tombstones  were  undertaken  by 
famous  artists.     Thus  Pausanias  says  :   "  Not  far  from  the 


246 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


gate  [of  Athens]  is  a  grave  surmounted  by  a  warrior  standing 
beside  a  horse  :  who  he  is  I  know  not,  but  both  horse  and 
warrior  are  by  Praxiteles"  (i.  2.  3).  The  reliefs  are  therefore 
of  varying  artistic  merit.  Among  the  best  examples  from  this 
point  of  view  is  No.  673  (in  the  centre  of  the  glass  case  near 
the  Elgin  door),  the  head  of  a  youth  from  a  sepulchral  relief, 
with  waving  locks  of  hair  :  one  of  the  most  beautiful  heads  in 
the  Museum.  Being  for  the  most  part  the  work  of  ordinary 
stonemasons,  these  reliefs  are  an  eloquent  testimony  to  the 
instinctive  grace  and  skill  of  the  Greek  workmen.1  A  visitor 
to  the  Museum  who  chances  after  studying  the  marbles  in  this 
room  to  walk  along  the  Euston  Road,  where  the  tombstone- 
shops  are  collected,  will  find  a  contrast  at  once  piquant  and 
painful. 

IV.  VOTIVE  RELIEFS 

A  few  sculptured  reliefs  remain  to  be  noticed  in  this  room 
which  are  of  a  votive,  not  of  a  sepulchral,  character.  They 
were  set  up,  that  is  to  say,  not  in  honour  or  memory  of  the 
dead,  but  were  consecrated  to  a  god,  in  gratitude  or  in  fulfil- 
ment of  a  vow.  Such  offerings  were  very  common  in  the 
ancient  world,  and  we  have  already  noticed  some  of  them 
(see  Ch.  X.). 

Coming  to  the  votive  tablets  more  immediately  before  us, 
we  may  conveniently  divide  them  according  as  they  are 
appropriate  (i.)  to  the  god  or  his  worship,  or  (ii.)  to  the  dedi- 
cator and  the  cause  of  his  dedication.  As  examples  of  the 
former  class  of  tablets,  we  may  refer  to  Nos.  776  and  780  in  the 
Third  Graeco-Roman  Room  (see  pp.  $7,  70).  As  examples  of 
the  latter  class,  we  may  note  Nos.  811  and  8 1 2  in  the  Hall  of 
Inscriptions  (p.  8);  also  No.  816  in  the  Ephesus  Room — 
a  relief  dedicated  by  the  owner  of  a  successful  horse  :  the 
goddess  Hecate  is  shown  placing  a  wreath  on  the  head  of  a 
mare.     It  is  as  if  the  owner  of  a  horse  who  won  the  Oaks 

1  Many  of  the  grave-reliefs  found  at  Athens  are  in  character  and  style 
strikingly  like  the  marbles  of  the  Parthenon.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  conclusion  of  that  building  must  have  thrown  a  large  number  of 
masons  out  of  work,  and  "these  men,  trained  in  an  admirable  school  of 
the  most  finished  and  ideal  kind,  were  glad  to  execute  gravestones  at  a 
cheap  rate  ;  and  so  there  had  been  produced  a  succession  of  exquisite 
grave-reliefs  which  in  style  and  beauty  were  very  little  behind  the  work  of 
the  Parthenon  itself"  (Report  of  a  lecture  by  Miss  Jane  Harrison,  Daily 
News,  17th  April  1899). 


XIII 


THE  PHIGALIAN  ROOM 


247 


presented  a  picture  or  statue  of  her  to  some  public  building  or 
gallery.  No.  814  in  this  room  (against  the  north  wall)  is  a 
votive  tablet  in  commemoration  of  a  victory  in  a  chariot  race. 
The  charioteer  appears  to  be  a  female — a  personification  of 
the  city  to  which  the  victorious  competitor  belonged.  Over 
the  chariot  floats  a  winged  Victory  in  the  air.  A  similar 
votive  tablet,  mounted  on  a  pilaster,  is  shown  outside  a  house 
or  temple  in  the  bas-relief  of  Dionysus  and  Icarius  (Third 
Graeco-Roman  Room,  p.  62). 

The  relief  next  to  No.  814  is  of  extraordinary  interest,  as 
illustrating  a  celebrated  passage  in  Greek  literature  : — ■ 

1 '  I  went  down  yesterday  to  the  Piraeus  "  (says  Socrates) ' '  with  Glaucon , 
the  son  of  Ariston,  to  offer  up  prayer  to  the  goddess,  and  also  from  a 
wish  to  see  how  the  festival,  then  to  be  held  for  the  first  time,  would 
be  celebrated.  I  was  very  much  pleased  with  the  native  Athenian 
procession,  though  that  of  the  Thracians  appeared  to  be  no  less 
brilliant."  [This  festival,  as  we  learn  from  a  marginal  commentator, 
was  in  honour  of  Bendis,  the  Thracian  Artemis.  —  Socrates  was  starting 
to  return  home,  when  he  was  pressed  by  his  friends  to  stay  and  sup 
with  them.]  .  .  .  "'Are  you  not  aware,5  said  Adaimantus,  '  that 
towards  evening  there  will  be  a  torch-race  on  horseback  in  honour  of 
the  goddess  ? '  '  On  horseback  ! '  I  exclaimed  ;  '  that  is  a  novelty. 
Will  they  carry  torches  and  pass  them  on  to  one  another  while  the 
horses  are  racing?  or  how  do  you  mean?'  1  As  you  say,'  replied 
Polemarchus  ;  '  besides,  there  will  be  a  night-festival,  which  it  will  be 
worth  while  to  look  at.  We  will  rise  after  dinner  and  go  out  to  see 
this  festival ;  and  there  we  shall  meet  with  many  of  our  young  men, 
with  whom  we  can  converse'  y'  {Rep.  327,  328,  Davies  and  Vaughan's 
translation). 

So  Plato  wrote  at  the  beginning  of  his  most  famous  Dialogue, 
and  the  figure  of  the  flaming  torch,  passed  from  hand  to  hand, 
has  become  common  in  all  subsequent  literature.  In  this 
relief,  the  goddess  is  shown  on  the  right,  receiving  the  adora- 
tion of  two  elderly  men,  one  of  whom  carries  a  torch.  Behind 
them  is  a  company  of  young  men,  grouped  in  graceful  poses* 
The  tablet,  which  belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  was  perhaps  dedicated  in  memory  of  a  victory.  The 
competition  in  the  race  must  have  been  between  different  com- 
panies of  youths,  each  member  of  the  company — or  club,  as  it 
would  be  with  us — handing  on  the  torch  in  turn  to  the  other* 
The  victory  belongs,  therefore,  to  the  whole  company,  and  the 
torch  is  handed  to  the  goddess  by  one  of  the  stewards  of  the 
course,  or  the  trainers,  it  may  be,  of  the  victorious  company. 


248 


THE  PHIGAL1AN  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  race  seems  to  have  been  the  more  usual  foot-race,  and 
not  the  horse-race  with  torches  which  Socrates  speaks  of  as  a 
great  novelty.  The  origin  of  the  torch-race  was  "a  custom  of 
transmitting  a  new  and  holy  fire  from  a  hearth  or  altar  where 
it  had  been  kindled  to  other  hearths  or  altars  *  and  as  it  was 
deemed  important  to  convey  the  new  fire  as  rapidly  as  possible 
to  the  altars  that  were  waiting  for  it,  it  was  carried  at  full 
speed  by  a  single  runner,  or  (if  the  distance  was  great)  by 
relays  of  runners,  who  passed  it  on  from  hand  to  hand  n  (Frazer's 
Pausamas,  ii.  392).  It  has  been  suggested1  that  in  the  torch- 
race  in  honour  of  the  Thracian  goddess  Bendis,  the  object 
was  to  carry  the  sacred  fire  from  a  shrine  of  the  goddess  at 
Laurium  to  another  at  Piraeus.  The  distance  would  be 
between  forty  and  fifty  miles.  If  eight  runners,  as  shown  in 
our  relief,  were  posted  in  relays  along  the  Laurium  road,  each 
runner  would  have  had  six  miles  to  cover.  The  great  length 
of  the  course  may  have  suggested  the  substitution  of  a  horse- 
race. (In  the  Third  Vase  Room  there  is  a  vase  painting  of  a 
victory  in  a  torch-race  :  see  the  notes  thereon  for  some  further 
remarks  on  the  subject,  p.  383). 

To  the  two  categories  of  votive  reliefs  distinguished  above, 
we  may  add  a  third,  in  which  an  object  appropriate  to  the  god 
is  dedicated,  so  as  indirectly  to  commemorate  the  dedicator's 
own  skill  or  success.  No.  775  in  this  room  (on  the  floor 
against  the  east  wall)  is  an  example.  It  is  a  fragment  of  a 
relief  commemorating  a  musical  victory.  With  it  should  be 
compared  No.  774  (in  the  Third  Graeco-Roman  Room),  Apollo 
Citharcedus  receiving  a  libation  from  Victory.  In  775  a 
temple  is  shown,  probably  that  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  A 
musician  put  up  such  a  relief,  we  may  suppose,  in  honour  of 
the  god  of  music,  and  thus  indirectly  of  his  own  success  in 
some  musical  competition. 

Lastly,  in  this  room  we  may  notice  a  few  portrait  busts,  etc. 
Beside  the  door  to  the  Elgin  Room  are  portraits  of  ^Eschines, 
the  opponent  of  Demosthenes,  and  of  an  unknown  philosopher. 
Near  the  door  into  the  Mausoleum  Room  are  a  male  head 
(556),  the  head  of  a  maiden  (558),  and  the  heroic  head  of  a 
youth  (559).    Also  heroic  heads  of  colossal  male  and  female 

1  By  Mr.  Cecil  Smith,  in  the  Classical  Review,  1899,  P-  23°-  ^e 
points  out  that  the  type  of  athlete  shown  on  our  relief — of  solid,  full-grown, 
muscular  figur — would  have  been  a  trying  weight  for  the  small  Attic 
horse.     Like  ourselves,  the  Greeks  used  light-weights  in  their  horse-races. 


XIII 


THE  PHIGAL1AN  ROOM 


249 


figures  (555)  :  "these  two  heads  have  long  been  called  Pelops 
and  Hippodamia,  and  it  is  very  likely  that  the  figures  belonged 
to  a  chariot  group.  But  they  may  well  be  the  somewhat  ideal- 
ised portraits  of  a  Sicilian  despot  and  his  consort.  They  were 
found  in  the  sea  near  Girgenti "  (Catalogue  of  Sculpture^  i. 
291). 

£2T  We  have  now  completed  our  survey  oj  the  Greek  and  Roman 
antiquities  on  the  ground  floor.  Leaving  the  Phigalian 
Room,  and  retracing  our  steps  across  the  raised  platform 
at  the  end  of  the  Mausoleum  Room,  we  come  to  the  North 
West  Staircase,  leading  to  the  upper  floor. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 

"The  Greeks  were  the  inventors  of  this  art,  but  there  are  evidences  of 
its  introduction  into  Rome  at  a  very  early  period.  It  is  the 
universality  of  the  art,  and  the  perfection  to  which  it  was  carried 
in  all  countries,  that  place  it  among  those  striking  emanations  of 
the  genius  of  the  ancients  which  excite  our  wonder  and  admira- 
tion."— Charles  Roach  Smith. 

Every  visitor  to  Rome  and  Naples  is  familiar  with  master- 
pieces of  ancient  mosaic.  Who  does  not  know  the  "  Hall 
of  the  Doves "  in  the  Museum  of  the  Capitol  ?  the  mosaic 
of  the  "  Battle  of  Issus  "  in  the  museum  at  Naples  ?  If  in 
our  Museum  we  have  no  pieces  of  equal  fame,  we  have  never- 
theless many  that  are  interesting  both  as  effective  pieces  of 
decorative  design  and  for  the  circumstances  of  their  discovery. 
The  finest  are  fixed  to  the  walls  of  the  North- West  Staircase  ; 
others  are  in  the  Graeco- Roman  Basement,  the  Roman 
Gallery,  and  the  Hall  of  Inscriptions.  A  few  smaller  pieces 
are  among  the  miscellaneous  antiquities  in  the  Etruscan 
Saloon. 

The  art  of  mosaic,  which  lent  so  much  richness  and  distinc- 
tion to  the  domestic  architecture  of  Rome,  which,  after  a  new 
birth  in  Byzantium,  covered  with  indescribable  magnificence 
the  Christian  churches  of  Rome  and  Ravenna,  of  Palermo 
and  Monreale,  and  which  in  later  days  has  been  invoked  to 
illumine  the  dark  recesses  of  our  own  St.  Paul's — this  beauti- 
ful art  can  boast  a  very  ancient  origin,  and  its  first  beginnings 
afford  examples  of  some  of  its  most  dainty  applications.  The 
art  consists  in  the  fitting  together  of  many,  generally  small, 
pieces  of  pebble,  marble,  or  opaque  glass  so  as  to  form  a 
pattern.  Examples  of  minute  mosaic  work  may  be  seen  in 
other  portions  of  the  Museum,  collected  from  Nineveh  and 
Egypt.    Akin  to  this  early  and  minute  use  of  mosaic  is  the 

250 


CHAP.  XIV 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


enrichment  of  shafts  and  architraves  with  spiral  bands,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  cloister  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano  at  Rome. 

It  is,  however,  with  the  use  of  mosaic  on  a  larger  scale,  for 
pavement  or  wall  decoration,  that  we  are  here  concerned. 
It  is  commonly  classified  as  (a)  lessela/ed,  in  which  the  design 
is  formed  of  small  cubes,  and  (b)  sectile,  formed  of  larger 
pieces  of  marble,  shaped  and  cut  so  as  to  fit  accurately.  But 
both  methods  are  often  employed  in  the  same  mosaic.  The 
art  was  known  to  the  Greeks,  but  few  specimens  of  early  Greek 
mosaic  have  survived.  "  The  floor  of  the  fore-temple  (of  Zeus 
at  Olympia)  contains  the  remains  of  a  Greek  mosaic,  composed 
of  rough  round  pebbles  from  the  river  embedded  in  hard  mortar, 
and  arranged  so  as  to  represent  Tritons  and  Sirens  within  a 
border  of  palmettes  and  meandering  lines.  This  mosaic  is  of 
special  interest  as  being  perhaps  the  only  extant  specimen  1  of 
an  ancient  Greek  pavement  in  a  mosaic  pattern.  It  is  certainly 
older  than  the  temples,  but  nevertheless  dates  from  Greek, 
not  Roman  times"  (Frazer's  Pausamas,  iii.  499).  It  probably 
belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  The  substitu- 
tion of  cut  cubes  for  pebbles  opened  up  the  possibility  of  more 
elaborate  designs,  and  it  was  only  after  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great  that  mosaic  became  of  importance.  Pliny  records 
the  name  of  Sosus  of  Pergamum  as  an  artist  who  introduced 
the  practice  of  decorating  the  floors  of  houses  with  imitations  of 
things  appropriate  to  a  dining-room.  The  large  mosaic,  found 
on  the  Aventine  in  1833  and  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  is 
signed  Heraclitus,  and  is  in  the  style  of  Sosus,  being  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  remains  of  a  feast.  The  Doves  of  the  Capitol 
may  be  the  work  of  Sosus  praised  by  Pliny  (xxxvi.  25).  From 
the  East,  the  art  must  have  been  transferred  to  Rome,  where 
the  luxury  and  ostentation  of  the  wealthy  classes  provided 
abundant  opening  for  it.  Every  one  who  has  been  at  Pompeii 
knows  how  extensively  mosaic  was  used  even  in  that  minor 
town.  The  mosaic  of  the  Battle  of  Issus,  found  in  the  House 
of  the  Faun  in  1831,  shows  with  what  skill  a  great  historical 
composition  could  be  carried  out. 

1  Most  of  the  specimens  still  existing  in  Greece  must  be  referred  to  the 
time  of  the  Roman  occupation.  In  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  at 
Athens,  1896-97,  is  figured  a  Greek  mosaic  at  Melos,  the  date  of  which 
is  fixed  at  about  186  B.C.  Mr.  Cecil  Smith  there  discusses  the  history  of 
Greek  mosaic,  pp.  182-187. 


252 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


CHAP. 


ANGLO-ROMAN  MOSAICS 

The  Roman  occupation  of  the  world  is  marked  not  more 
by  its  roads  than  by  its  mosaics.  The  materials  suffer  little 
from  time,1  and  have  offered  small  temptation  to  the  spoiler. 
While  walls  have  crumbled  and  architectural  decorations  been 
removed  to  the  lime-kiln,  mosaics  have  been  preserved — the 
sole  surviving  traces,  very  often,  of  the  elegant  and  costly 
structures  which  they  once  adorned.  Throughout  the  countries 
of  Western  Europe,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Northern  Africa,  and 
in  farthest  Britain,  numerous  and  generally  well-preserved 
mosaic  pavements  have  at  various  times  been  dug  up,  to 
testify  to  the  artistic  power  and  mechanical  skill  of  the  Roman 
colonists.  The  specimens  of  mosaic  pavements  found  in 
Britain  which  are  exhibited  in  the  Museum  Gallery  are 
described  in  a  later  chapter  dealing  with  Romano -British 
antiquities  generally  (Ch.  xxvni.). 

MOSAICS  FROM  CARTHAGE 

Among  the  finest  of  all  Roman  mosaics  of  this  kind  are 
those  which  have  been  discovered  in  Northern  Africa — a  land 
rich  in  marbles  of  many  colours  and  of  varying  shades.2  Some 
of  the  best  of  these  are  now  on  the  North- West  Staircase  of  the 
Museum.  They  were  obtained  from  excavations  made  for  the 
British  Government  on  the  site  of  ancient  Carthage  by  Dr. 
Nathan  Davis  in  1856-58 — the  same  excavations  that  yielded 
a  rich  crop  of  Phoenician  inscriptions  (now  in  the  Room  of 
Semitic  Antiquities).  The  finest  of  the  mosaics  are  the 
portions  of  a  large  design  of  the  Months3  (numbered  14-21). 

1  They  are  indeed  well-nigh  indestructible  ;  and  this  makes  the  more 
inexcusable  such  "restorations"  (i.e.  abolition  of  the  old  mosaic  and 
substitution  of  new)  as  have  taken  place  in  St.  Mark's  at  Venice  and 
elsewhere. 

2  The  vestibule  of  the  National  Gallery  contains  some  fine  African 
marbles. 

8  This  identification  was  proposed  by  Sir  A.  W.  Franks  in  Archceologia,  ' 
xxxviii.  202  sq.  Dr.  Davis,  the  discoverer,  believed  the  mosaics  to  be  of 
-Punic,  not  Roman;  time,  and  the  building  to  have  been  a  chapel  dedi- 
cated to  the  four  female  divinities,  Dido  and  Anna,  Ceres  and  Proserpine. 
His  theory  cannot  be  accepted.  It  is  set  forth  in  chapter  x.  of  his  Carthage 
and  her  Remains. 


XIV 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


253 


On  one  of  the  landings  is  a  plan  which  shows  the  arrangement. 
From  a  common  centre  (filled,  perhaps,  by  a  figure  of  Time) 
figures  of  the  Months  radiated.  Medallion  busts  of  the 
Seasons  were  in  the  four  corners,  and  the  remaining  space  was 
occupied  by  decorative  floral  scrolls.  The  extant  portions  of 
the  composition,  which,  when  complete,  must  have  been  the 
sumptuous  ornament  of  some  wealthy  Roman's  hall,  include 
(1)  a  figure  of  March  (No.  14).  The  general  idea  of  the 
composition  resembles  an  ancient  illuminated  calendar  now 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna.  The  figure  of 
March  in  that  calendar  is  accompanied  by  some  verses  from 
Ausonius,  in  which  the  poet  speaks  of  the  swallow  and  the 
fresh  herbage  as  typical  of  the  month.  In  our  mosaic  March 
points  to  the  swallow  on  a  fresh  bough.  (2)  April  (No.  15)  : 
a  dancing  figure,  playing  the  castanets.  Under  a  bough  of 
myrtle  is  a  statuette  of  Venus.  The  figure  may  be  taken  to  be 
a  priestess  of  Venus,  whose  festival  was  on  the  Kalends  of 
April.  In  the  angle  is  a  bust  of  Spring  ("  In  the  spring  a 
young  man's  fancy  lightly  turns  to  thoughts  of  love").  (3) 
July  (No.  16)  :  with  a  dish  of  mulberries  picked  from  a  tree. 
In  the  angle  is  a  bust  of  Summer — a  female  head  of  some 
beauty,  crowned  with  ears  of  corn  and  wearing  a  tore  of  gold. 
(4)  November  (No.  17):  holding  a  sistrum  (rattle).  (5)  Among 
the  other  portions  notice  the  two  trees  growing  in  pots  (Nos.  18 
and  1 9).  Some  of  the  decorative  work  on  this  part  of  the  mosaic 
is  well  worth  studying  (see  pi.  1  5  in  Day's  Nature  in  Ornament). 
This  great  mosaic  was  the  first  of  Dr.  Davis's  discoveries.  It 
was  found  ten  feet  below  the  soil,  and  remains  of  two  other 
pavements  had  to  be  cut  through  to  reach  it.  Great  was  the 
astonishment  of  the  Arab  workmen,  but  one  of  them  did  not 
wonder  at  it,  since  Dr.  Davis  "  had  been  seen  flying  in  the  air, 
for  hours,  several  nights  in  succession  "  above  the  site  of  the 
discovery.  "  When  these  remains  of  the  gorgeous  pavement 
were  washed,  the  colours  (says  Dr.  Davis)  stood  out  as  fresh 
and  bright  as  if  the  artist's  hand  had  only  just  been  removed. 
Then  the  skill  which  is  so  strikingly  manifested  in  the  exquisite 
designs,  as  well  as  the  perfection  of  art  exhibited  in  the  light 
and  shade  of  the  figures,  called  forth  the  unbounded  admira- 
tion of  every  one  who  had  the  advantage  of  visiting  them  on 
the  spot"  (Carthage  and  her  Remains,  p.  183).  The  method 
employed  by  Dr.  Davis  in  removing  the  pavement  is  interest- 
ing :— 


254 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


CHAP. 


"I  glued  common  canvas  upon  a  small  piece  of  mosaic,  and,  when 
quite  dry,  I  severed  it  with  very  great  care  from  its  ancient  cement  by 
means  of  knives  and  chisels,  and  placed  it  with  the  reverse  side  up- 
wards in  a  case  previously  prepared  for  it.  I  filled  the  case  with  fresh 
cement,  and  screwed  the  top  on  it.  In  this  state  I  left  it  for  about 
ten  hours.  The  case  was  then  turned  over,  so  that  what  was  before 
the  bottom  became  the  top  ;  the  lid  was  unscrewed,  the  canvas 
cautiously  removed  by  means  of  hot  water,  and  the  remains  of  the 
glue  carefully  cleaned  off  the  marble.  The  experiment  having 
answered  so  well,  I  set  to  work  on  the  following  day  with  greater 
confidence,  and  succeeded,  after  twenty-nine  days  of  assiduous  labour, 
in  removing  the  whole  of  the  mosaics  upon  canvas.  In  the  course  of 
these  operations,  I  became  so  confident  in  my  method  that  I  have 
taken  up,  and  most  successfully,  one  piece  nearly  12  feet  in  length  by 
3  in  breadth"  {Archceologia,  xxxviii.  223). 

•  The  removal  of  another  of  the  Carthaginian  mosaics  was 
more  difficult,  but  was  well  worth  the  trouble,  for  it  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  the  series.  It  is  a  sea-piece,  with  an  ornament 
of  square  panels  containing  female  busts  separated  by  a 
delicate  framework  of  vine  leaves.  This  mosaic  (exhibited 
in  two  pieces,  Nos.  12  and  13)  was  found  close  to  the  beach 
and  only  10  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  : — 

"It  required  the  greatest  care  to  clear  the  sand  from  this  pave- 
ment, and  the  minutest  attention  was  necessary  in  cleaning  it  for 
removal.  The  sand  which  covered  it,  having  been  saturated  by 
heavy  rains,  and  the  sea,  having  lashed  over  it  for  centuries,  had 
loosened  it  almost  completely  from  the  cement.  However,  by  dint 
of  great  exertion  and  attention  I  succeeded  in  removing  it  and  em- 
bedding it  in  fresh  cement.  We  were  obliged  to  build  a  temporary 
wall  on  the  side  of  the  sea  to  secure  standing-room  for  the  men " 
(Arch&ologia,  xxxviii.  226). 

The  colouring  and  general  effect  of  this  pavement  are  very 
pleasing,  and  deserve  the  high  praise  which  has  been  given 
to  the  best  Carthaginian  mosaics  : — 

"The  range  of  colour  in  the  marble  tesseroe  is  very  great,  and  is 
made  with  wonderful  taste  and  skill ;  there  are  three  or  four  different 
shades  of  red,  and  an  equal  number  of  yellows  and  greens,  the  last 
colour  in  all  its  tints  being  almost  peculiar  to  this  part  of  Africa,  and 
one  of  the  most  pleasant  and  harmonious  in  almost  any  combination. 
Deep  blacks,  browns,  and  bluish-grays  are  also  abundant.  The  white 
marble  which  forms  the  ground  of  nearly  all  the  designs  is  often  not 
pure  white,  but  slightly  striated  with  gray,  giving  great  softness  and 
beauty  of  texture  to  the  surface,  and  doing  away  with  too  great 
monotony   of   tone.      The  Roman  practice,   common  to  all  their 


XIV 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


255 


mosaics,  of  not  fitting  the  tesserae  quite  closely  together,  but  allow- 
ing the  cement  joints  to  show  freely,  was  also  of  great  value  in 
giving  effect  to  the  general  texture  of  the  surface — a  point  quite 
forgotten  by  some  later  mosaic  workers,  who  thought  that  the  closer 
their  tesserae  were  fitted  together  the  better  the  mosaic  would  be. 

"  The  mosaics  from  Carthage  are  no  less  excellent  in  design  than  in 
the  richness  and  beauty  of  their  materials.  Large  spaces  are  filled  by 
grand  sweeping  curves  of  acanthus  and  other  leaves,  drawn  with 
wonderful  boldness  and  freedom  of  hand,  and  varied  with  great 
wealth  of  invention.  Without  the  use  of  very  small  tesserae,  much 
richness  of  effect  is  given  by  gradations  of  tints,  suggesting  light  and 
shade,  without  a  painful  attempt  to  represent  actual  relief.  The 
colours  of  the  marbles  used  here  and  elsewhere  by  the  Romans  are 
so  quiet  and  harmonious  that  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible 
to  produce  with  them  a  harsh  and  glaring  design,  and  when  used 
with  the  skill  and  strong  artistic  feeling  of  the  mosaic- workers  at 
Carthage,  the  result  is  a  real  masterpiece  of  decorative  design " 
(J.  H.  Middleton  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  xvi.  851,  852). 

On  another  mosaic  (No.  63)  is  a  figure  of  Victory  holding 
the  end  of  a  tablet  with  a  Latin  inscription.  Of  this  only  one 
portion  remains  ;  it  refers  to  the  dedication  of  a  building. 
Below  the  inscription  are  two  youths  holding  in  their  right 
hands  wreaths,  and  in  their  left  fans  with  long  handles.  This 
mosaic  came  from  the  ruins  of  a  building  outside  the  walls 
of  Carthage.  The  style  of  art  and  character  of  the  inscrip- 
tion belong  to  the  4th  century  A.D. 

Another  mosaic  (Nos.  7,  8,  and  9)  has  a  design  of  vases 
joined  by  arches,  possibly  intended  to  represent  ornamental 
fountains.  The  colouring  is  brilliant  but  the  workmanship 
coarse.  This  pavement  was  found  in  the  ancient  necropolis 
of  Carthage,  and  may  have  belonged  to  a  Roman  mausoleum. 
Similar  decorations  have  been  found  on  the  Via  Appia  at 
Rome. 

We  may  notice  also  a  mosaic  of  two  deer  at  a  fountain 
(No.  33)  ;  and  some  large  circles  and  other  patterns  (Nos. 
25-27),  of  which  the  design  is  effective  but  the  execution 
coarse  and  the  colouring  and  material  poor.  But  some  of 
the  geometrical  patterns  in  mosaic  (No.  10)  are  very  pretty. 
The  hunting  scenes  (Nos.  1-6)  are  rough  and  almost  childish 
in  style  ;  these  are  supposed  to  belong  to  a  later  period  (6th 
century  A.D.).  One  mosaic  represents  a  mounted  huntsman 
leaving  his  castle  ;  another,  a  huntsman  who  has  lassoed  a 
stag. 

From  the  site  of  Utica  Dr.  Davis  obtained  some  mosaics 


256 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


CHAP. 


which  are  also  in  the  Museum.  The  most  important  of  these 
is  a  semicircular  piece  of  pavement  (No.  29  on  the  staircase), 
found  in  the  alcove  of  a  room  from  which  other  mosaics  were 
also  removed  : — 

"  It  represents  a  water-scene,  and  contains  eleven  different  sorts  of 
animals,  among  which  are  the  boar,  the  leopard,  the  ostrich,  the  gazelle, 
the  stag,  etc.  Parallel  with  the  curved  sides  is  a  net  with  floats. 
This  is  being  hauled  in  by  two  men  in  curiously-shaped  canoes. 
From  the  projection  of  some  stems  and  a  tree  from  the  water, 
it  would  appear  that  the  artist  intended  to  represent  an  inundation, 
by  which  the  animals  were  surprised,  and  of  which  the  fishermen  took 
advantage"  (Carthage  and  her  Remains^  p.  518). 

Another  mosaic  from  Utica  (No.  11)  represents  peacock, 
guinea-fowl,  francolin,  and  other  birds.  A  third  (found  on  a 
different  spot)  represents  a  sea-scene  (No.  30),  on  which  is  a 
very  curious  sort  of  boat  and  two  partly-nude  fishermen,  with 
hats  similar  to  modern  wide-awakes,  to  shelter  them  from  the 
rays  of  the  sun.  The  fish  are  very  well  executed.  (In  the 
Hall  of  Inscriptions  are  two  marine  pieces,  also  from  Utica  ;  in 
the  Grseco-Roman  basement  are  other  mosaics  from  Dr. 
Davis's  excavations  at  Carthage).  The  large  head  of  a 
marine  deity  (No.  68)  also  comes  from  Carthage.  It  was 
discovered  in  some  earlier  excavations  (1838)  than  those  we 
have  described,  and  was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  Mr. 
Hudson  Gurney. 

From  Ephesus  comes  the  mosaic  of  a  Triton  (No.  28). 
This  was  found  in  1872  by  Mr.  Wood  within  the  circuit 
wall  of  the  Temple  of  Artemis  : — 

"  Upon  the  front  wall  of  some  Roman  buildings,  which  l  suppose 
were  the  dwellings  of  the  priests,  I  found  some  mosaic  pavements. 
One  of  these  represented  a  Triton,  with  a  dish  of  fruit  and  crooked 
stick  ;  an  attendant  dolphin  carries  his  trident.  This  mosaic,  which  is 
well  executed  and  remarkably  rich  in  colour,  is  now  safely  lodged  in 
the  British  Museum  ;  but  it  was  with  great  difficulty  taken  up  from 
its  original  position,  in  which  it  had  remained  undisturbed  for  "about 
eighteen  centuries.  A  deal  frame  was  prepared  like  the  four  sides  of 
a  shallow  box,  large  enough  to  enclose  as  much  of  the  pavement 
as  we  wished  to  take  up.  Having  then  cut  away  the  pavement  all 
around  so  far  as  to  allow  the  case  to  be  placed  in  position,  we  severed 
the  mosaic  from  its  foundation  with  long  chisels,  in  widths  of  about 
5  inches,  inserting,  one  by  one,  boards  of  that  width,  and  just  long 
enough  to  make,  when  all  were  inserted,  the  bottom  of  the  case.  We 
then  laid  a  piece  of  coarse  canvas  over  the  surface  of  the  mosaic  and 
spread  over  it  a  thick  layer  of  melted  glue,  which,  percolating  through 


BRITISH  MUSEUM 


Assyria 


PLAN  OF  THE  GALLERIES 

(Upper  Floor) 


XIV 


ANCIENT  MOSAICS 


257 


the  open  canvas,  secured  it  to  the  pavement  in  one  compact  mass. 
We  then  filled  up  the  case  with  liquid  gypsum  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches,  and  having  prised  up  the  whole,  inserted  two  strong  deals 
under  the  case.  With  great  difficulty,  twenty  men  lifted  it  out  01 
the  hole,  which  was  13  feet  6  inches  deep,  up  a  steep  sloping  road, 
cut  expressly  for  the  purpose,  and  finally  carried  it  through  the 
ploughed  fields  to  the  road  leading  to  the  railway  station  "  {Discoveries 
at  EphesuS)  pp.  149,  172). 

MOSAICS  FROM  HALICARNASSUS 

In  the  course  of  his  excavations  at  Halicarnassus  in  1856, 
Sir  Charles  Newton  came  upon  the  remains  of  a  Roman  villa, 
probably  of  the  third  century  A.D.  Many  of  the  pavements  of 
this  villa  are  now  exhibited  on  the  North- West  Staircase  (others 
are  in  the  Graeco-Roman  basement,  and  have  been  already 
described).  On  one  of  the  landings  there  is  a  plan  which 
shows  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms.  The  designs  include 
a  series  of  medallions  representing  rosettes,  birds,  fish,  and 
masks  (Nos.  52-62);  a  bust  personifying  the  city  of  Hali- 
carnassus, and  inscribed  with  that  name  (No.  37)  ;  heads  of 
Terror  (46,  47)  ;  Spring  and  Summer  (38,  39)  ;  part  of  a 
border  of  dolphins,  with  lions  and  a  dog  pursuing  an  ibex  (40- 
44)  ;  Dionysus,  dancing,  accompanied  by  a  panther  (48)  ; 
Europa  and  the  Bull  (45) ;  Meleager,  mounted,  spearing  a  wild 
animal  (35);  and  Atalanta,  mounted,  drawing  a  bow  (39); 
the  two  latter  figures  are  identified  by  the  inscriptions.  The 
excavations  were  made  in  the  field  of  an  old  Turk  called  Hadji 
Captan,  and  his  interest  in  the  proceedings  had  a  sad  ending  : — 

"  He  was  a  jovial  old  Turk,  who  took  the  greatest  interest  in  our 
diggings.  He  greatly  marvelled  at  the  sight  of  the  strange  pictures 
which  had  lain  concealed  under  the  soil  of  his  field  for  so  many 
centuries.  So  constant  was  his  interest  in  the  diggings  that  he 
remained  watching  us  in  all  weathers,  till  at  last  the  poor  old  man 
caught  a  cold  from  standing  too  long  on  the  wet  soil,  and  died " 
(Newton's  Travels,  ii.  83). 

These  mosaics  from  Halicarnassus  are  somewhat  crude  in 
execution,  but  their  effect,  as  pieces  of  colour-design,  is  rich 
and  harmonious. 

tSF  At  the  top  of  the  North-  West  Staircase  there  is  a  vestibule  in 
which  are  exhibited  early  Egyptian  antiquities.  Passing 
through  this,  we  enter  the  Room  of  Cyprian  Antiquities. 


CHAPTER  XV 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS 

"  Here  was  a  natural  meeting-ground  for  all  peoples  of  the  East  and 
West.  Even  when  the  centre  of  commercial  exchange  between 
the  East  and  West  had  passed  away  from  Cyprus,  still  the  island 
remained  a  place  of  congress,  a  point  of  contact  and  impact  for 
eastern  and  western  influences  "  (Dyer,  The  Gods  in  Greece). 

On  entering  the  Room  of  Cyprian  Sculptures,  and  examining 
cursorily  the  objects  here  exhibited,  a  visitor,  not  otherwise 
informed,  would  probably  find  some  difficulty  in  deciding  to 
what  nation  they  belong.  Look  on  one  side  of  the  room,  and 
one  is  reminded  of  Greek  art ;  look  on  the  other,  and  the 
prevailing  impression  is  of  something  strange  and  incompre- 
hensible— a  blend  of  characteristics  from  many  other  types. 
This  first  impression  of  Cyprian  art,  though  it  requires  in  some 
respects  to  be  revised,  is  in  the  main  correct.  The  geographical 
position  of  Cyprus  is  the  key  to  its  history  and  art.  "  By  all 
seaports,"  says  an  old  writer,  "  Egyptian,  Syrian,  Armenian, 
Turkish,  and  Greek,  Cyprus  is  surrounded  as  with  a  girdle. 
To  them  all,  one  can  sail  in  at  most  one  day."  Egyptians, 
Assyrians,  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  all  held  the 
island  in  ancient  days,  and  all  of  them  left  traces  of  their 
occupation  in  the  antiquities  which  have  in  modern  times  been 
discovered.  Held  in  later  ages  in  succession  by  the  Arabs, 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  our  own  Richard  I.,  the  Lusignan 
dynasty,  the  Venetian  Republic,  and  the  Turks,  it  has  within  the 
present  generation  passed  into  the  occupation  of  the  British. 
With  this  event  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  island  com- 
mences ;  among  its  fruits  is  a  rich  crop  of  antiquities,  owing 
to  the  facilities  now  given  for  systematic 1  exploration. 

1  In  this  respect  differing  from  the  methods  of  General  Palma  di 
Cesnola,  whose  archaeological  work  was  as  unscientific  as  its  results  were 
splendid.     His  collection,  with  its  wonderful  Treasure  from  Curium,  is 

258 


chap,  xv  ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS 


259 


This  harvest  would  have  been  richer  still,  but  that  the  island 
was  not  virgin  soil.  In  Pagan  times,  tombs  and  temples  were 
sacred.  The  existence  of  treasures  may  have  been  suspected, 
but  it  were  sacrilege  to  look.  "  The  shrines  of  Aphrodite  could 
not  but  be  venerated  by  worshippers  of  Venus,  and  the  adorers 
of  the  Greek  Hercules  bowed  with  respect  before  the  Phoenician 
Melkarth.  It  was  Christianity  which  inaugurated  the  era  of 
temple -spoliation  and  tomb -rifling.  Monuments  which  had 
escaped  unharmed  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  had  been 
respected  during  numberless  struggles  for  loot  and  dominion,  were 
ruthlessly  thrown  to  the  ground  and  chopped  into  pieces  by  the 
Christians  of  the  days  of  Constantine  the  Great.  Every  article 
of  value  was  carried  off,  but  objects  simply  of  art  or  instruction 
were  left  buried  in  the  mounds  of  debris  which  these  excited 
fanatics  created  around  them.  Thus  the  ancient  temples  of 
Cyprus,  with  most  of  their  contents  mutilated,  lie  buried  beneath 
nine  to  fifteen  feet  of  earth  since  the  fourth  century  of  our  era 
(R.  H.  Lang,  Cyprus \  its  History,  Present  Resources,  and  Future 
Prospects,  1878,  p.  328).  The  tombs,  too,  of  all  ages  later 
than  the  Roman  were  spared  because  they  were  unknown.  If 
so  much  has  nevertheless  survived  the  shock  of  ruin  to  reward 
successive  excavators,  how  great  must  the  wealth  of  the 
Cyprian  sepulchres  and  temples  once  have  been  ! 

In  the  present  room  only  a  few,  and  those  not  the  most 
valuable,  of  the  Cyprian  antiquities  are  exhibited.  It  may  be 
convenient,  therefore,  to  summarise  what  is  to  be  seen  else- 
where in  the  Museum.  Descriptions  of  the  other  objects  will 
be  found  in  their  proper  places.  After  referring  summarily  to 
them  here,  we  shall  proceed  to  deal  more  at  length  with  the 
antiquities  before  us  in  the  Cyprian  Room. 

Cyprus  seems  to  have  been  originally  inhabited  by  a  race, 
not,  as  was  once  supposed,  of  Semitic  origin,  among  whom 
the  yEgean  civilisation,  which  we  shall  presently  have  to 
discuss  (Ch.  xvni.),  was  fully  developed.  In  this  connection 
we  may  refer  to  the  Cyprian  language.  "The  primitive 
people  of  Cyprus  spoke  Greek,  called  their  goddess  by  a 
Greek  name,  rj  Fdva<rcra,  the  queen,  and  adopted,  to  express 
their  speech,  a  syllabary  so  little  adapted  to  Greek,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  they  can  have  had  an  early  knowledge 


at  New  York.  A  record  of  excavations  is  given  in  Mr.  J.  L.  Myres's 
Catalogue  of  the  Cyprus  Museum. 


26o 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS 


CHAP. 


of  the  convenient  Phoenician  alphabet.  All  over  the  island 
rocks  and  statue -bases  and  gems  and  pottery  are  found 
engraved  with  the  characters  of  that  strange  syllabary v 
(Hogarth,  A  Wandering  Scholar  in  the  Levant,  p.  184). 
For  a  long  time  the  language  remained  undeciphered.  "  The 
Bronze  Tablet  of  Dali,"  acquired  for  the  Due  de  Luynes, 
contained  a  beautifully  perfect  inscription  of  30  lines  and 
some  1300  letters  in  Cyprian  characters,  and  various  but 
unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  to  read  it.  In  1869  Sir 
Hamilton  Lang,  then  manager  of  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Bank 
at  Larnaca,  and  afterwards  H.B.M.  Consul  for  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  began  excavations  at  Dali  (the  ancient  Idalium). 
He  discovered  a  stone  with  a  bilingual  inscription  in  Cyprian 
and  Phoenician  characters  (now  in  the  Museum),  and  this 
proved  the  key  to  the  Cyprian  writing.  "  It  was  a  curious 
coincidence  that  the  first  word  of  the  Cyprian  text  upon  that 
stone  was  the  group  of  five  letters  which  the  Due  de  Luynes 
had  read  on  his  tablet  as  1  Salamis.'  Equally  strange  was  it 
that  that  word  was  the  only  one  which  was  repeated  in  the 
Cyprian  text,  and  that  in  the  Phoenician,  similarly,  only  one 
word  was  repeated."  The  researches  of  the  late  George 
Smith  showed  that  the  group  of  letters  in  question  was  pro- 
nounced "  basileus  "  (see  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archaeology,  vol.  i.). 

These  bilingual  inscriptions  show  that  there  must  have  been 
in  the  island  a  people  speaking  a  Greek  tongue  before  the 
Phoenicians  came  to  trade  and  settle.  Among  the  primitive 
antiquities  from  Cyprus,  examples  of  pottery  may  be  seen  in 
the  First  Vase  Room.  In  the  same  room  abundant  specimens 
of  later  Cypriote  ware  are  also  exhibited  ;  choicer  vases,  im- 
ported from  Greece  and  found  in  the  island,  are  merged  in  the 
general  collections.  Pottery  seems  to  have  been  from  early 
times  a  speciality  of  Cyprus.  "  The  cuneiform  inscriptions 
inform  us  that  Esar-haddon,  who  began  his  reign  in  681  B.C., 
received  as  contributions  from  the  subject  nations  of  his  empire 
works  of  art  for  the  decoration  of  the  palace  he  was  building 
at  Nineveh,  and  amongst  the  countries  enumerated  Cyprus  is 
mentioned  as  contributing  stone  statues  and  vases  for  that 
object.  As  the  empire  over  which  that  monarch  ruled  embraced 
most  of  the  then  civilised  world,  it  would  appear  that  the 
Cyprians  had  attained  to  the  highest  excellence  in  the  fictile 
art.    The  soil  of  the  island  literally  teems  with  fragments  of 


XV 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS 


261 


stone  statues  and  the  products  of  the  potter"  (T.  B.  Sandwith 
in  Archceologia,  vol.  xlv.).  In  the  First  Vase  Room,  again, 
may  be  seen  rich  collections  of  "  Mycenaean  antiquities "  in 
other  kinds.  The  gold  and  ivory  is  exhibited  in  the  Room  of 
Gold  Ornaments.  Of  the  early  Greek  period  in  Cyprus  a 
tradition  remains  in  the  Iliad  (xi.  19),  where  the  arms  sent  by 
Cinyras,  king  of  Amathus,  to  Agamemnon  are  described  : — 

His  ample  chest 
A  breastplate  guarded,  given  by  Cinyras 
In  pledge  of  friendship  :  for  in  Cyprus'  isle 
He  heard  the  rumour  of  the  glorious  fleet 
About  to  sail  for  Troy  :  and  sought  with  gifts 
To  win  the  favour  of  the  mighty  king. 

Some  curious  antiquities,  recalling  another  story  of  Cinyras, 
will  be  found  in  the  Room  of  Terra-cottas  (p.  708).  The 
objects  of  art  discovered  from  the  early  tombs  of  Cyprus  fully 
bear  out,  by  their  richness  and  beauty,  the  traditional  repute 
of  the  island.  But,  as  we  shall  see,  traces  of  Phoenician, 
Assyrian,  and  Egyptian  influence  or  importation  are  very 
strong.  Under  Thotmes  III.  (1600  B.C.)  the  island  had  been 
made  subject  to  Egypt.  Phoenician  traders  had  at  an  early 
period  settled  in  the  island,  and  afterwards  founded  a  kingdom 
at  Citium.  Next,  after  a  period  of  independence  under  nine 
kingdoms,  the  island  became  subject  to  Assyria.  Amongst 
the  embassies  to  whom  King  Sargon  gave  audience  at  Babylon 
in  708  or  707  B.C.  were  seven  Cyprian  monarchs.  The  tribute 
which  they  brought  with  them  consisted  of  gold,  silver,  vases, 
logs  of  ebony,  and  the  manufactures  of  their  own  land.  In 
return  the  great  king  presented  them  with  a  statue  of  himself 
cut  in  bas-relief,  and  bearing  a  long  inscription  in  cuneiform 
characters.  This  statue,  now  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin,  was 
erected  in  Citium,  and  was  discovered  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.1  The  inscription  says,  among  other  things,  "The 
works  which  were  done  in  the  midst  of  Chaldaea  and  Syria 
the  Cypriotes  heard  of,  and  their  hearts  failed  them,  and  fear 
took  hold  of  them."  We,  with  so  much  wealth  of  Assyrian 
art  collected  in  our  Museum,  can  the  more  easily  fancy  how 
the  island  ambassadors  were  dazzled  by  the  sig-ht  of  monuments 

1  It  is  sad  to  think  that  only  parsimony  on  the  part  of  the  future 
masters  of  Cyprus  deprived  the  British  Museum  of  this  interesting  relic. 
The  British  authorities  valued  it  at  ^20.  The  Berlin  Museum  obtained 
it  for  ^50  (Lang's  Cyprus,  p.  329). 


262 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS  chap. 


which,  even  now  after  a  sleep  of  centuries,  excite  the  admiration 
of  the  civilised  world.  In  the  6th  century  B.C.  Cyprus  was 
conquered  by  the  Egyptian  King  Amasis  ;  but  on  the  invasion 
of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  (525  B.C.)  it  became  tributary  to  the 
Persians.  During  the  wars  between  Greeks  and  Persians  the 
island  was  often  the  scene  of  hostilities  ;  after  the  peace  of 
Antalcidas  (387  B.C.),  Evagoras,  king  of  Salamis,  succeeded 
in  extending  his  authority  over  the  greater  part  of  the  island 
and  asserting  his  independence  of  the  Persian  monarch.  We 
must  not  follow  the  history  of  the  island  further  ;  we  have  said 
enough  to  explain  the  successive  foreign  influences  which  are 
so  marked  a  characteristic  of  any  collection  of  Cyprian  anti- 
quities. Of  a  Persian  motive  in  Cyprian  architecture  there  is 
an  interesting  example  in  the  "bull  capital"  from  Salamis 
(Ephesus  Room,  p.  135).  The  foreign  influences  are  well 
seen  in  the  historical  succession  of  terra-cotta  figurines  from 
Cyprus  (Terra-cotta  Room,  p.  686).  Of  works  of  pure  Greek 
or  Hellenistic  art  the  visitor  should  not  miss  two  special 
treasures  —  a  charming  head  of  Eros  (Third  Graeco- Roman 
Room,  p.  68),  and  a  beautiful  gold  pin  (p.  575).  These  were 
both  found  among  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Aphrodite  at 
Paphos. 


We  now  come  to  the  antiquities  in  the  Cyprian  Room.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  of  stone,  and 
they  were  of  native  manufacture.  To  their  material  their  pre- 
servation in  such  large  numbers  (for  nearly  all  here  before 
us  and  more  came  from  a  single  excavation)  was  due.  "While 
a  large  proportion  of  Greek  sculptures  has  perished  in  the  kiln, 
having  been  converted  into  lime  by  mediaeval  builders,  the 
statues  of  Cyprus  have  survived,  because  of  the  inferior  material 
in  which  they  were  executed  "  (Newton).  "  Cyprus  possesses 
no  indigenous  marble,  and  the  local  limestone,  which  is  of  a 
friable  character,  is  almost  universally  used.  The  nature  of 
the  material  thus  encouraged  production,  for  this  stone,  though 
not  durable,  is  yet  easy  to  work.  This  friable  stone  soon  gets 
worn  down,  and  consequently  the  figures  often  have  a  faded 
appearance,  with  rounded  surfaces  and  thinned -out  angles" 
H.  B.  Walters  in  Architectural  Review,  January  1899). 

The  site  of  the  excavation  from  which  the  greater  part  of 
these  antiquities  was  obtained  was  the  ancient  Idalium.  Here 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  temples  of  Aphrodite  :  — 


XV 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS 


263 


"  Est  Amathus,  est  celsa  mihi  Paphus  atque  Cythera 
Idaliseque  domus," 

says  Venus  in  the  AUneid  (x.  51).  When  the  goddess  of  Love 
rose  out  of  the  foam  of  the  sea  she  first  touched  earth,  it  was 
said,  at  Paphos  ;  it  was  at  Idalium  that  Adonis,  her  favourite, 
was  slain.  Cyprus,  it  has  been  remarked,  was  in  ancient  times 
"  a  caravanserai,  wherein  East  met  West  to  prosecute  in 
common  a  congenial  nature -worship,  with  rites  less  bestial 
than  in  Syria,  more  sensual  than  in  Greece.  The  cult  of 
woman,  lapsing  into  voluptuousness  and  rising  again  to  chivalry, 
has  been  always  dominant  in  the  island,  inspiring  a  continuous 
romance,  which  begins  with  the  Idalian  and  the  Paphian  and 
closes  with  Berengaria  and  Catherine  Cornaro "  (Hogarth, 
A  Wandering  Scholar,  pp.  180,  197).  The  Temple  of 
Aphrodite  at  Idalium  must  have  existed  several  centuries,  for 
some  of  the  objects  discovered  in  the  ruins  were  at  least  as 
old  as  the  tenth  century  B.C.,  others  as  late  as  the  Ptolemaic 
and  Roman  eras.  The  excavations  were  made  in  1870  for 
Sir  Hamilton  Lang.  Twenty  years  before  a  peasant  had 
found  on  the  site  several  vessels  of  gold  and  the  bronze  tablet 
already  mentioned.  Tombs  in  the  neighbourhood  were  also 
constantly  being  excavated ;  the  temple  was  hit  upon  by 
accident  : — 

"One  day  in  1869,  just  as  I  was  getting  tired  of  the  pottery  and 
glass  finds,  Hagge  Georgi  (the  finder  of  the  Tablet  of  Dali)  sent  me  a 
pressing  request  that  I  should  come  at  once  to  Dali,  because  he  had 
made  some  wonderful  discoveries.  It  would  be  a  long  story  to  tell  all 
the  difficulties  I  experienced  in  the  new  work  put  upon  me,  but  it 
proved  a  pleasant  change  in  my  antiquarian  amusements.  A  temple 
had  been  discovered  at  Idalium,  with  its  ancient  contents,  9  feet  under- 
ground, and  I  determined  to  uncover  it  in  a  systematic  way.  The 
recompense  of  my  labour  was  far  beyond  my  expectation.  One  piece 
of  stone  alone  [the  bilingual  inscription  above  described]  I  would  not 
have  exchanged  for  all  the  treasures  of  the  tombs  of  Cyprus.  .  .  .  Besides 
this  precious  bilingual  stone,  and  several  Phoenician,  Cyprian,  and 
Greek  inscriptions,  a  large  collection  of  statues  and  two  treasures  of 
silver  coins  were  found  in  the  temple"  (R.  H.  Lang's  Cyprus,  ch.  xv., 
and  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  2nd  ser.  xi.  30). 

As  the  ruins  had  to  be  excavated  in  a  hard  chalky  grit, 
under  full  exposure  to  an  August  sun  of  1300,  the  work  which 
Sir  Hamilton  Lang  superintended  for  two  months  imposed 
a  severe  strain  on  his  antiquarian  enthusiasm.  Dali  was 
the*  scene,  he  says,  of  his  "  hottest,  if  happiest,"  hours.  The 


264 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS  chap. 


inscriptions,  the  coins,  and  the  best  preserved  of  the  statues 
were  removed  to  the  British  Museum.  The  shipment  out  of 
the  island  was  attended  with  considerable  difficulty,  for  Sir 
Hamilton  Lang  had  no  firman  ;  but  it  was  somehow  managed. 
Cela  se  fait,  mais  ne  se  dit  pas. 

The  statues  have  their  interest,  but  it  requires  some  effort 
of  sympathetic  imagination  to  replace  them  in  their  proper 
setting  : — 

"The  imposing  array  of  statuary  which  met  the  eye  of  the  visitor 
as  he  entered  the  temple  in  the  days  of  its  glory  may  be  conceived 
when  I  say  that  the  headless  statues  which  strewed  the  ground  must 
have  represented  1000  pieces  of  sculpture,  of  which  nearly  100  were 
of  colossal  or  heroic  size.  The  treasure-trove  tells  us  of  the  wealth  of 
the  temple,  the  tiny  feet  in  bronze  still  adhering  to  some  of  the  marble 
slabs  speak  to  us  of  works  of  art  of  the  highest  value  which  ruthless 
plunderers  destroyed  and  carried  off,  and  the  inscriptions  preserve  to 
us  a  record  of  the  royal  favour  which  the  temple  received  during 
several  centuries  "  (Lang's  Cyprus,  p.  42). 

Very  different  was  the  scene  which  the  temple  presented 
when  it  was  unearthed.  Many  of  the  sculptured  fragments 
were  found  in  troughs  of  solid  stone  which  had  been  used  for 
ablutions  in  days  of  old.  Evidence  of  the  violence  of  the 
iconoclasts  was  abundant ;  heads  had  been  broken  off  from 
small  statues  and  thrown  pell-mell  into  heaps ;  and  from 
most  of  the  colossal  statues  the  eyes  had  been  knocked  out. 
Remains  of  the  sacrifices  and  burnt  offerings  which  had  once 
been  made  were  found  in  fragments  of  charcoal  and  in  the 
bones  of  bullocks,  sheep,  and  swine. 

Some  other  of  the  antiquities  here  collected  come  from  the 
yet  more  famous  Temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Paphos,  which  was 
excavated  for  the  Cyprus  Exploration  Fund  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Mr.  D.  G.  Hogarth  (/.U.S.  ix.  150;  see  also 
Dyer's  Gods  in  Greece,  app.  vi.). 

Of  the  statues  from  Idalium,  the  most  important  stands  by 
itself  in  the  centre  of  the  room.  It  is  the  half-length  figure  of 
a  king,  or  a  divinity,  with  a  curly  beard.  Near  it  stood  in 
the  original  position  the  largest  pedestal  discovered  among  the 
ruins.  The  physiognomy  belongs  to  what  we  shall  speedily 
recognise  as  the  Cyprian  type,  and  there  is  a  trace  of  Assyrian 
character  in  the  work  generally.  But  there  is  a  trace  also  in 
it  of  Greek  naturalness.  The  eyes  are  better  formed  than  in 
the  earlier  works  which  we  shall  presently  examine  ;  the  eye- 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS  265 


brows  still  mark  a  more  archaic  style.  The  lips  were 
originally  coloured  red,  and  probably  the  eyeballs  also.  This 
figure  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  transition  period  in 
Cyprian  sculpture.  Next  we  may  notice  a  marsebah,  or 
monument  of  alabaster,  erected  by  Sardalus,  the  royal  inter- 
preter, in  honour  of  his  god  Eshmun.  This  monument  comes 
from  Larnaca ;  its  date  is  about  380  B.C. 

Turning  to  the  wall-cases,  we  examine  first  the  terra-cotta 
figures  and  sculptures  on  the  side  of  the  room  devoted  to  the 
archaic  period  of  Cyprian  art  (about  700-500  B.C.).  Some 
of  the  smaller  limestone  figures  and  the  terra-cottas  are  of  a 
very  primitive  character.  A  common  type  is  that  of  a  goddess, 
representing  the  creative  powers  of  nature  ;  she  is  entirely 
nude,  and  the  sexual  features  are  pronounced.  "These 
figures  are  worked  in  what  has  been  called  the  '  snow-man 
technique,'  the  clay  being  modelled  with  the  hand  while  in 
a  soft  state,  and  worked  up  into  a  rude  presentment  of  the 
human  form"  (Walters).  Among  the  figures  we  may  notice 
also  men  on  horseback,  warriors  holding  large  round  shields, 
and  a  group  of  two  warriors  in  a  chariot  (No.  97).  These 
represent  the  votaries  who  offered  the  statuettes  of  gods  and 
goddesses  at  the  shrines.  Some  of  the  figurines  are  of  a 
quaintly  hideous  aspect.  A  remarkable  one  (No.  73)  shows 
the  upper  part  of  a  female  figure,  probably  representing 
Aphrodite  playing  on  the  lyre.  The  ornaments  upon  the 
ears  and  neck  are  elaborately  rendered,  and  there  are  traces 
of  colouring. 

We  may  next  notice  some  large  heads  which  are  distinct- 
ively Egyptian  (Nos.  3  and  4)  and  Assyrian  (Nos.  1  and  2). 
Notice  the  ^Ethiopian  breadth  of  nose  in  the  former.  These 
examples  are  not  so  much  of  Cypriote  sculpture  showing 
Egyptian  or  Assyrian  influences,  as  Egyptian  or  Assyrian 
sculptures  found  in  Cyprus. 

The  next  cases  contain  examples  of  Cypriote  art  developing 
itself  on  independent  lines  : — 

4  4  The  earliest  examples  of  Cypriote  sculpture  are  very  Assyrian  in 
style,  especially  as  regards  the  coiffure.  The  hair  is  trimly  curled, 
with  an  elaborate  fringe  over  the  forehead,  and  the  beard  is  treated  in 
the  same  fashion.  The  usual  head-dress  is  a  conical  stuff  cap,  or  else 
a  helmet  with  ear-pieces  ;  the  draperies  are  long  and  elaborate.  But 
these  sculptures  are  never  to  be  mistaken  for  Assyrian  ;  they  are  never 
even  to  be  regarded  as  direct  copies  of  Assyrian  models.     There  is 


266 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS  chap. 


evidently  an  intermediary  influence,  namely,  the  Phoenicians,  to  whom 
are  due  the  imported  objects  which  the  Cypriotes  copied.  It  must  also 
be  remembered  that  Assyrian  sculptures  are  nearly  always  in  bas-relief, 
while  those  from  Cyprus  are  in  the  round.  To  this  fact  is  probably 
due  a  common  feature  of  Cypriote  statues,  namely,  that  the  figures 
have  a  thin  and  slab-like  appearance,  as  if  they  had  been  meant  for 
placing  against  walls.  An  unavoidable  result  of  this  is  a  deliberate 
misrepresentation  of  the  human  body  "  (H.  B.  Walters  in  Architectural 
Review^  January  1899). 

With  regard  to  the  coiffure  and  head-dresses,  the  turbans 
{e.g.  in  Nos.  6  and  7)  are  interesting.  Herodotus  tells  us 
(vii.  89)  that  "the  Cyprian  kings  had  their  heads  wound 
round  with  turbans,  and  the  rest  had  tunics,  but  in  other 
respects  they  were  like  the  Hellenes." 

A  greater  approach  to  naturalness  is  visible  in  the  next 
group  of  heads,  of  which  Nos.  28  and  29  maybe  taken  as 
typical  examples.  Characteristic  of  the  Cypriote  type  are  a 
great  prominence  and  sharpness  of  nose,  a  high  skull,  narrow 
head,  cheek-bones  highly  marked,  and  a  mild,  benignant 
expression  of  countenance.  There  is  also  in  the  Cypriote 
style  "  an  utter  absence  of  elegance  and  nobility,  of  delicacy 
or  firmness — in  short,  no  idealism  or  striving  after  effect.  The 
Oriental  dress  and  coiffure,  the  elaborate  jewellery  and  general 
softness  and  effeminacy,  are  due  to  the  Oriental  manners  and 
habits  which  have  always  characterised  the  Cypriotes  even  in 
the  times  of  the  strongest  Western  influence  "  (Walters).  The 
kings  of  Cyprus  affected,  we  are  told,  the  luxury  and  cere- 
mony of  Oriental  princes.  Of  one  of  them,  the  king  of  Neo- 
Paphos,  it  is  recorded  that  he  liked  to  cool  himself  by  the 
hovering  of  doves.  He  was  anointed  with  fragrant  oil  to 
attract  them,  and  when  they  flew  near,  attendants  were  at 
hand  to  ward  them  off  {Athen.  vi.  257).  The  sharp  Cypriote 
nose  is  very  conspicuous  in  all  the  heads.  Many  have  the 
appearance  of  being  portraits.  Others  may  be  identified  as 
intended  for  heads  of  Hercules  ;  of  these  No.  27  has  some 
dignity,  No.  17  wears  an  almost  comic  leer. 

Among  the  draped  Aphrodites,  No.  205  (from  the  Castellani 
collection)  is  not  unpleasing.  In  others  the  goddess  wears 
a  diadem  or  other  ornament  {e.g.  154).  Sometimes  the 
Egyptian  style  continues  (No.  211).  In  the  full-length 
statuettes  of  Artemis  and  other  divinities  the  Greek  style  is 
noticeable;  some  of  these  {e.g.  No.  182)  show  considerable 
traces  of  colour. 


XV 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS  267 


Passing  to  the  wall-cases  on  the  other  side  of  the  room, 
devoted  to  later  Cyprian  sculpture  (about  500-150  b.c),  we 
find  occasionally  heads  from  which  the  archaic  manner  has 
disappeared.  See,  for  instance,  the  charming  head  of  a  youth, 
probably  Eros  (No.  319),  and  Nos.  326,  328,  330.  The 
Cypriote  nose  is,  however,  still  with  us.  Some  of  the  figures 
(Nos.  248,  279)  are  draped  in  an  Egyptian  royal  tunic. 
Gradually  we  find  ourselves  among  works  of  the  Greek  period. 
No.  39  is  interesting  as  showing  the  distance  we  have 
travelled  in  artistic  development.  This  head,  which  looks  like 
a  portrait,  somewhat  recalls  a  much  earlier  work  on  the  other 
side  of  the  room  (No.  29),  but  it  is  much  more  natural.  The 
expression  is  less  stiff  and  the  eyes  have  more  life.  In  archaic 
sculpture,  as  Sir  Charles  Newton  observed,  "  the  eye  appears 
rather  as  if  seen  through  a  slit  in  the  skin  than  as  if  set  within 
the  guard  of  highly  sensitive  and  mobile  lids.  The  same  want 
of  knowledge  which  in  the  seated  figures  from  Branchidae  has 
failed  to  disconnect  the  bodies  from  the  chairs  has  in  the 
treatment  of  the  eye  been  unable  to  express  its  free  movement 
and  to  detach  it  from  the  lids"  (Portfolio,  1874,  p.  84).  A 
youthful  male  head  (No.  42)  is  among  the  best  of  the  Cypriote 
sculptures  ;  it  almost  suggests  the  grand  style  of  the  Mausoleum 
sculptures.  Another  head  (No.  43)  has  the  air  of  a  good 
portrait.     No.  37  is  thoroughly  Greek. 

Among  votive  statues  and  sepulchral  monuments  we  may 
notice  the  statue  of  a  young  man  wearing  a  tunic  with  a 
mantle  over  it  and  holding  a  sacrificial  band  in  his  right  hand 
(from  Dali).  A  stele  from  Larnaca  was  set  up,  about  250  B.C., 
by  Arish  in  honour  of  his  father,  Parsi,  and  his  mother, 
Shemzabal.  The  inscription  is  in  Phoenician  ;  a  Greek  one, 
probably  to  the  same  effect,  was  effaced  in  ancient  days. 
Another  stele,  with  an  inscription  in  Greek  and  Phoenician,  is 
in  memory  of  Artemidorus,  son  of  Helidorus  of  Sidon  :  this 
was  found  at  Athens  (Boeck's  C.I.G.  No.  894).  A  bas- 
relief,  in  hard  stone,  of  a  naked  archer,  has  an  inscription  in 
Cypriote  letters  :  this  was  found  near  a  village  called  Salamiou, 
about  15  miles  from  Paphos  {Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.  i.  117). 
At  Tremitusa,  near  Golgoi,  was  found  a  stele  which,  though 
not  in  a  particularly  good  style  of  sculpture,  shows  some 
feeling.  It  appears  to  represent  two  young  men  at  the  grave 
of  their  mother,  who  holds  one  of  them  by  the  arm.  One 
votive  statue  is  of  a  poetess  playing  the  lyre  ;  among  statuettes 


268 


ANTIQUITIES  FROM  CYPRUS         chap,  xv 


a  flute-player  is  often  seen.  Cyprus,  we  may  remember,  was 
celebrated  as  "  the  island  made  glad  with  dances  "  (Claudian). 

It  will  not  escape  notice  that  among  the  sculptures  of  the 
later  period  many  archaic  figures  are  to  be  found — some  with 
the  fixed  "  ^Eginetan  "  smile,  others  in  the  old  stiff  attitudes. 
In  the  temples  of  Cyprus  every  shrine  seems  to  have  been 
filled  with  a  crowd  of  votive  statues,  and  in  statues  made  for 
this  purpose  the  traditional  pose,  the  archaic  manner,  were 
often  intentionally  preserved  in  much  later  times  in  accordance 
with  religious  tradition. 

Retracing  our  steps,  we  now  enter  the  first  of  the  series  of 
Galleries  containing  the  collection  of  vases. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


GREEK  VASES  INTRODUCTORY 

"  The  other  day  I  went  to  the  British  Museum.  The  Greek  sculpture 
and  vases  impressed  me  more  profoundly  than  ever  :  the  designs 
are  so  exquisite,  the  grace  so  unfailing,  the  touch  so  fine  that  I 
know  no  school  of  fine  art  equal  to  what  is  shown  here.  A 
hundred  nameless  potters  are  better  than  the  best  men  of  the 
Renaissance.  We  justly  praise  Flaxman,  but  Athens  or  Corinth 
had  each  a  whole  crowd  of  working  men,  who  probably  did  not 
reckon  as  artists  at  all,  to  rival  him"  (F.  T.  Palgrave's 
Journals). 

"A  feigned,  fictitious,  artificial,  supernatural,  put-together-out-of- 
one's-head  thing.  All  this  Fiction  must  be,  to  begin  with.  The 
best  type  of  it  being  the  most  practically  fictile — a  Greek  vase. 
A  thing  which  has  two  sides  to  be  seen,  two  handles  to  be  carried 
by,  and  a  bottom  to  stand  on,  and  a  top  to  be  poured  out  of,  this 
every  right  fiction  is,  whatever  else  it  may  be.  Planned  rigor- 
ously, rounded  smoothly,  balanced  symmetrically,  handled  handily, 
lipped  softly  for  pouring  out  oil  and  wine.  Painted  daintily  at 
last  with  images  of  eternal  things  :  £  For  ever  shalt  thou  love,  and 
she  be  fair  '  "  (Ruskin,  Fiction  Fair  and  Foul). 

The  collection  of  Greek  vases,  admirably  arranged  in  four 
spacious  rooms,  is  among  the  most  interesting  departments 
of  the  British  Museum.  Though  weak  in  some  directions, 
especially  in  Etruscan  vases,  the  collection  is  on  the  whole  the 
most  completely  representative  in  the  world.  The  study  of 
such  a  collection  affords  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  interest, 
which  is  by  no  means  to  be  confined  to  the  scholar  and  the 
archaeologist.1  This  pottery  of  the  Greeks  appeals  from  many 
points  of  view  to  popular  interest.  Yet  a  visitor,  previously 
unacquainted  with  the  subject,  who  should  content  himself 

1  Vases  have  also  a  scientific  interest  in  connection  with  terrestrial 
magnetism.  See  a  reference  in  Nature  (March  4,  1897)  to  Dr.  G. 
Folgheraiter's  observations  on  the  magnetisation  of  ancient  vases. 

269 


270 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  chap. 


with  a  hasty  and  superficial  inspection  of  the  Vase  Rooms, 
would  probably  think  that  such  an  enthusiastic  appreciation 
as  is  contained  in  the  passage  from  Palgrave's  Journals  was 
exaggerated,  if  not  altogether  unintelligible.  "  The  prize  Dead 
Greece  vouchsafes  to  living  eyes "  is  not  to  be  had  without 
some  effort.  The  craftsmen  who  shaped  and  painted  these 
vases  had  a  language  of  their  own,  with  conventions  and 
abbreviations  and  limitations  which  the  spectator  must  learn  to 
understand  before  he  can  read  the  pictures  with  sympathetic 
pleasure.  At  first  sight  these  slight  and  often  careless  outlines 
may  appear  hardly  worthy  of  attention.  We  must  bear  in 
mind,  as  Sir  Charles  Newton  bids  us,  "  the  peculiar  conditions 
under  which  the  vase-painter  worked  :  the  surface  on  which 
he  had  to  paint  was  generally  either  convex  or  concave,  rarely 
flat ;  he  was  limited  to  the  employment  of  very  few  colours  ; 
his  composition  was  bounded  by  the  form  of  the  vase  itself ; 
the  material  with  which  he  had  to  deal  was  not  adequate  to 
the  proper  representation  of  chiaroscuro.5'  Again,  the  vase- 
painters,  even  in  the  periods  and  schools  of  greatest  skill,  used 
a  kind  of  graphic  shorthand.  Do  they  want  to  tell  us  that  we 
are  looking  at  a  building  ?  They  give  us  only  a  single  column. 
We  have  to  supply  the  rest.  Or,  we  see  a  branch.  It  serves 
as  the  notice  in  a  child's  drawing,  "  N.B.  This  is  out-of-doors." 
Even  in  the  figures  we  have,  in  the  earlier  vases,  to  interpret 
them  by  remembering  certain  fixed  conventions.  If  the  flesh 
be  wThite,  it  is  a  woman  ;  if  black,  a  man.  Women  are  given 
almond-shaped  eyes  ;  men  have  round  pupils.  The  similarity 
of  the  dress  of  men  and  women  made  some  such  method  of 
drawing  distinctions  the  more  necessary.  Quarrel  with  these 
conventions,  refuse  to  accept  them  in  the  spirit  in  which  they 
are  meant,  and  to  the  end  of  the  story  nothing  will  be  seen  in 
the  vases  but  quaintness  and  absurdity.  Quaint  indeed  they 
are,  but  with  a  captivating  quaintness.  Once  accept  the 
conventions  and  limitations,  and  the  more  the  vases  are  studied, 
the  fuller  they  will  seem  of  interest. 

In  the  first  place,  they  are  interesting  from  an  artistic  point 
of  view.  In  design  and  fabric  the  better  vases  show  a  happy 
adaptation  to  the  end  for  which  they  were  severally  made. 
The  shapes  of  the  vases — especially  of  the  amphora,  the 
hydria,  the  kylix,  and  the  lekythos — are  in  themselves  exceed- 
ingly graceful  and  have  been  widely  imitated  for  purposes  of 
use  or  ornament  in  all  succeeding  ages.    The  Greeks,  says 


xvi  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  271 


Ruskin,  "  determined  the  methods  of  art,  and  laws  of  ideal 
beauty,  for  all  generations  ;  so  that,  in  their  central  code,  they 
cannot  be  added  to,  nor  diminished  from.  From  the  meanest 
earthen  vessel  to  the  statue  of  the  ruler  of  Olympus,  the  flat  of 
the  Greek  artist  is  final ;  no  poor  man's  water-pitcher  can  be 
shaped  wisely  otherwise  than  he  bids  ;  and  the  utmost  raptures 
of  imagination  in  the  Christian  labour  of  Giotto  and  Angelico 
are  inflamed  by  his  virtue,  and  restrained  by  his  discretion  " 
(Bibliotheca  Pastoram,  i.  p.  xxiv.). 

The  designs  on  the  vases  are  of  special  interest ;  as  few 
other  monuments  of  Greek  painting  have  survived,  they  re- 
present this  branch  of  Greek  art.  Sometimes  the  vase-painter 
gives  us  a  reminiscence,  if  not  a  copy,  of  a  picture  by  some 
famous  painter.  But  more  often  the  painted  vases  show  the 
free  fancy  of  the  craftsmen  who  made  them.  We  know  from 
inscriptions  on  the  vases  that  sometimes  the  same  man  moulded 
the  vase  and  then  decorated  it ;  more  often,  in  the  best  time, 
the  potter  and  the  painter  were  separate.  Particular  painters 
seem  to  have  worked  for  particular  potters.  The  names  of  a 
large  number  of  these  craftsmen  have  been  preserved  on  the 
inscriptions,  and  students  have  been  busy  during  recent  years 
in  attempting  to  arrange,  classify,  and  date  the  various 
painters.  These  artists  in  vases  were,  we  may  suppose,  of  a 
comparatively  humble  order.  The  designs  on  the  best  vases 
are,  however,  of  singular  beauty,  and  for  decorative  charm 
have  seldom  been  surpassed.  Arts  and  crafts  in  those  old 
days  were  not  divided  ;  the  men  who  produced  even  house- 
hold pottery  were  true  artists,  and  in  the  humblest  works  of 
Greek  handicraft  we  often  find  the  spirit  of  the  grand  style. 

The  subjects  represented  on  the  vase-paintings  are  also  of 
great  interest.  They  are  mostly  mythical,  and  no  doubt,  as  Dr. 
Murray  has  said,  "  the  ancient  Greeks  themselves,  for  whom 
the  vases  were  in  the  first  instance  produced,  found  even  more 
charm  in  the  myths  and  legends  on  the  vases  than  in  the 
artistic  merit  of  the  representation.  As  in  the  contemporary 
literature,  so  also  in  the  vases,  we  see  the  subjects  which 
appealed  most  to  the  average  mind  of  the  Greeks."  The 
pictures  of  gods  and  heroes  on  Greek  vases  "possessed  a 
sacredness  of  meaning  for  the  common  people  that  can  find  its 
parallel  only  in  the  portraits  of  the  Madonna  and  Christ  in  the 
early  Renaissance.  The  painted  vases  were  not  so  costly  but 
that  the  humblest  rustic  could  obtain  them,  and  while  they 


272  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  chap. 


served  a  practical  purpose  in  the  house,  they  were  also  a  sort 
of  illuminated  Bible.  The  members  of  the  family  were  duly 
reminded,  as  they  gazed  upon  a  Gigantomachy  painted  on  a 
drinking-cup  or  amphora,  that  Zeus  and  right  were  on  the 
throne,  and  that  the  haughty  giants,  powers  of  darkness  and 
evil,  had  been  crushed"  (J.  H.  Huddilston,  Lessons  from 
Greek  Pottery,  p.  2 1 ).  A  study  of  Greek  vases  is,  therefore, 
indispensable  to  an  understanding  of  Greek  religion  and 
legend.  This  is  another  branch  of  the  study  which  now 
receives  much  attention.  To  classical  scholars  it  is  very 
interesting  to  compare  the  treatment  of  various  myths  on  vases 
and  in  literature  respectively ;  to  note  how  far  the  former 
illustrate  the  latter ;  and  to  discover  the  common  basis  of 
popular  tradition  or  belief  underlying  both. 

But  not  all  the  vase-paintings  are  mythological.  There 
are  many  which  seem  to  be  simply  scenes  from  daily  life. 
Thus  we  find  many  subjects  relating  to  the  chase,  the  public 
games,  or  to  the  indoor  occupations  of  women,  which  cannot  be 
connected  with  any  known  myth.  These  representations  of  the 
actual  life  of  the  Greeks 1  have  a  special  interest  as  evidence 
of  their  manners  and  customs.  We  learn  from  vases  many 
curious  particulars  in  reference  to  the  Hellenic  ritual,  games, 
festivities,  and  domestic  life  ;  and  we  have  representations  of 
many  products,  instruments,  and  technical  processes  of  the 
mechanical  arts.  These  details  may  be  studied  not  only  in 
the  vase-pictures  which  seem  to  represent  scenes  of  real  life, 
but  also  in  those  which  are  certainly  mythical :  because  in 
Greek  art,  as  in  the  Greek  poetry,  the  gods  and  heroes  are 
constantly  represented  in  the  figures  and  attire  of  mortals,  and 
in  the  legends  relating  to  them  many  incidents  and  traits  are 
borrowed  from  real  life  (Newton's  Guide  to  the  First  Vase  Room, 
1867,  p.  5). 

The  ^Ethiop  gods  have  ^thiop  lips, 

Brown  cheeks  and  woolly  hair. 
The  Grecian  gods  are  like  the  Greeks, 

As  keen-eyed,  cold,  and  fair. 

1  Professor  Huddilston's  little  book  entitled  Lessons  from  Greek  Pottery 
(Macmillan)  is  a  pleasant  introduction  to  the  study  of  Greek  vases  from 
this  point  of  view.  Miss  Susan  Horner's  Greek  Vases  (Sonnenschein), 
while  not  ignoring  this  line  of  interest,  is  especially  copious  in  popular 
explanations  of  Greek  mythology  as  illustrated  in  the  vases  of  the  British 
Museum  and  the  Louvre.  Greek  Vase  Paintings,  by  J.  E.  Harrison  and 
D.  S.  MacColl  (Fisher  Unwin),  is  a  larger  and  more  costly  book,  well 
illustrated  and  suggestively  annotated. 


XVI 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY 


273 


A  study  of  Greek  vases  is  thus  an  accompaniment  to  a  study  of 
Greek  literature.  "  The  records  of  the  Human  Past  is  not  all 
contained  in  Printed  Books."  Nothing  is  better  calculated 
than  a  visit  to  a  collection  of  Greek  vases  to  remind  us  that 
classical  literature  is  not  a  mere  dead  thing.  Its  stories,  its 
traditions,  its  spirit,  were  part  of  the  very  being  of  a  people 
who  were  intensely  alive.  The  art,  the  poetry,  the  religion  of 
the  Greek  lived  for  him  on  the  jug  which  the  maids  filled  with 
water  at  the  fountain,  in  the  bowl  with  which  he  mixed  the 
water  with  his  wine,  the  cup  from  which  he  drank  at  table, 
the  flask  which  held  his  oil,  the  box  of  ointment  which  stood 
on  his  wife's  toilet  table. 

The  evolution  of  the  art  of  vase-painting  offers  another 
point  of  view  from  which  a  collection  of  vases  may  be  studied 
with  interest.  In  tracing  and  fixing  the  succession  of  different 
styles  and  fabrics,  archaeologists  have  thrown  some  light  on 
dark  ages.  Indeed,  as  Professor  Huddilston  says,  "  potsherds 
form  the  basis  of  practically  all  theories  bearing  upon  the  move- 
ments of  the  Greek  peoples  before  the  dawn  of  historic  times  ; 
and  for  the  thousand  years  and  more  before  Greek  historians 
break  the  silence,  the  student  must  weigh  and  examine  the  evi- 
dence of  the  vase  fragments,  and  learn  to  read  their  message." 

The  foregoing  remarks  may  give  some  idea  of  the  amount 
and  variety  of  interest  to  be  found  in  the  Vase  Rooms  of  the 
British  Museum.  The  number  of  specimens  is  very  large, 
amounting  to  4000.  The  student  and  specialist  will  desire  to 
consult  the  elaborate  and  costly  Catalogue  of  Vases  issued 
by  the  authorities  of  the  Museum  (vol.  ii.  by  H.  B.  Walters, 
24s.  ;  vol.  iii.  by  Cecil  H.  Smith,  26s.  ;  vol.  iv.  by  H.  B. 
Walters,  1 6s.  ;  vol.  i.  in  preparation.  Copies  may  be  borrowed 
from  the  attendant  in  charge).  In  the  following  pages  an 
endeavour  is  made  to  notice  the  more  famous  vases  which 
appear  to  be  of  peculiar  significance  or  beauty,  and  from  the 
rest  to  select  such  as  may  serve  to  illustrate  as  many  and  as 
various  points  of  interest  as  possible.  Before  proceeding, 
however,  to  examine  the  Vase  Rooms  in  detail,  there  are  still 
a  few  general  remarks  which  may  be  serviceable. 

Where  do  the  vases  come  from  ?  And  for  what  were  they 
used  ?  The  first  painted  vases  to  attract  the  attention  of 
scholars  were  found  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  in 
Italy,  within  the  borders  of  the  ancient  Etruria,  and  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  vases  discovered  in  subsequent  excava- 

T 


274 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  chap. 


tions  have  come  from  the  same  region.  Hence  for  a  long  time 
they  were  all  known  as  "  Etruscan  Vases  " — an  inaccurate  de- 
scription which  still  lingers  here  and  there.  Their  Greek  origin, 
first  discovered  by  the  great  Winckelmann,  is  now  firmly 
established.  There  are  indeed  Etruscan  vases,  but  the  great 
mass  of  these  painted  vases  were  of  Greek  origin.  They  have 
been  found  for  the  most  part  in  Italy,  but  also  in  large  numbers 
at  Athens,  Corinth,  in  the  Greek  islands,  in  the  Greek  settle- 
ments in  Africa,  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus. 
To  a  large  extent  they  were  made  in  Greece  and  exported,  but 
in  many  cases  they  were  made  on  the  spot  by  Greek  craftsmen 
in  the  various  colonies  and  settlements.  As  good  luck  will 
have  it,  a  fragment  of  a  painted  plate  has  come  down  to  us 
(now  in  the  Berlin  Museum),  which  shows  a  Greek  ship  laden 
with  vases  for  export. 

For  what  purposes  were  the  vases  used?  Those  that 
adorn  the  collections  and  museums  of  Europe  have  for  the 
most  part  been  found  in  tombs.  Many  of  the  vases  were  used, 
as  we  can  see  from  paintings  on  them  {e.g.  D  76,  p.  369),  in 
connection  with  the  actual  rites  and  ceremonies  of  burial ;  such 
vases  would  afterwards  be  themselves  buried  in  the  tomb,  or 
be  broken.  Other  vases  were  included  among  the  objects 
which  the  deceased  person  had  used  or  loved  in  his  lifetime  : — 

Here  bring  the  last  gifts  !  and  with  these 
The  last  lament  be  said  — 

Let  all  that  pleased,  and  yet  may  please, 
Be  buried  with  the  dead. 

Vases  were  placed  in  the  dead  man's  grave  to  solace  him 
in  the  under-world  : — 

u  It  seems  to  have  been  the  invariable  custom  in  those  ancient 
times  to  bury  earthen  vases  with  the  deceased,  containing,  doubtless, 
drink  and  food,  of  which  it  was  supposed  that  they  would  stand  in  need. 
It  may  be  observed  that  a  custom  presenting  some  analogy  to  the 
above,  and  probably  derived  from  heathen  times,  still  exists  in  this 
island  (Cyprus),  both  among  Christians  and  Mussulmans,  a  custom  which 
renders  it  incumbent  on  the  nearest  of  kin  to  provide  doles  of  food  for 
the  poor  for  a  period  of  forty  days  on  the  occasion  of  a  death.  The 
breach  of  this  custom  is  regarded  as  betraying  a  want  of  respect  for  the 
deceased,  and  its  observance  as  more  binding  than  the  natural  duty  of 
providing  for  the  wants  of  the  widow  and  the  orphan  children.  The  name 
by  which  this  offering  is  called  is  '  Food  for  the  Dead,'  and  may  well  be 
a  relic  of  the  old  custom  "  1  (T.  B.  Sand  with  in  Archaologia,  xlv.  127). 


1  See  also  for  this  custom  R.  H.  Lang's  Cyprus,  p.  345. 


xvi  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  275 


Secondly,  painted  vases  were  used,  as  we  know  from  other 
paintings  {e.g.  B  3,  p.  338),  in  connection  with  what  we  should 
call  church  ritual.  Several  of  the  fragments  or  specimens  in 
this  collection  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  temples. 
Thirdly,  and  principally,  the  vases  deposited  in  tombs  and 
thus  preserved  to  us  were  the  counterpart  of  utensils  used  in 
houses  for  various  purposes  of  daily  life.  Here,  again,  the 
vases  themselves  give  us  the  evidence  of  the  purposes  to  which 
they  were  put.  As  we  go  round  the  rooms,  we  shall  find 
illustrations  on  the  vases  themselves  of  their  use  as  ornaments 
or  utensils  in  the  daily  life  of  the  Greeks. 

This  consideration  brings  us  to  the  shapes  of  vases. 
These  are  very  numerous.     Only  by  carefully  studying  the 


PITHOS.  STAMNOS.  AMPHORA. 


museum  shelves  can  one  obtain  any  adequate  idea  of  the 
inventiveness  of  the  Greek  potters  in  this  respect.  But  it 
may  be  well,  as  a  preliminary  to  such  examination,  to 
enumerate  here  some  of  the  more  common  shapes.  We  may 
divide  them  under  six  heads,  according  as  they  were  used  for 
(1)  storing,  (2)  drawing,  (3)  pouring,  (4)  mixing,  (5)  drinking, 
and  (6)  for  the  toilet.  We  will  notice  a  few  of  the  principal 
shapes  in  each  of  these  classes. 

Of  vases  used  for  storing,  the  largest  was  the  pithos,  or 
cask.  This  was  used  for  holding  stores,  and  when  placed  in 
a  cellar  was  sunk  in  the  earth.  It  is  in  a  cask  of  this  kind 
that  King  Eurystheus  is  shown  on  many  vase-paintings  as 
taking  refuge  from  Heracles  and  the  boar.  The  stamnos,  a 
small  high-shouldered  jar,  is  still  in  common  use  in  Greece  for 
storing  wine  or  oil.     But  the  vase  of  this  class  with  which  we 


276  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  chap. 


shall  become  most  familiar  is  the  amphora.  It  is  made  in 
many  varieties  of  shape  and  size,  but  certain  relations  of  shape 
to  use  are  fixed.  The  body  of  the  storing  vessel  is  large,  and 
was  always  egg-shaped  ;  the  neck  narrows  in  to  exclude  the 
air,  and  there  were  always  two  handles  for  convenience  in 
lifting.  The  size  of  the  amphora  varied  from  the  small  sort 
used  in  the  household  for  storing  wine  to  the  larger  and 
richly-painted  specimens  which  were  instruments  of  display. 

Of  vessels  used  for  drawing,  the  most  common  was  the 
hydria,  or  water-jar.     It  had  three  handles.     Two,  like  elbows, 


are  attached  to  the  sides  for  carrying  it  when  full ;  the  third, 
at  the  back,  rises  above  the  mouth,  and  would  be  used  for 
pouring  out  or  tilting  at  the  well.  Groups  of  women  carrying 
hydrias  are  frequently  painted  on 
the  vases  (see  p.  346).  The  calpis 
is  a  later  modification  of  the 
hydria,  in  which  the  outline 
sweeps  in  a  single  curve  from  the 
lip  to  the  foot  of  the  vase.  The 
kyathos  was  a  large  ladle  with  a 
long  handle  used  to  draw  wine  out 
from  a  larger  vase. 

Of  vessels  used  for  pouring, 
the  commonest  is  the  oinochoe, 
or  wine-jug,  whose  shape  still  sur- 
vives in  that  of  our  own  claret 
decanters.  The  single  handle 
which  adorns  the  back  is  delicate  and  is  gracefully  curved. 
The  edges  of  the  mouth  are  bent  inwards  at  three  places,  and 


OINOCHOE. 


LEKYTHOS. 


xvi  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  277 


thus  outline  a  trefoil.    The  neck  is  fairly  large  and  open,  to 
allow  the  liquid  to  flow  freely.    The  other  pourer,  the  lekythos, 
being  used  for  oil,  is  very  narrow  in  the  neck,  and  is  more  like 
y     a  cruet. 

The  vessels  used  for  mixing  are  craters.  These  are  of 
various  shapes.  In  the  earlier  fabrics,  the  oxybaphon  (or  bell- 
shaped  crater)  is  the  commonest ;  in  the  later  fabrics  of  Italy, 
the  tall  crater  with  volute  handles  is  usual.  Wine,  it  should 
be  remembered,  was  seldom  drunk  in  Greece  except  mixed 
with  water.  "  Drunkenness/'  says  Mr.  MahafTy,  u  was  about 
as  common  and  as  reprehended  as  it  now  is  ;  but  it  is  indeed 
a  difficult  problem  to  explain  how  the  Greeks  managed  to  get 
drunk  on  the  very  weak  mixture  they  drank.    Three  parts  of 


"bell"  crater.  crater. 


water  to  two  of  wine  was  the  usual  proportion,  four  to  three 
was  thought  strong,  equal  parts  '  made  them  mad,5  as  one  of 
the  comic  fragments  asserts.  I  am  unable  to  discover  whether 
their  wines  were  stronger,  or  their  heads  weaker,  than  ours ,J 
(Social  Life  in  Greece,  p.  298).  The  crater  held  the  mixture 
of  wine  and  water.  It  was  made  with  a  wide  mouth,  so  that 
smaller  vessels  might  be  dipped  into  it  and  filled  with  the 
mixture. 

The  commonest  form  of  drinking-vessel — the  kylix — is 
less  practical  according  to  modern  standards.  It  is  flat  and 
shallow — very  unlike  our  wine-glasses  ;  but  the  Greeks  did 
not  sip  wine  neat,  they  drank  freely  of  wine  and  water.  The 
wide  mouth  was  intended  probably  to  spread  the  aroma  of  the 
wine.  The  shape  of  the  kylix  is  very  graceful,  and  has  been 
adopted  in  all  ages  for  ornamental  vases.  Often,  too,  a  form 
of  mulled  wine  was  used,  and  the  wide  kylix  served  to  cool  it. 
It  was,  as  we  shall  see,  the  favourite  shape  in  the  best  period 


278 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY 


CHAP. 


of  vase-painting,  and  was  beautifully  decorated  both  inside  and 
out  :  such  specimens  may  have  been  used  as  the  "loving  cup;; 
to  be  passed  round  to  guests  at  a  banquet.  The  cantharos 
and  cotyle  were  other  drinking-cups  ;  these  were  narrower 
and  gave  longer  draughts.  It  is  to  the  cantharos  that  Ruskin 
awards  the  palm  for  gracefulness.  "  There  is  a  sketch  for 
you,"  he  said  in  one  of  his  Oxford  lectures,  "of  the  cup  of 
cups,  the  pure  Greek  Kavdapos,  which  is  always  in  the  hand  of 
Dionysus,  as  the  thunderbolt  is  in  that  of  Zeus.  Learn  but  to 
draw  that  thoroughly,  and  you  won't  have  much  more  to  learn 
of  abstract  form/'5    But  do  not  fancy,  he  added,  that  a  Greek 


workman  ever  made  a  vase  by  measurement.  "  He  dashed  it 
from  his  hand  on  the  wheel,  and  it  was  beautiful"  (The 
Eagles  Xest,  §  139).  The  rhyton  was  a  cup  copied  from  a 
drinking-horn,  and  was  usually  made  to  terminate  in  the  head 
of  an  animal. 

Of  toilet  vases  the  commonest  is  the  alabastron,  or  scent- 
bottle — a  vase  used  for  precious  ointments  and  perfumes. 
The  aryballos  had  a  round  body  with  a  wide  flat  rim  ;  it  was 
used  for  rubbing  in  oil  after  the  bath.  The  pyxis  was  a 
casket  for  jewels  or  pins  ;  in  a  pyxis  discovered  at  Athens  were 
found  pastilles  of  paint. 

Of  other  vases,  a  few  only  can  be  mentioned  here.  The 
situla  was  a  pail,  in  which  the  new  wine  was  allowed  to  settle 
and  separate  from  the  lees.     It  resembles  the  ice-pail  of 


xvi  GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  279 


modern  use.  The  lebes  was  primarily  a  cooking  vessel,  but 
it  was  also  used  for  decorative  purposes  (see  E  774,  p.  378). 
It  was  made  with,  and  without,  a  stand.  The  askos  was  a  jar 
used  to  contain  oil  to  feed  lamps. 


ALABASTRON  ARYBALLOS.  LEBES. 


It  should  be  noted  that  such  classifications  as  these  have 
been  made  for  the  convenience  of  archaeologists.  The  fancy 
and  ingenuity  of  the  potters  was  perpetually  modifying  the  old 
shapes  and  inventing  new  ones,  and  the  Greek  writers  were 


LEBES.  ASKOS. 


no  more  precise  in  their  terminology  than  we  are  when  we 
speak  of  "jugs,"  "cups,"  and  "dishes"  to  describe  vessels  of 
very  various  shapes  and  kinds.  It  is  curious  to  note  that  par- 
ticular shapes  appear  to  have  been  in  particular  favour  at 
particular  periods. 

With  regard,  lastly,  to  the  immediate  provenance  of  the 
vases  in  the  British  Museum,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  nucleus 
of  the  collection  was  the  famous  cabinet  brought  together  by 
Sir  William  Hamilton  while  acting  as  British  envoy  at  Naples. 
This  was  purchased  for  the  nation  in  1772.    The  Townley, 


28o 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY  chap. 


Elgin,  and  Payne  Knight  collections  of  antiques  also  included 
many  Greek  vases.  These  were  for  the  most  part  the  result 
of  chance  excavations.  At  a  later  date  more  systematic 
researches  yielded  a  great  harvest.  In  the  early  part  of  1828 
some  oxen  were  ploughing  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Vulci,  when  the  ground  suddenly  gave  way  beneath  them,  and 
disclosed  an  Etruscan  tomb  with  two  broken  vases.  This  led 
to  further  research,  and  after  a  time  the  owner  of  the  land — 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  Prince  of  Canino  —  took  the  excavations 
into  his  own  hands  and  brought  to  light  thousands  of  vases 
and  other  objects.  Diggings  undertaken  on  other  properties 
were  equally  fruitful ;  the  landowners  enriched  themselves  and 
the  museums  of  Europe  with  treasures  from  these  sepulchral 
mines.  The  glories  of  the  ancient  art  of  vase-painting  which 
the  Prince  thus  brought  to  light  and  diffused  throughout 
Europe  have  made  the  name  of  Lucien  Bonaparte  as  well 
known,  and  will,  perhaps,  win  for  him  as  lasting  a  renown  as 
his  conduct  on  the  1 9th  Brumaire,  or  the  part  he  played  in  the 
councils  of  his  imperial  brother  (Dennis's  Cities  and  Cemeteries 
of  Etruria,  i.  448).  Many  of  the  Prince's  best  vases  were 
purchased  for  the  British  Museum.1  Among  other  sources  of 
the  collection  we  may  mention  the  excavations  of  Mr.  Burgon 
in  Greece  (p.  330),  of  Mr.  Dennis  in  Africa  (p.  398),  of  Messrs. 
Salzmann  and  Biliotti  in  Rhodes  (p.  361),  and  more  recently  of 
British  scholars  at  Naucratis  and  Cyprus  ;  and  lastly  the  pur- 
chases from  famous  collections,  such  as  the  Pourtales  (1865), 
the  Blacas  (1866),  the  Castellani  (1873),  an^  the  Branteghem 
(1892).  The  money  value  of  the  collections  at  prices  now 
ruling  in  the  auction  mart  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  a 
single  vase  bought  at  the  Forman  sale  in  1899  cost  £2°°- 

This  costly  vase  (Third  Room,  Pedestal  V.)  is  one  of  the 
finest  extant  specimens  of  the  vase-painter's  skill.  Its  fine 
drawing,  masterly  composition,  and  decorative  effect  present  a 
contrast,  at  once  piquant  and  instructive,  with  the  childlike 
crudities  of  earlier  styles.  One  of  the  most  interesting  points 
of  view  from  which  to  approach  Greek  vases  is  the  study  of 
the  stages  through  which  the  art  of  potter  and  painter  passed 
up  to  perfection,  and  then  down  to  excess  of  scale,  looseness 
of  drawing,  and  over-luxuriance  of  ornament.  The  admirable 
arrangement  of  the  vases  in  our  museum  is  in  itself  an  incen- 

1  The  Canino  "find"  is  catalogued  and  described  in  Archceologia, 
xxiii.  260, 


XVI 


GREEK  VASES— INTRODUCTORY 


281 


tive  to  such  study,  and  in  the  following  chapters  we  shall 
follow  the  historical  order,  starting  from  the  "  primitives " 
(Ch.  XVII.),  passing  through  the  "black-figure"  (Ch.  XVIII.), 
and  "  red-figure"  (Ch.  XIX.)  stages,  to  the  period  of  the 
decadence  (Ch.  XX.). 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 
{From  prehistoric  times  to  about  600  B.C.) 

i  1  Hath  not  the  potter  power  over  the  clay,  of  the  same  lump  to  make 
one  vessel  unto  honour,  and  another  unto  dishonour  ?  " 

It  is  a  strange  thing  that  works  made  of  the  potter's  clay,  which 
are  taken  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures  as  types  of  the  fragility  and 
mutability  of  human  life,  should  be  among  the  most  enduring 
monuments  of  antiquity.  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts, 
Even  so  will  I  break  this  people,  and  this  city,  as  one  breaketh 
a  potter's  vessel,  that  cannot  be  made  whole  again."  The 
vessels  collected  in  this  room  take  us  back  to  the  prehistoric 
times  of  Greece,  to  days  of  which  the  earliest  limit  cannot  yet 
be  fixed,  but  which  may  well  be  3500  years  ago.  These 
primitive  vases  are  rough  and  rude,  and  to  a  first  and  hasty, 
or  uninstructed,  glance  may  seem  of  little  interest  or  import- 
ance. But  in  the  hands  and  to  the  eyes  of  trained  archaeo- 
logists the  rudest  markings,  the  slightest  variations  in  shape 
and  design,  are  made  to  yield  their  significance.  Little 
certainty,  except  in  a  few  broad  divisions,  has  been  attained  ; 
yet  it  is  on  the  minute  examination  of  vases,  on  their  classifica- 
tion, on  the  interpretation  of  their  differences,  that  students 
base  their  principal  hope  of  reconstructing  some  idea  of  dim 
ages,  of  tracing  the  movements  of  peoples,  and  the  process  of 
civilisations,  and  of  forcing  prehistoric  times  into  some  historical 
relations.  These  inquiries  are  for  the  specialist,  though  some 
general  acquaintance  with  the  problems  involved  and  the 
solutions  attempted  will  add  not  a  little  to  the  enjoyment  even 
of  "  the  general  visitor."  But  to  those  of  us  who  are  not 
experts,  the  main  interest  in  a  collection  of  early  vases  is 
artistic  rather  than  historical.    The  evolution  of  art  is  always 

282 


chap,  xvir  THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


283 


an  attractive  study,  whatever  be  the  subject  matter.  Just  as 
in  a  collection  of  pictures  we  may  trace  the  progress  of  the 
painter's  skill  from  the  "  squint-eyed  saints  "  of  the  primitives 
to  the  glorious  beauty  of  a  Titian  or  a  Raphael,  so  in  the  case 
of  the  potter's  art  we  may,  in  the  British  Museum,  trace  back 
the  exquisite  grace  and  fitness  of  a  Meidias  or  a  Brygos  to  the 
rude  vessels  of  prehistoric  Greece  upon  which  the  maker  has 
incised  a  few  simple  lines.  This  is  a  point  of  view  from  which 
a  collection  of  primitive  vases  will  appeal  to  every  man  of 
intelligence  and  taste.  A  reader  who  is  paying  his  first  visit 
to  the  collection  would  do  well  to  begin  with  a  general  survey 
of  the  vases  of  the  best  period  (in  the  Second  and  Third  Vase 
Rooms)  ;  he  will  then  approach  the  primitives  with  a  livelier 
sense  of  the  beautiful  shapes  and  charming  designs  of  which 
they  held  the  promise  and  potency.  And  even  within  this 
First  Vase  Room  we  may  best  begin  by  a  contrast  between 
the  rude  and  the  delicate,  the  simple  and  the  elaborate.  In 
the  first  wall-case  are  some  of  the  earliest  vases  of  all.  There 
is  nothing  graceful  in  their  shapes,  and  the  only  ornament  is  an 
incised  line  or  a  scrawl.  In  the  last  wall-case  (on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  door)  there  is  a  little  vase,  numbered  A  1050  ;  it  is 
a  miracle  of  minuteness  and  elaborate  art.  We  have  now  in 
our  tour  of  the  room  to  trace  the  stages — during  a  period 
extending  from  prehistoric  times  to  about  600  B.C. — whereby 
Greek  vases  grew  to  beauty  and  daintiness. 

PREHISTORIC  POTTERY 

The  earliest  pottery  here  exhibited  (Wall- cases  1-4)  is 
of  a  very  primitive  kind.  It  was  made  by  hand.  The  only 
decoration  consists  of  incised  lines,  of  the  herring-bone  pattern 
or  criss-cross.  There  are  either  no  handles  (as  in  A  33)  or  the 
handles  are  of  an  elementary  kind.  The  pottery  in  all  these 
respects  closely  resembles  that  of  ancient  Britain  (as  may  be 
seen  in  the  Prehistoric  Saloon  of  the  Museum).  It  is  of  a 
kind  which  all  races  at  a  particular  stage  of  civilisation  affect ; 
thus  in  the  Ethnological  Gallery  very  similar  vessels  may  be 
seen  from  the  Fiji  islands.  The  Greek  pottery  of  this  kind  is 
known  as  "Prehistoric,"  "Pre-Mycenaean,"  or  "Hissarlik,"  from 
the  supposed  site  of  Troy,  where  Dr.  Schliemann's  excavations 
discovered  antiquities  of  this  very  early  period.  The  speci- 
mens here  before  us  were  for  the  most  part  found  by  Mr  J. 


284 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Theodore  Bent  in  Paros  and  Antiparos,  islands  of  the  Cyclades 
group.  With  them  were  found  rude  marble  figures,  and 
implements  of  obsidian.  "When,"  says  Mr.  Bent,  "  Cortes 
invaded  Mexico  he  found  the  barbers  of  the  Aztec  capital 
shaving  the  natives  with  razors  of  precisely  the  same  nature 
as  the  obsidian  flakes  I  found  at  Antiparos55  {J. U.S.  v.  42). 
The  rudest  representations  of  the  human  form  resemble  a 
violin  rather  than  a  man  or  a  woman  ;  in  others  there  is  some 
approach  to  naturalness  in  giving  roundness  to  calves  and 
limbs  ;  in  all  there  is  the  same  unnaturally  long  neck.  To 
what  age  do  these  antiquities  belong  ?  To  fix  any  actual  date 
is  impossible  ;  but  the  evidence  of  geology,  confirming  that  of 
archaeology,  here  comes  in  to  suggest  a  certain  limit.  Many 
of  Mr.  Bent5s  antiquities  were  rescued  from  ground  submerged 
by  the  sea.  Similar  antiquities  have  been  found  in  the  island 
of  Santorin  (the  ancient  Thera).  This  island  yields  a  volcanic 
rock  which,  mixed  with  lime,  makes  a  very  hard  cement.  It 
was  extensively  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal. 
In  the  course  of  excavations  for  this,  "a  prehistoric  Pompeii5' 
came  to  light.  Now  this  early  settlement  and  the  antiquities 
there  discovered  clearly  belonged  to  a  time  earlier  than  a  great 
earthquake,  which  at  some  remote  period  changed  the  island 
into  a  mass  of  pumice.  The  geological  experts  say  that  the 
time  must  have  been  before  the  sixteenth  century  B.C.  How 
much  earlier  than  that,  nobody  pretends  to  say  ;  but,  roughly 
speaking,  we  may  think  of  2000  B.C.  as  the  probable  date  of 
the  pottery  we  are  here  inspecting.  It  is  not  all  of  the  same 
period.  In  some  of  the  primitive  vases  from  Cyprus  (Cases  3 
and  4)  the  patterns  are  in  relief,  instead  of  being  incised  :  they 
must  have  been  moulded  in  the  moist  clay  before  baking.  In 
others  the  patterns  are  painted. 

MYCENAEAN  POTTERY 

The  next  stage  (Wall-cases  5-13,  and  Table-case  A)  shows 
a  further  and  a  remarkable  advance,  both  artistically  and 
technically.  The  vases  are  of  more  elegant  shapes,  and  are 
more  correctly  moulded ;  they  were  made  on  the  potter's 
wheel.  They  are  covered  with  a  creamy  "  slip 55  (a  coating  of 
pipeclay),  and  on  this  the  patterns  are  painted.  "  The  whole 
vase  is  finally  covered  with  a  transparent  glaze,  which  gives  it 
a  warm  tone.     That,55  says   Dr.   Murray,   "  was  a  brilliant 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


285 


invention,"  and  he  suggests  that  the  first  application  of  a  glaze 
and  of  colour  that  could  stand  fixing  had  been  learnt  from 
the  early  workers  in  glass  and  porcelain  {Handbook  of  Greek 
Archcsology,  p.  17  ;  and  see  below,  p.  299).  Not  less  remark- 
able is  the  advance  in  artistic  effect,  or  rather  the  first 
achievement  of  such  effect.  There  is  now  considerable 
freedom  in  drawing,  and  a  sense  of  decorative  design.  Note, 
for  instance,  the  cuttle-fish  design  on  the  vase  numbered  A  198. 
This  vase — a  kylix  on  a  tall  stem — is  of  a  shape  characteristic 
of  "  Mycenaean "  ware  ;  it  does  not  reappear  in  later  Greek 
pottery.  Another  common  shape  is  called  the  pseudamfthora 
(false  amphora)  ;  the  neck  of  the  vase  is  closed  by  the  potter, 
and  a  spout  is  provided  for  pouring  (see,  e.g.,  A  209,  212).  On 
a  large  vase  (A  223)  there  is  a  scale  pattern  which  makes  an 
admirable  decoration.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  border 
of  fishes  round  the  inner  rim  of  a  vase  from  Calymna  (A  305). 
Even  the  groups  of  parallel  lines  which  are  so  common  on 
these  vases  are  arranged  with  some  sense  for  effect.  Among 
the  more  remarkable  vases  we  may  notice  : — 

A  349  (in  Case  11).  — "  A  very  remarkable  Mycenaean  vase  from 
Erment,  Egypt,  acquired  in  1890  through  the  late  Rev.  G.  Chester, 
of  a  very  flat  shape,  the  sides  being  carved  over  to  the  mouth,  and 
there  is  practically  no  neck,  and  there  are  three  small  ear  handles. 
The  colour  of  the  clay  is  deep  greenish-yellow,  and  the  varnish  is  laid 
on  in  no  great  thickness.  The  decoration  consists  of  a  representation 
of  the  argonaut  or  paper  nautilus,  repeated  in  each  space  between  the 
handles,  while  all  the  remaining  surface  of  the  vase  is  filled  in  with 
seaweed  patterns"  {/.U.S.  xvii.  75). 

A  296  (in  12  and  13). — "A  vase  of  great  interest  and  artistic 
merit,  a  pseudamphora  from  Calymna,  with  figures  in  bright  red  on  a 
deep  buff  ground.  On  the  front  is  the  body  of  an  octopus,  mouth 
downwards,  from  which  extend  nine  tentacles,  of  which  eight  meet  in 
pairs  at  the  back  of  the  vase  ;  the  remaining  one  falls  vertically,  and 
ends  in  a  leaf-shaped  sucker.  The  other  tentacles  end  in  spirals,  and 
each  pair  is  united  by  an  oval  radiated  object,  the  meaning  of  which 
is  not  quite  clear.  Between  the  tentacles  is  a  curious  sort  of  webbing 
formed  of  striated  bands,  which  are  interlaced  and  hold  the  tentacles 
together  for  about  a  third  of  their  total  length.  In  the  field  of  the  vase, 
and  between  the  tentacles,  are  various  animals"  {J.H.S.  xvii.  75). 

What  is  the  history  of  this  class  of  pottery  ?  It  is  called 
"  Mycenaean."  The  specimens  first  acquired  for  the  British 
Museum  came  from  Ialysus  in  Rhodes,  being  the  first  of 
excavations  carried  on  there  in    1868,  and    presented  in 


286 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


1870-72  by  Mr.  Ruskin.  For  some  time  they  attracted  no 
particular  attention,  until  Dr.  Schliemann's  discoveries  at 
Mycenae  unearthed  pottery  identical  with  that  found  in  the 
tombs  of  Ialysus  : — 

"In  digging  the  strata  of  soil  above  the  tombs,  Dr.  Schliemann 
found  not  only  potsherds,  such  as  earlier  travellers  had  remarked  on 
the  surface,  but  whole  vases,  and  in  the  tombs  themselves  were  broken 
vases.  One  of  the  most  frequently  recurring  types  is  .  .  .  (the  pseud- 
amphora  described  above).  This  type  is  so  peculiar  that  its  recurrence 
in  various  localities  could  not  have  been  due  to  any  chance  coincidence. 
.  .  .  In  the  Ialysian  vases  we  are  still  more  reminded  of  Mycenaean 
art.  The  cuttle-fish,  so  favourite  a  symbol  with  the  goldsmiths  of 
Mycenae,  recurs  on  several  of  the  fictile  cups  from  Ialysus.  We  have, 
too,  the  same  friezes  of  dolphins  or  lions  encircling  the  body  of  the 
vases  in  both  cases.  The  combination  of  spirals,  such  as  are  found  on 
the  gold  breastplates,  constantly  recurs  ;  and  when  we  compare  the 
fragments  of  pottery  from  Mycenae  with  the  vases  from  Ialysus,  the 
identity,  not  only  in  the  peculiar  ornaments,  but  in  the  fabric,  is  so 
complete  that  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  the  vases  of  both 
places,  if  not  the  actual  products  of  the  same  school  of  fictile  art,  were 
made  about  the  same  period,  and  derived  their  ornaments  from  the 
same  source  "  (Newton's  Essays  on  Archeology ',  p.  284). 

The  visitor  to  the  Museum  may  verify  these  resemblances 
by  looking,  in  the  Gem  Room  (Ch.  XXV.),  at  the  gold  orna- 
ments of  Mycenaean  style  found  in  Cyprus  ;  for  Mycenaean 
products  have  in  recent  years  been  found  in  that  island,  in 
Crete,  Calymnus,  Caria,  and  many  other  places.  These  dis- 
coveries have  clearly  proved  the  existence  of  a  widely-spread 
civilisation,  anterior  to  that  of  which  we  have  a  record  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  and  which  may  be  roughly  ascribed  to  the 
second  millennium  before  Christ  (2000-1000).  The  origin  of 
this  civilisation,  the  nature  of  the  race  or  races  among  whom 
it  prevailed,  are  among  the  unsolved,  and  at  the  present  time 
the  most  vexed,  questions  of  archaeology.  It  used  to  be  the 
fashion  to  trace  the  art  of  the  Mycenaean  period  to  foreign 
influences — Phoenician,  Assyrian,  or  Egyptian  ;  the  tendency 
of  more  recent  speculation  is  to  assign  to  it  an  indigenous 
origin.1 

1  The  theory  of  Professor  Ridgeway,  as  expounded  in  his  Early  Age  of 
Greece  (1901),  is  that  the  people  who  developed  the  Mycenaean  culture 
were  the  Pelasgians.  The  Homeric  heroes  were  Achaean  conquerors — 
a  tall  and  fair-haired  race,  identified  with  the  Celts — who  entered  into  the 
inheritance  of  their  "  Mycenaean  "  predecessors. 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


287 


Other  "  Mycenaean "  antiquities,  found  with  the  pottery 
already  described  in  Rhodes,  are  exhibited  in  Table-case  A. 
Among  them  are  various  objects  in  bronze — spear- heads, 
arrow-heads,  and  knives.  A  remarkable  knife  with  rivets  on 
the  handle  comes  from  ^Egina  (No.  47  in  the  Museum  Cata- 
logue of  Bronzes).  Another  knife  (No.  43  in  the  same)  comes 
from  Suria,  or  Saria,  an  island  north  of  Karpathos,  supposed 
to  be  the  ancient  Nisyros.  These  knives  are  of  a  common 
bronze -age  type  ;  so  also  is  the  chisel,  as  may  be  seen  from 
specimens  in  the  Prehistoric  Saloon.  At  the  two  ends  of  the 
case  are  some  interesting  ornaments,  including  rosettes  of 
opaque  glass  (identical  with  the  Homeric  kvclvos).  "  These 
glass  rosettes  are  pierced  so  as  to  have  been  stitched  on  to 
dresses,  probably  to  form  borders,  much  as  we  see  so  frequently 
in  the  costumes  on  Assyrian  sculpture  of  the  seventh  century 
B.C."  (Murray's  Archceology,  p.  27). 

MYCEN/EAN  ANTIQUITIES  FROM  ENKOMI, 
CYPRUS 

In  two  large  cases  are  exhibited  various  antiquities  ex- 
cavated in  1896  at  Enkomi,  Cyprus,  by  Dr.  A.  S.  Murray,  the 
cost  being  defrayed  out  of  a  bequest  to  the  Museum  by  Miss 
E.  T.  Turner.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  island,  to  the 
north  of  Famagusta,  lie  the  ruins  of  Salamis — a  city  associated 
with  the  early  Greek  colonisation  of  Cyprus,  for  Salamis  was 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Teucer,  the  brother  of 
Ajax,  and  named  after  his  native  island.  Below  the  ruins  of 
Salamis  no  earlier  remains  have  been  found,  but  a  little  inland, 
near  the  modern  village  of  Enkomi,  several  underground 
tombs  were  discovered,  of  construction  peculiar  to  the 
Mycenaean  age.   The  discovery  was  due  to  a  happy  accident : — 

"  The  fields,  beneath  which  they  lay,  disclosed  no  sign  whatever 
of  ancient  civilisation.  An  ox  one  day  in  ploughing  put  its  foot  into  a 
hole,  which  the  ploughman  on  his  return  found  to  lead  on  to  a  fine 
tomb  of  the  Mycenaean  period.  Further  investigation  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  about  a  hundred  tombs,  all  of  the  Mycenaean  age,  perhaps 
the  burying-ground  of  the  original  Greek  settlers "  (from  a  report  of 
a  paper  read  by  Dr.  Murray  before  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects.  A  full  account  of  the  excavations,  with  maps,  plans,  and 
illustrations  of  all  the  more  interesting  objects,  has  been  sumptuously 
published  by  the  trustees  of  the  Museum,  under  the  title  Excavations 
in  Cyprus,  1900). 


288 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  pottery  and  various  other  objects  are  here  before  us. 
The  gold  and  ivory  and  jewellery,  which  are  more  wonderful, 
are  exhibited  in  the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  (Ch.  xxv.). 
The  diggings  were  fortunate,  but  there  is  always  something  01 
bitter  in  the  excavator's  lot.  "  At  Salamis  in  Cyprus,"  says 
one  explorer,  "  the  sand,  which  ever  slips  down  into  your 
trenches,  is  alive  with  sandflies  and  fleas.  The  sun  scorches, 
and  the  rain  beats,  and  you  must  endure  them  both,  for  you 
can  never  safely  leave  your  workmen  to  dig  alone  ;  and,  for 
all  your  vigilance,  they  will  mar  and  break,  and  withal  they 
will  steal.  In  Cyprus,  where  tombs  are  wet,  the  workmen, 
turning  over  with  their  knives  the  mud  or  that  unpleasant 
soapy  earth  which  results  from  human  decomposition,  would 
wipe  their  blades  every  now  and  then  on  the  soft  walls  ;  and 
at  night  creep  back  to  the  scene  of  the  day's  labour  and  away 
again  with  a  gem  or  a  ring  that  had  remained  in  the  lump 
scraped  off."  But  there  is  something  that  stings  worse  than  any 
insect :  it  is  the  sense  of  "  what  might  have  been."  "  Perish 
those,"  says  the  man  of  letters,  "  who  said  our  good  things 
before  us."  "A  plague  on  those,"  cry  the  archaeologists, 
"  who  have  been  before  us  in  taking  good  things  away  !  V  In 
exploring  at  Enkomi,  Dr.  Murray  found  evidence  that  in  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century  of  our  era  wicked  men  had  sunk 
wells  and  ransacked  the  tombs.  "  They  may  not  have  been  the 
first,  as  they  certainly  were  not  the  last ;  and  fortunate  as  we 
were,  they,"  he  laments,  "may  have  been  more  so."  "Cyprus 
has  been  mined  for  treasure,"  says  Mr.  Hogarth,  "ever  since 
Christianity  prevailed  sufficiently  to  destroy  fear  of  the  old 
gods  and  of  the  dead.  When  digging  at  Paphos,  we  found 
that  a  labyrinth  of  passages  had  been  cut  from  tomb  to  tomb 
by  early  robbers,  working  underground  for  weeks  or  months, 
but  plundering  in  such  haste  or  such  obscurity  that  their  leav- 
ings were  well  worth  raking  over  again  ;  and  recent  excavators 
for  the  British  Museum  say  that  they  seldom  (if  ever)  opened 
a  virgin  tomb.  If  so  much  has  remained,  nevertheless,  both 
for  ourselves  and  for  them,  and  to  form  also  that  wonderful 
Cesnola  collection  at  New  York,  what  must  not  the  wealth  of 
the  Cyprian  sepulchres  once  have  been  !  Had  other  resur- 
rectionists not  been  before  him,  Cyprus  would  now  be  a 
digger's  paradise "  (A  Wandering  Scholar  in  the  Levant^  p. 
135).  Even  as  it  is,  conditions  in  Cyprus  are  exceptionally 
favourable  for  exploration,  for  the  island  is  administered  by 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


289 


enlightened  officials.  Was  it  foreseen,  I  wonder,  when  Lord 
Beaconsfield  acquired  the "  island,  that  the  one  indisputable 
advantage  of  his  policy  would  be  to  enrich  the  British  Museum 
with  relics  of  a  long-vanished  civilisation  ? 1 

The  questions  raised  by  these  antiquities  from  Enkomi  are 
those  which  confront  us  in  the  case  of  all  Mycenaean  "  finds." 
The  local  conditions  of  Cyprus  —  an  island  in  which  the 
Phoenicians  had  settlements,  and  close  to  Asia  Minor — explain 
readily  enough  the  Oriental  character  of  many  of  the  anti- 
quities. With  Egypt  Cyprus  has  been  closely  identified  in  the 
past,  and  it  is  obvious  that  many  of  the  Enkomi  antiquities 
had  been  imported  into  the  island  direct  from  that  country. 
Others,  imported  from  Phoenicia,  exhibit  the  mixture  of 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  art  for  which  the  Phoenicians  were 
famous.  But  side  by  side  with  these  Oriental  works,  others 
were  found  in  which  a  distinctly  Hellenic  spirit  is  unmistak- 
able. To  what  age,  to  what  civilisation  do  these  4 'Mycenaean 55 
antiquities  belong  ?  The  antiquities  themselves  provide  no 
conclusive  evidence.  A  number  of  Egyptian  scarabs  were 
found,  including  one  bearing  the  name  of  the  Queen  of  Amen- 
ophis  III.  (about  1450  B.C.).  The  scarab  cannot  have  been 
earlier  than  that  date,  but  it  may  have  been  later,  and  objects 
of  different  dates  may  naturally  enough  have  been  buried  in 
the  same  tomb.  Another  scarab  belongs  to  the  much  later 
Orsokon  dynasty  of  Egyptian  kings,  dating  from  the  ninth 
century  B.C.  It  is  to  this  date,  or  even  to  a  century  later,  that 
Dr.  Murray  is  inclined  to  attribute  his  finds.  Professor  Petrie, 
on  the  other  hand,  sees  reasons  for  dating  the  Enkomi  tombs 
in  the  thirteenth  century  B.C.  (see  Athenceum,  24th  April  1897). 

The  pottery  is  unquestionably  Mycenaean  in  character,  but 
"primitive"  ware — with  moulded  or  incised  patterns — is  also 
found  :  see,  e.g.,  the  vases  arranged  on  the  top  shelf  in  front  of 
the  First  Case.  But  side  by  side  with  this  primitive  ware  the 
pottery  shows  animal  forms  which  attain  a  considerable  degree 
of  naturalism.  Thus,  notice  in  this  case  the  vase  on  which  a 
cuttle-fish  is  painted  (from  Tomb  83).  "The  painter  no  longer 
paints  a  cuttle-fish,  as  at  Mycenae  or  Ialysos,  in  the  form  of  a 
decorative  pattern  ;  he  tries,"  says  Dr.  Murray,  "  to  give  to  the 

1  The  law  of  Cyprus  requires,  however,  that  one-third  of  all  objects 
excavated  should  be  handed  over  to  the  Government.  There  has  thus 
been  formed  an  important  museum  at  Nicosia  :  see  J.  L.  Myres's  Cata- 
logue of  the  Cyprus  Museum. 

U 


290 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


creature  something  like  its  actual  shape,  and  even  strives 
towards  a  realistic  effect.  Instead  of  confining  himself  to 
aquatic  animals  and  plants,  such  as  prevail  on  the  pottery  of 
Ialysos  and  Mycenae,  he  proceeds  to  bulls,  sphinxes,  human 
figures,  and  chariots."  In  the  front  of  this  case  a  green 
porcelain  plate  should  be  noticed  :  the  design  is  clearly  of  a 
Nile  boat.  The  porcelain  vase  near  it  with  a  seated  figure 
(from  Tomb  6 1 )  is  obviously  Egyptian.  This  blue  glazed  ware 
from  Enkomi  is,  says  Professor  Petrie,  of  the  same  style  and 
designs  as  that  of  about  1250  B.C.  in  Egypt. 

In  the  Second  Case  we  notice  first  some  objects  in  bronze. 
A  very  curious  object  is  a  square  stand,  which  might  at  first 
sight  be  taken  for  a  primitive  Punch  and  Judy.  There  is  a 
similar  motive  on  some  of  the  ivories  from  Nimroud  in  the 
Museum  : — 

"  On  each  side  (of  our  bronze)  are  two  female  heads  looking  out  of 
a  window,  reminding  us  of  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  such  as 
2  Samuel  vi.  1 6,  where  \  Michal,  Saul's  daughter,  looked  through  a 
window  and  saw  King  David  leaping  and  dancing  before  the  Lord ' — 
a  scene  which  Dante  saw  represented  in  relief  in  Purgatory  (x.  68)  ; 
or  Judges  v.  28,  where  the  mother  of  Sisera  looked  out  of  a  window  ; 
or  2  Kings  ix.  30,  where  Jezebel  '  painted  her  face,  and  tired  her 
head,  and  looked  out  of  a  window ' "  (A.  S.  Murray,  Excavations  in 
Cyprus,  p.  10). 

Not  less  interesting  are  the  associations  called  up  by  the 
discovery  of  the  bronze  wheels  and  a  series  of  implements  here 
exhibited  : — 

Iff  Hiram  made  for  King  Solomon  ten  bases  of  brass  'of  thin  work. 
And  every  base  had  four  brazen  wheels.  And  the  work  of  the  wheels 
was  like  the  work  of  a  chariot  wheel'  (i  Kings  vii.  27).  4  The  pots 
also,  and  the  shovels,  and  the  flesh-hooks,  and  all  their  instruments, 
did  Huram  his  father  make  to  King  Solomon,  for  the  house  of  the 
Lord,  of  bright  brass'  (2  Chronicles  iv.  16)." 

The  bronze  implements  were  found  by  Dr.  Murray  in  what 
appeared  to  be  the  remains  of  a  foundry  or  smith's  workshop. 
Fragments  of  a  pair  of  bronze  greaves  should  also  be  noticed. 
They  are  of  some  importance  in  the  vexed  question  of  the 
dates  of  Mycenaean  art,  for  it  has  been  supposed  that  metal 
greaves  were  an  invention  of  a  comparatively  late  age  (B.C.  700).1 

1  But  this  contention  rests  on  the  negative  evidence  of  the  Homeric 
poems,  and  the  argument  from  silence  is  seldom  a  very  strong  one.  See 
on  this  subject  the  Catalogue  of  Bronzes,  by  H.  B.  Walters,  p.  lxvi. 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


29 1 


The  pottery  in  this  case  is  of  the  same  general  character  as 
that  already  described. 

The  objects  in  porcelain  present  in  a  very  marked  manner 
the  double  aspect  of  Mycenaean  art.  Some  are  pure  Egyptian, 
in  artistic  derivation,  if  not  in  workmanship  ;  others  are  pure 
Greek  : — 

"The  horse's  head  with  his  ears  laid  back  is  as  perfect  a  piece  of 
artistic  naturalism  as  could  be  conceived.  The  forms  are  poor  and 
mean.  Not  so  the  artist's  rendering  of  them.  He  intended,  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  to  represent  a  patient,  much-enduring  animal. 
With  the  slightest  possible  modelling,  a  sympathetic  eye  for  nature 
in  her  humbler  aspects,  and  a  fine  sense  of  style,  he  has  achieved  his 
end.  The  ram's  head  is  perhaps  more  formal,  yet  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  head  of  a  ram,  with  its  excess  of  bony  structure,  has, 
by  its  very  nature,  a  permanency  of  form  which  allows  of  almost  no 
artistic  change  from  age  to  age.  On  the  other  hand,  the  two  vases  in 
the  shape  of  women's  heads  again  go  to  nature  in  her  changeable 
moods,  showing  a  type  of  woman  which  has  nothing  whatever  in 
common  with  Egypt  or  Assyria.  The  one  seems  to  be  Greek,  not 
only  in  her  features,  but  also  in  the  way  in  which  her  hair  is  gathered 
up  at  the  back  in  a  net,  just  as  on  the  sixth  century  Greek  vases  of 
this  shape"  {Excavations  in  Cyprus >  pp.  22,  33). 

If  the  reader  will  go  for  a  moment  into  the  next  vase  room 
he  will  find  vases  of  the  shape  referred  to.  The  later  vases 
differ  in  having  handles,  and  in  being  more  advanced  in 
artistic  style  ;  but  the  idea  is  the  same  in  these  Mycenaean 
vases,  and  there  is  already,  as  we  have  seen,  something  of  the 
true  Greek  spirit  in  them.  Are  we  to  suppose  that  "  Mycen- 
aean "  art  reached  a  certain  stage  of  development  and  then  was 
arrested  or  submerged  ?  or  shall  we  rather  conclude  that  the 
evolution  of  art  was  continuous,  and  that  "  Mycenaean "  art 
was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  Ionian  Greek  art  of  the 
seventh  century  B.C.  P1 

1  The  prevalent  theory  is  that  the  "  Mycenaean  "  culture  was  swept 
away  by  the  Dorian  invasion.  ' '  Surely  it  is  not  going  too  far  if  we  see  in 
the  conquering  Dorians  the  rude  iron-using  people  of  the  Geometrical 
period,  who,  armed  with  superior  weapons,  overwhelm  the  more  highly 
civilised  Achaians,  and  so,  while  bestowing  on  Greece  the  knowledge  of 
iron,  at  the  same  time  cause  a  temporary  set-back  in  the  development 
of  her  civilisation"  (H.  R.  Hall,  The  Oldest  Civilisation  of  Greece,  1901, 
p.  41).  To  this  theory  an  exception  is  made  by  some  writers  in  order  to 
fit  the  case  of  Cyprus.  "  Recent  discoveries  have  made  it  probable  that, 
however  early  the  Mycenaean  period  may  have  begun  in  Greece  proper, 
and  the  current  theory  assumes  with  justice  that  it  was  already  flourishing 


292 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


GEOMETRICAL  OR  "DIPYLON"  WARE 

The  next  style  of  pottery  which  we  have  to  examine  is 
called  "geometrical,"  from  the  nature  of  the  patterns  which 
form  its  chief  decoration  (Wall-cases  14-19).  It  is  also  called 
"  Dipylon  "  from  the  fact  that  many  examples  were  found  near 
the  Dipylon  Gate  at  Athens,  but  vases  and  other  objects  in  the 
same  style  have  been  found  in  many  places  ;  several  of  those 
in  the  Museum  come  from  Thebes  in  Bceotia. 

The  most  common  of  the  patterns  are  the  "  maeander 55  and 
the  "  key-pattern,5'  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  "  Greek 
fret."  This  pattern,  which  came  to  be  used  extensively  in 
many  kinds  of  decoration,  has  a  long  history.  One  of  the 
interesting  things  to  study  in  a  collection  of  vases,  as  in  any 
other  kind  of  decorated  objects,  is  the  philosophy  of  ornament, 
the  evolution  of  pattern.  For  patterns  are  not  dead  things  ; 
they  once  had  living  souls.  We  speak  of  "  conventional " 
decoration,  and  so  in  truth  much  of  it  has  become  ;  but  at  one 
time  every  pattern  had  a  meaning,  and  not  a  line  was  without  its 
symbolism.  It  may,  indeed,  be  questioned  whether  some  of 
the  earliest  patterns  on  vases  (such  as  those  on  the  pre- 
historical  ware  described  above)  had  any  but  an  accidental 
origin — or  rather  an  origin  due  to  the  very  process  of  manu- 
facture. "  Vibrate  but  the  point  of  a  tool  against  an  unbaked 
vase,  as  it  revolves,  set  on  the  wheel, — you  have  a  wavy  or 
zigzag  line."  And  so  again,  before  the  invention  of  the  wheel, 
as  the  primitive  man  "kneaded  the  clay  to  fashion  his  rude 
vessels,  a  finger-pressure  would  raise  a  ridge  here,  and  an 
indentation  there,  and  a  sharp  flint  or  pointed  stick  would 
roughly  scratch  the  soft  moist  surface  ;  and  so  by  alternating 
rows  of  ridges  and  scratches,  borders  and  ornamentations  of 
great  variety  would  be  formed,  and  thus  the  primitive  man 
would  obtain  his  first  ideas  of  creating  decorative  effect."  An 
examination  of  the  earliest  vases  here,  of  the  primitive  British 
ware  (in  the  Prehistoric  Saloon),  of  the  vessels  of  savage 
tribes  (in  the  Ethnographical  Gallery),  will  show  that  all 
decoration  began  in  this  simple  fashion.  But  decoration  soon 
became  conscious,  and  with  the  progress  of  conscious  decora- 
tion symbolism  went  hand  in  hand.     Some  forms  of  ornament 

as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century  B.  c. ,  in  Cyprus  at  least  it  continued 
almost  to  the  classical  period"  (ibid.  p.  36).  For  other  references  in 
this  Handbook  to  the  "  Mycenaean  question,"  see  pp.  89,  559. 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


293 


are  clearly  due  to  structure : 1  to  the  imitation,  that  is,  of 
structural  forms,  such  as  the  interlacing  of  wattle-work  (as  in 
the  criss-cross  pattern  already  noticed).  We  have  seen  how 
the  decorative  design  of  Lycian  stone  tombs  was  imitated  from 
the  necessary  forms  of  wooden  building  (p.  226).  Other 
patterns  were  taken  from  natural  objects  :  as  the  zigzag  line 
from  lightning,  the  disk  from  the  sun,  the  crescent  from  the 
moon.    And  presently  the  pattern  became  the  symbol  : — 

"  A  symbol  is  scarcely  ever  invented  just  when  it  is  needed.  Some 
already  recognised  and  accepted  form  or  thing  becomes  symbolic  at  a 
particular  time.  Horses  had  tails,  and  the  moon  quarters,  long  before 
there  were  Turks  ;  but  the  horse-tail  and  crescent  are  not  less  definitely 
symbolic  to  the  Ottoman.  So  the  early  forms  of  ornament  are  nearly 
alike,  among  all  nations  of  any  capacity  for  design  ;  they  put  meaning 
into  them  afterwards.  .  .  .  The  vase  revolves  once  ;  the  ends  of  the 
wavy  line  do  not  exactly  tally  when  they  meet ;  you  get  over  the 
blunder  by  turning  one  into  a  head,  the  other  into  a  tail, — and  have  a 
symbol  of  eternity  !  .  .  .  Again,  the  free  sweep  of  a  pen  at  the  finish 
of  a  large  letter  has  a  tendency  to  throw  itself  into  a  spiral. '  There  is 
no  particular  intelligence,  or  spiritual  emotion,  in  the  production  of 
this  line.  A  worm  draws  it  with  his  coil,  a  fern  with  its  bud,  and 
a  periwinkle  with  his  shell.  Yet,  completed  in  the  Ionic  capital,  and 
arrested  in  the  bending  point  of  the  acanthus  leaf  in  the  Corinthian 
one,  it  has  become  the  primal  element  of  beautiful  architecture  and 
ornament  in  all  the  ages,  and  is  eloquent  with  endless  symbolism, 
representing  the  power  of  the  winds  and  waves  in  Athenian  work,  and 
of  the  old  serpent,  which  is  the  Devil  and  Satan,  in  Gothic  work  " 
(Ruskin,  Fors  Clavigera,  Letter  xxiii.). 

One  of  the  simplest  of  all  patterns  on  vases  is  the  zigzag, 
formed  at  first  of  straight  lines,  as  we  may  see  it  on  the  neck 
of  a  very  early  vase,  A  29.  Among  the  Egyptians  it  was 
the  symbol  of  the  greatest  feature  of  their  land,  the  river  Nile, 
with  its  "  meandering  "  course.  The  name  \ f  maeander  "  was 
afterwards  applied  to  the  pattern,  from  the  river  Maeander  in 
Asia  Minor.  The  straight  line  was  exchanged  for  a  wavy  one, 
and  we  have  the  better  known  maeander  pattern  ;  we  may  see 
it  in  a  simple  form  on  a  Dipylon  vase  here,  A  384.  Higher 
up  on  the  same  vase  is  the  key  pattern,  or  Greek  fret. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  it  is  called  "  the  Greek  pattern,"  as  if 

1  To  forms  of  ornament  due  to  structure  the  technical  term  skeuo- 
viorph  has  been  applied.  Physicomorphs  are  those  due  to  natural  objects  ; 
biomorphS)  those  due  to  animal  forms  (see  A.  C.  Haddon's  Evolution  in 
Art). 


294 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


there  were  no  other.  But  though  characteristically  Greek,  it 
was  in  use  long  before  in  Egypt.  It  has  also  been  found  in 
Central  American  explorations.  Although  of  a  somewhat 
complicated  appearance,  it  is  easily  developed  by  a  simple 
process  of  combination  of  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  in  this  way  it  might  be  re-invented  over  and  over 
again  by  different  nations.  With  the  ancient  Egyptians  it  was  a 
distinctly  religious  device,  being  intended  to  represent  the  famous 
labyrinthine  temple  built  by  an  ancient  king  of  Egypt  on  Lake 
Mceris.  u  In  the  palaces  of  this  temple  were  three  thousand 
chambers,  symbolical  of  the  three  thousand  years'  wandering 
which  every  soul  after  death  was  required  to  perform  on  earth. 
So  the  fret  was  symbolical  of  a  life  after  death,  a  life  of 
expiation  where,  in  long  wanderings,  the  sins  of  earth  must  be 
atoned  for."  From  the  model  of  the  Egyptian  labyrinth,  that 
of  Crete  was  afterwards  copied — u  the  labyrinth  which  the 
Cretan  Daedalus  built,  out  of  which  nobody  could  get  who  was 
inside,  except  Theseus ;  nor  could  he  have  done  it,  unless  he 
had  been  helped  with  a  thread  by  Ariadne,  all  for  love."  It 
was  of  this  Cretan  labyrinth — a  symbol  of  each  man's  life- 
problem — that  the  Greeks  would  have  thought  in  using  the 
"key  pattern."  It  figures  on  the  reverse  of  many  Cretan 
coins,  and  also  as  a  border  round  the  head  of  Theseus.  Its 
decorative  use  was  very  widely  extended.  We  see  it  pro- 
minent on  the  geometrical  vases  here,  and  the  vase-painters 
were  fond  of  it  to  the  end.  It  forms  a  very  common  border 
round  the  designs  on  kylixes  (e.g.,  on  E  70,  Third  Vase  Room)  ; 
it  ornaments  the  gown  of  Aphrodite  on  one  of  the  loveliest  vases 
in  the  collection  (D  2,  Third  Vase  Room,  p.  373).  As  a  border- 
decoration  in  Greek  costume  it  was  indeed  the  favourite 
pattern  ;  we  may  see  it  again  on  the  hem  of  the  robe  worn  by 
the  bronze  goddess  with  the  diamond  eyes  (Bronze  Room,  No. 
192,  p.  429).  In  the  revival  of  art,  the  Italian  masters  returned 
to  it ;  in  the  Ansidei  Madonna  by  Raphael  in  the  National 
Gallery  it  may  be  seen  at  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  the 
Virgin's  throne.  And  in  our  own  day  "you  cannot  pass  a 
china  shop,  nor  an  upholsterer's,  without  seeing,  on  some  mug 
or  plate,  or  curtain  or  chair,"  this  same  pattern  which  the  old 
Greek  vase-painters  of  the  geometrical  school  brought  into 
fashion.  To  few  of  us,  however,  does  it  speak  of  the  long- 
years  of  a  soul's  expiation,  or  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth  and 
the  clue  of  Ariadne.    The  key-pattern  passed  into  another. 


XVII 


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295 


"  From  the  straight  stiff  lines  of  the  fret  were  developed 
the  beautiful  curves  of  the  wave -scroll  or  kymation.1 
This,  to  the  sailor  Greeks,  with  their  home  by  the  sea, 
suggested  the  billows  rising  and  bending  ere  they  broke 
upon  the  shore.  Nowadays  the  kymation  is  repeated  in 
every  sort  of  ornamentation,  but  to  few,  indeed,  does  it 
recall  the  curling  waves  upon  the  beach  "  ("The  Lost  Soul  of 
Patterns,"  by  A.  E.  Farman  and  G.  C.  Nuttall,  in  Good  IVords, 
September  1896).  The  wave-pattern,  like  the  fret,  came  to 
be  largely  used  as  an  architectural  ornament,  and  as  a  decora- 
tive motive  on  costumes,  etc.  "  In  the  wave-moulding  we 
have  a  conventional  representation  of  the  small  crisping  waves 
which  break  upon  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  sea  of 
the  Greeks.  Their  regular  succession  and  equality  of  force 
and  volume  are  generalised  in  this  moulding,  while  the  minor 
varieties  which  distinguished  one  wave  from  another  a're 
merged  in  the  general  type.  The  character  of  ocean  waves 
is  to  be  'for  ever  changing,  yet  the  same  for  ever' ;  it  is  this 
eternity  of  recurrence  which  the  early  artist  has  expressed  in 
this  hieroglyphic  "  (C.  T.  Newton  in  Ruskin's  Stones  of  Venice^ 
vol.  i.  app.  21). 

Two  phases  of  "Dipylon"  pottery  may  be  distinguished. 
In  the  earlier  (Cases  14-17)  the  scale  of  the  patterns  is  larger, 
and  occasionally  figures  of  animals  are  introduced  ;  as,  for 
instance,  on  A  387,  which  shows  two  horses  at  a  manger  and 
a  goat  leaping,  or  on  A  439,  where  we  see  the  first  introduc- 
tion of  a  mythological  subject,  in  some  very  primitive  centaurs. 
In  the  later  vases  (Cases  18,  19),  the  patterns  are  more 
elaborate  and  minute.  Often  the  whole  vase  is  thus  covered, 
as,  for  instance,  A  360.  The  effect  is  much  prettier,  because 
simpler  and  less  confused,  on  A  411. 

Among  the  objects  of  minor  interest  in  these  cases,  the 
model  of  a  Greek  chariot  should  not  be  missed  (A  391)  ;  it 
was  a  child's  toy.  The  antiquity  of  toys  is  one  of  the  features 
that  strike  one  in  any  museum.  In  other  cases  toy-horses, 
painted  in  stripes,  will  be  noticed.  Of  the  same  "  geometrical  " 
period  as  the  vases  above  described  are  some  bronze  fibula? 
here  exhibited  (Nos.  120  and  121  in  the  Catalogue  of  Bronzes). 

On  the  top  of  Wall-cases  16  and  17  is  a  terra-cotta  pithos, 

1  It  is  interesting  to  notice  on  coins  of  Crete  a  similar  conversion  of  a 
square  labyrinth  into  a  round  ;  see  in  the  collection  of  electrotypes,  vi.  B. 
28,  29  (Ch.  xxiii.  p.  537). 


296 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


or  cask,  from  Cnossus  in  Crete.  These  vessels,  which  were 
used  as  stores,  were  sometimes  of  enormous  size.  We  read, 
for  instance,  of  some  of  the  poor  at  Athens  being  driven 
during  the  Peloponnesian  war  to  find  shelter  in  casks  ;  and  it 
was  in  one  of  these  earthenware  casks  (not  a  tub)  that 
Diogenes  lived  to  show  his  contempt  for  riches. 

PHALERON  AND  PROTO-CORINTHIAN  WARE 

The  evolution  of  Greek  pottery  now  becomes  more  com- 
plicated, for  with  the  7  th  century,  when  Greek  colonies 
began  to  be  founded  in  Asia  Minor,  Eastern  influence  was 
strongly  operative.  If  the  reader  will  turn  for  a  moment  from 
the  cases  which  we  have  been  examining  and  look  at  any  of 
those  on  the  other  side  of  the  room,  he  will  at  once  be  struck 
by  an  almost  complete  change.  In  the  later  vases  we  meet 
with  different  shapes.  We  find  continuous  friezes  of  animals 
round  the  vases  ;  the  colours  are  richer,  the  whole  scheme  of 
ornamentation  is  more  profuse.  But  between  the  geometrical 
style  and  this  later  and  richer  style  there  is  a  transitional 
phase,  to  which  the  name  "  Phaleron  "  has  been  given,  from 
the  fact  that  vases  of  the  kind  in  question  were  first  found  on 
the  road  from  Athens  to  Phaleron.  A  fine  example  of  this 
ware  is  exhibited  on  a  pedestal  (I.) ;  it  is  known  from  the 
name  of  its  finder  as  the  «  Burgon  Lebes  "  : — 

£ 4  Apart  from  the  combination  of  animal  forms  with  patterns  which 
it  presents,  the  patterns  being  subsidiary  and  a  survival  only  of  the 
older  practice  of  decoration,  this  vase  deserves  special  consideration 
from  the  comparison  which  it  suggests  with  the  group  of  two  lions 
sculptured  above  the  gateway  of  Mycense.  The  idea  is  in  both  the 
same.  (It  is  meant  to  show  two  side  views  of  one  and  the  same  lion 
—  an  ingenious  method  of  forestalling  the  art  of  perspective.)  How 
blank  the  vacant  spaces  above  and  below  the  two  lions  must  have 
looked  to  the  painter  of  the  vase,  and  how  he  missed  the  geometric  or 
wave  patterns,  which  once  left  no  blank  spaces  !  He  has  preserved 
snatches  of  them  wherever  he  could,  probably  because  it  had  become 
a  sort  of  instinct  with  him  to  paint  them  "  (Murray's  Greek  Archceology, 
pp.  37,  58,  64). 

Other  specimens  of  Phaleron  ware  may  be  seen  in  Table- 
case  D,  where  also  are  arranged  vases  from  Boeotia,  showing 
the  latest  development  of  the  geometrical  style,  and  examples 
of  what  has  been  called  "  Proto-Corinthian  J;  ware.  The  new 
influence  of  which  we  have  spoken  came  no  doubt  from 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


297 


Assyria  ;  the  friezes  of  lions  and  other  animals  of  the  hunt  or 
chase  which  we  see  on  the  vases  were  stock  subjects  in 
Assyrian  art.  So,  again,  many  of  the  new  motives  in  orna- 
mentation— such  as  rosettes — were  doubtless  borrowed  from 
Eastern  embroideries.  In  Athens,  where  there  was  already 
an  established  school  of  pottery,  the  new  influence  was  not 
very  quickly  assimilated.  In  islands  on  the  trade  routes,  like 
Cyprus  and  Rhodes,  and  in  Corinth,  whose  colonising  enter- 
prise was  early  and  extensive,  the  change  sooner  became 
marked.  To  vases  of  the  transitional  style  the  name  "  Proto- 
Corinthian "  is  given,  not  because  they  are  known  to  have 
been  made  in  Corinth,  but  because  they  are  older  than  the 
Corinthian  ware,  which  we  shall  presently  examine,  and  are  yet 
very  like  it.  A  specially  interesting  little  vase,  acquired  in 
1865  and  guaranteed  to  have  come  from  Phaleron,  is  the  pyxis 
or  toilet-box,  No.  A  349.  On  the  body  of  the  box  is  a  frieze 
of  lions  and  a  group  which  is  obviously  a  rendering  of  the 
well-known  myth  of  Hercules  and  Geryon  (p.  3 1 6).  This  vase 
belongs  to  the  earliest  period  of  the  representation  of  mythology 
in  vase-painting,  and  as  such  is  of  peculiar  interest.  Accus- 
tomed hitherto  to  conventional  friezes  of  animals,  the  artist 
wants  to  depict  something  with  more  meaning.  But  he  has 
not  yet  learned  the  secret  which  the  later  vase-painters  knew 
so  well,  namely,  the  choice  of  subjects  which  lent  themselves 
to  filling  the  space.  Accordingly  our  artist  gives  us  the  best 
representation  he  can  of  the  myth  in  the  centre,  and  then  fills 
up  his  frieze  with  animals  which  have  no  connection  with  the 
story  (Cecil  Smith  in  J.H.S.  v.  176).  The  same  horror  of 
vacant  spaces,  the  same  almost  unconscious  survival  of  older 
fashions,  may  be  seen  on  A  470.  The  artist  has  drawn  some 
horses  grazing,  and  he  fills  up  with  pieces  of  geometrical 
pattern  between  their  legs  and  under  their  bodies. 

Among  the  Boeotian  vases,  notice  a  vase  with  open  spaces, 
like  a  modern  wicker-work  basket ;  but  the  most  interesting 
specimen  is  the  large  lebes  on  the  top  of  the  case.  Here  we 
have  a  representation  of  a  ship  and  of  chariots.  "  On  vases 
of  this  kind,"  says  Dr,  Murray,  "the  whole  of  the  subjects 
seem  to  refer  directly  or  indirectly  to  deceased  persons,  in 
connection  with  whose  funeral  ceremonies  the  vases  were  used." 
The  pictures  here  refer,  therefore,  to  the  ship  races  which, 
like  the  chariot  races,  sometimes  formed  part  of  funeral  cele- 
brations, as  described  by  Virgil  {ALneid,  v.  1 14-235)  : — « 


298 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


"  The  steersman  is  in  the  act  of  stepping  on  board  and  grasping  the 
wrist  of  a  woman  who  holds  out  away  from  him  what  appears  to  be  a 
wreath.  But  obviously  there  is  no  room  in  the  ship  for  a  steersman  of 
such  gigantic  proportions.  Therefore  the  scene  must  not  be  taken  too 
literally.  The  vase-painter  fortunately  had  at  his  disposal  a  large 
space  behind  the  stern  of  the  ship,  and  he  took  advantage  of  this  space 
to  give  more  impressiveness  to  his  two  principal  figures.  As  a  group 
these  two  figures  may  be  called  a  prototype  of  the  parting  scenes  on 
the  Athenian  stelae  of  later  times,  and  this  element  of  melancholy  is 
just  what  is  wanted  to  give  the  key  to  the  whole  composition.  That 
is  to  say,  the  male  figure  is  stepping  on  board  to  steer  his  ship  in  a 
race  and  to  win  the  crown  held  up  by  the  woman,  thus  anticipating 
the  honours  that  in  due  time  would  be  done  to  himself"  (J.H.S.  xix. 
198). 

With  this  vase  should  be  compared  the  two  bronze  fibulae, 
also  from  Bceotia,  and  in  the  same  "geometrical"  style  of  art. 
On  both  sides  of  each  bronze  the  main  and  central  decoration 
is  an  elaborate  rosette  within  concentric  rings.  Notice  the 
ship  represented  on  one  side  of  No.  3204  (the  number  refers 
to  the  Catalogue  of  Bronzes).  The  crew  are  nude.  One  man 
is  working  a  big  steering  oar  with  the  instep  of  his  foot. 
"  Fishermen  in  the  Mediterranean  may  still  be  seen  rowing 
with  their  feet,  and  our  own  bargees  get  a  purchase  on  the 
tiller  in  the  same  fashion.  The  lines  of  the  little  vessel  are 
of  exquisite  curvature  and  grace"  (A.  B.  Cook  in  Classical 
Review,  1899,  p.  77).  The  other  sailor  is  fastening  a  rope  to 
the  forecastle.  The  cross-work  at  the  stern  and  bows  pre- 
sumably indicates  cabins.  The  square  object  at  the  mast- 
head is  a  lantern.  The  other  corner  of  this  side  of  the  bronze 
is  filled  up  with  snatches  of  geometrical  patterns.  The  other 
side  shows  men,  animals,  and  fishes  scattered  about  anyhow, 
so  as  to  occupy  the  space.  On  one  side  of  the  other  bronze 
(3205)  patient  examination  will  reveal  (on  the  left)  a  rude 
picture  of  Hercules  in  combat  with  the  six-headed  Hydra — a 
unique  representation  of  a  mythological  subject  on  any  object 
of  the  geometrical  period,  and  the  oldest  known  representation 
of  this  particular  myth. 

MISCELLANEOUS  VASES 

Returning  to  the  wall-cases,  we  find  Mycenaean  pottery  and 
other  antiquities  from  excavations  in  1897-98  at  Maroni  and 
Hala  Sultan  Tekki,  a  Mahomedan  mosque  near  Larnaca,  Cyprus 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


299 


(20-23).  The  designs,  as  in  the  other  Mycenaean  pottery  we 
have  noticed,  show  considerable  freedom  of  style  ;  the  use  of 
spirals  is  in  particular  bold  and  effective.  Next  come  antiquities 
of  prehistoric,  Mycenaean,  and  later  periods,  excavated  in  1899 
at  Klaudia,  near  Larnaca  (24-26).  Among  these  the  effective 
use  of  the  scale-pattern  may  again  be  noticed.  Above  cases 
24  and  25  are  terra-cotta  stamped  patterns  from  Assarlik  in 
Caria,  presented  by  Mr.  W.  R.  Paton.  On  the  stamped  and 
moulded  ware  from  Rhodes  and  Italy  (27)  the  patterns  are 
impressed  by  means  of  a  stamp.  The  vases  of  "  bucchero 
nero,"  or  black  clay  (27,  28),  come  chiefly  from  Rhodes. 
Among  the  miscellaneous  pottery  in  the  next  cases  (30-32) 
there  are  some  which  illustrate  the  connection  between  the 
art  of  the  potter  and  the  glass-maker.  It  has  been  suggested, 
as  we  have  seen,  that  it  was  from  the  early  workers  in  glass 
and  porcelain  that  the  potters  first  got  the  idea  of  glazing  their 
vases.  Certainly  the  potters  sometimes  worked  with  glass 
models  before  them.  Thus  we  have  here  two  curious  earthen- 
ware stands  (A  1555,  1556),  something  like  cruet-stands,  with 
several  little  vases.  These  are  imitated  from  stands  containing 
vases  of  Phoenician  glass  (a  specimen  of  such  a  vase  is  here 
exhibited).  The  shape  and  the  patterns  of  the  glass  and  the 
little  vases  are  the  same.  The  same  idea  is  sometimes  carried 
out  in  modern  Venetian  glass  for  liqueurs.  The  kernos,  as  it 
was  called  in  Greek,  was  "a  vessel  made  of  earthenware, 
having  many  little  cup-like  figures  fastened  to  it,  in  which  are 
white  poppies,  wheat-ears,  grains  of  barley,  peas,  pulse,  vetches, 
and  lentils.  And  he  who  carries  it,  like  the  man  who  carries 
the  mystic  fan,  eats  of  these  things  55  (Athenaeus,  xi.  55). 

SMALL  VASES,  » PROTO-CORINTHIAN,"  ETC. 

We  now  cross  to  the  other  side  of  the  room  and  resume,  at 
the  door  by  which  we  entered,  our  historical  study  of  the  vases. 
First  we  notice  a  collection  of  vases  in  the  form  of  animals  or 
human  heads — a  fancy  which,  as  we  shall  see,  remained  in 
favour  with  the  Greek  potters,  and  led  to  the  production  of 
many  charming  works.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  specimens 
here,  and  indeed  one  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  in  the 
collection,  is  the  tiny  vase  (A  1050)  to  which  we  have  already 
called  attention,  and  which  deserves  the  most  minute  in- 
spection : — 


3oo 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


"Ill  spite  of  its  diminutive  proportions,  it  will  rank  as  one  of  the 
mirabilia  of  our  national  collection.  Its  claims  to  distinction  are  based, 
not  only  upon  its  intrinsic  merit  as  a  chef  cPceuvre  of  art,  but  also  on 
the  fact  that,  belonging  to  a  highly  interesting  class  of  Greek  painted 
pottery  (' proto-Corinthian '),  it  is  beyond  all  doubt  the  most  beautiful 
and  important  specimen  of  that  class  which  has  yet  come  down  to  us. 
The  vase  has  the  body  surmounted  by  the  head  of  a  lion,  of  which  the 
open  mouth  forms  the  spout.  The  modelling  of  this  head  (which 
seems  to  be  free-hand,  not  cast  in  a  mould)  is  wonderfully  spirited  and 
life-like  ;  as  a  rule  in  Greek  art  of  a  later  period  the  finest  lions'  heads 
have  a  certain  conventionality  of  treatment,  brought  about  no  doubt 
partly  from  the  fact  of  their  tectonic  handling  in  architecture,  and  also 
because  the  artists  had  probably  never  seen  an  actual  lion.  This  head 
reminds  one  much  more  of  the  animals  on  the  Assyrian  frieze  of 
Kouyundjik,  the  artists  of  which  had  no  doubt  the  advantage  of  study 
from  the  life.  Here  the  softer  skin  around  the  lips,  the  distended 
nostril,  and  the  muscles  around  the  muzzle  are  all  indicated  with  an 
almost  Chinese  exactness  ;  the  effect  of  snarling  is  admirably  conveyed 
in  the  puckered-up  lines  of  the  nose,  and  in  the  ears,  which,  instead  of 
standing  over,  are  laid  flat  against  the  neck  "  (from  Mr.  Cecil  Smith's 
description  of  the  vase  in  J.H.S.  xi.  167,  where  coloured  illustra- 
tions are  given). 

Every  part  of  the  vase  is  covered  with  minute  and  exquisite 
painting.  At  the  junction  of  the  handle  with  the  head  is  a 
Gorgon's  mask.  Round  the  body  are  three  friezes.  The  first 
contains  seventeen  warriors  ;  each  of  these  carries  a  shield, 
and  on  each  shield  is  painted  a  different  heraldic  device.  The 
next  frieze  shows  a  horse  race  ;  the  third,  a  man  and  dogs 
hunting  a  hare,  rendered  with  great  spirit  and  elaboration. 
This  wonderful  little  vase  was  bought  by  the  late  Mr.  Malcolm 
Macmillan  at  Thebes  (Bceotia)  for  75  francs,  and  by  him  was 
presented  to  the  Museum  in  1889  (see  Letters  of  Malcolm 
Macmillan,  pp.  207,  211,  and  Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  pp. 
24,  1 13).  Another  tiny  Corinthian  oil-bottle  is  inscribed  with 
the  owner's  name  :  "I  am  the  lekythos  of  Tataie  ;  whoever 
steals  me,  may  he  be  struck  blind." 

CORINTHIAN  VASES 

If  the  visitor  now  makes  some  superficial  inspection  of  the 
remaining  vases  in  this  room,  he  will  doubtless  be  struck  by 
their  general  similarity,  and  he  will  be  right.  Their  distinctive 
characteristic  is  the  Asiatic  character  of  their  decoration.  We 
find  on  them  the  rosette  of  Assyrian  monuments  and  figures  of 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


301 


fantastic  beings,  half  human,  half  animal.  The  treatment  is 
Assyrian,  like  the  subjects.  "  The  form  of  the  rosette  is  not 
that  of  a  rose  studied  from  nature — it  is  a  rose  as  it  appears 
pressed  out  on  paper,  and  this  is  the  character  also  of  other 
plants,  and  even  of  animals  and  men  as  they  are  represented 
in  the  art  of  Assyria.  They  all  seem  to  be  pressed  out  as 
suited  best  the  low  flat  relief  of  Assyrian  sculpture"  (Murray). 
The  ornamentation  is  very  profuse  ;  the  painter  scatters  his 
flowers,  as  it  were,  over  the  whole  field.  The  dislike  to  un- 
occupied spaces  —  the  horror  vacui,  as  it  is  called — is  a 
common  feature  of  early  art.  Profusion,  excess,  expression, 
are  qualities  which  are  attained  sooner  than  proportion, 
economy,  reticence.  In  the  art  of  acting,  the  hardest  thing, 
it  is  said,  is  to  stand  still  on  the  stage  without  saying  or  doing 
anything.  Similarly  in  the  arts  of  decoration,  the  artist's  first 
instincts  are  to  cover  all  his  space,  to  be  saying  something  (as 
it  were)  all  his  time,  to  leave  no  quarter  of  the  field  uncovered. 
The  clay  is  yellowish-white,  and  the  paintings,  according  to 
the  period,  are  dull  or  more  vivid,  and  finally  of  an  intense 
black  relieved  with  purple  and  red.  This  is  not  the  only 
difference  ;  a  closer  examination  will  show  that  the  general 
class  includes  several  divisions.  Thus  in  the  matter  of  subjects 
one  class  is  decorated  with  several  zones  of  animals,  such  as 
lions,  goats,  tigers,  antelopes,  sometimes  drawn  fronting  each 
other,  and  sometimes  marching  in  file.  In  another  class  the 
drawings  include  figures  of  persons ;  subjects  taken  from 
Greek  mythology  are  represented  between  zones  of  animals. 
"  This  decorative  system  is  borrowed  directly  from  the  East. 
The  Greeks  copied  it  either  from  stuffs  and  carpets  woven  in 
the  East,  or  from  metal  cups  of  Assyria,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Phoenicians  "  (Collignon).  In  a  third  class, 
inscriptions  appear  upon  vases  with  mythological  subjects. 
Or,  again,  taking  technique  as  our  principle  of  division,  we 
may  trace  the  gradual  adoption  of  incised  lines  to  emphasise 
or  define  the  outlines  of  the  drawing.  To  this  class  of  vases 
generally,  which  may  best  be  described  as  Graeco-Asiatic,  the 
name  "  Corinthian 55  has  been  given,  because  many  of  them 
were  first  found  in  tombs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Corinth. 
But  they  have  been  discovered  in  all  portions  of  the  Hellenic 
world,  and  the  majority  of  those  in  our  collection  come  from 
Rhodes.  "  Corinthian  "  vases  have  also  been  found  in  great 
numbers  in  Etruscan  tomb-cities  ;  the  presence  in  that  country 


302 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


of  a  Corinthian  colony  doubtless  contributed  to  bring  them 
into  favour. 

An  inspection  of  the  vases  in  their  order  of  arrangement 
will  enable  us  to  illustrate  the  various  points  noticed  above. 
The  Fikellura  ware  (Wall-cases  35,  36)  is  so  called  from  the 
modern  name  of  one  of  the  cemeteries  of  Camirus  in  Rhodes, 
in  which  it  has  mostly  been  found.  On  the  Corinthian  vases, 
in  Cases  38  and  39,  the  rosettes  and  other  ornaments  in 
imitation  of  embroidery  are  very  conspicuous.  In  40  and  41 
are  arranged  vases  showing  incised  designs  and  the  earliest 
form  of  rosette.  Some  of  the  earliest  examples  of  the  use  of 
these  incised  lines — which  continued  throughout  the  black- 
figure  style  (Second  Vase  Room) — are  shown  in  Cases  42  and 
43.  In  Cases  44  and  45  are  oil-flasks  and  other  vases  of 
Corinthian  fabric,  again  mostly  from  Rhodes.  The  designs 
are  generally  of  grotesque  little  animals,  and  purple  colour  is 
freely  used. 

VASES  FROM  CAMIRUS  (RHODES) 

The  vases  from  Camirus  in  Rhodes  in  Table-case  F 
afford  convenient  examples  for  studying  the  process  of  tran- 
sition from  "  vacant "  to  engraved  lines.  In  the  Rhodian 
technique  three  methods  may  be  distinguished.  (1)  The 
head,  and  sometimes  the  paws,  of  an  animal  are  represented 
by  painted  lines.  This  is  the  earliest  method ;  it  is  found 
sometimes  on  "Mycenaean"  pottery.  (2)  The  body  of  the 
animal  is  treated  as  an  opaque  silhouette,  but  inner  lines, 
which  mark  the  anatomy  of  the  animal,  are  left  "  vacant "  on 
the  ground-colour  of  the  vase.  Great  care  must  often  have 
been  necessary  to  leave  the  lines  thus  vacant.  (3)  In  the 
third  and  last  stage,  incised  lines  are  substituted  for  "  vacant " 
lines.  On  the  vase  numbered  A  747  the  bull's  head  is  repre- 
sented by  the  first  method  ;  its  neck  by  the  second.  On  the 
plate  A  750  the  head  is  again  represented  by  the  first  method  ; 
but  the  fleece  of  the  ram  is  represented  by  the  third.  In  the 
vases  in  this  case  we  may  notice  also  that  the  older  practice 
of  using  geometrical  patterns  to  fill  vacant  spaces  sometimes 
held  its  own  against  the  rosettes.  Here  also  is  a  very  interest- 
ing example  of  early  figure-drawing,  A  749.  The  subject  (as 
we  know  from  inscriptions  over  the  figures)  is  the  combat  of 
Hector  and  Menelaus  over  the  body  of  the  fallen  Euphorbus. 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


In  Homer  (Iliad,  xvii.  59,  etc.)  Menelaus  retreats  on  the 
approach  of  Hector ;  but  not  so  on  this  vase.  The  vase- 
painters  allowed  themselves  considerable  latitude  in  following 
the  literary  sources  of  their  designs  (see  on  this  subject,  p.  378). 
For  the  sarcophagus  in  Cases  48,  4.9,  see  below,  p.  307. 

POTTERY  FROM  NAUCRATIS 

The  pottery  from  Naucratis  (Cases  46,  47,  50,  51)  is  very 
interesting,  and  questions  in  connection  with  it  have  been 
much  discussed.  Some  authorities  believe  the  Naucratic  ware 
to  have  been  locally  manufactured ;  others,  relying  on  its 
resemblance  to  the  Rhodian  ware,  suggest  some  third  place  as 
the  country  of  origin.  We  have  already  described  the  dis- 
covery of  Naucratis  ;  and  we  shall  find  some  specimens  of 
later  pottery  from  it  in  another  room  (p.  334).  There  are  few 
things  more  ingenious  in  the  labours  of  archaeologists  than  the 
way  in  which,  by  careful  records  of  excavation  and  patient 
classification,  they  are  able  approximately  to  date  successive 
groups  of  antiquities,  and  to  reconstruct  successive  phases  of 
ancient  religion  and  art.  These  scientific  researches  have 
been  greatly  assisted  by  a  circumstance  which  might  seem  at 
first  sight  to  militate  against  them.  Temples  were  destroyed, 
statues  thrown  down,  and  vases  broken.  On  their  ruins 
other  works  of  art  were  set  up.  There  was  little  of  "  that 
lie,  called  restoration."  The  very  completeness  of  the  de- 
struction assists  the  process  of  archaeological  reconstruction. 
We  have  in  our  Museum  a  most  interesting  instance  of  this 
process  in  the  reconstructed  columns  of  the  two  temples  of 
Ephesus  (Chs.  vn.  and  IX.).  Another  conspicuous  instance 
is  afforded  by  the  excavations  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 
After  the  sack  of  the  city  by  the  Persians  in  480  B.C., 
the  Athenians,  "  instead  of  trying  to  mend  or  restore  the 
fragments,  simply  used  them  as  rubble  to  support  a  terrace  on 
which  the  splendid  monuments  of  the  fifth  century  were  to 
stand  ;  and  the  result  is  that  they  have  presented  to  our  age  a 
magnificent  and  representative  collection  of  all  their  attain- 
ments in  the  various  arts  at  the  time  immediately  preceding 
the  Persian  wars — a  record  as  valuable  as  if  a  museum,  formed 
by  them  for  the  very  purpose,  had  been  preserved  intact  to  the 
present  day"  (Authority  and  Archceology,  p.  257).  A  some- 
what similar  state  of  things,  though  less  complete  in  its  results, 


304 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP, 


has  been  discovered  at  Naucratis.  The  contents  of  the  Temple 
of  Aphrodite  had  all  been  broken  up  and  thrown  out  in  the 
precinct,  probably  when  the  Persians  captured  the  town  in 
520  B.C.  Afterwards  a  new  temple  was  built  over  the 
fragments. 

The  fragments  before  us  here  belong  for  the  most  part  to 
the  second  half  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  The  general  style  of 
the  early  Naucratic  pottery  is  Graeco-Asiatic,  resembling  that 
from  Rhodes.  On  some  of  the  fragments  there  is  an  attempt 
at  painting  in  colour  the  objects  enclosed  within  the  outlines, 
— an  anticipation  of  the  effect  attained  on  the  white  Athenian 
vases  of  a  later  time  (Ch.  xix.).  An  interesting  feature  of  the 
Naucratic  vases  is  the  inscriptions  recording  their  dedication 
in  temples.  Thus  the  fragment  of  a  bowl,  A  966,  is  inscribed 
"  to  the  Aphrodite  in  Naucratis."  The  fragmentary  vase  of 
black  ware,  A  1536,  has  an  inscription  saying  that  "  Phanes 
dedicated  me  to  the  Apollo  of  Miletus."  This  is  supposed  to 
be  the  Phanes  of  whom  Herodotus  tells  a  grim  story.  He 
was  a  Greek  mercenary  under  Amasis,  King  of  Egypt,  but 
deserted  to  the  Persian  army  of  invasion  under  Cambyses. 
The  fellow-countrymen  of  Phanes  who  remained  faithful  to 
Amasis  took  a  gruesome  revenge  : ]  — 

"  Phanes  had  children  whom  he  had  left  behind  in  Egypt  :  these 
they  brought  into  their  camp  and  into  the  sight  of  their  father,  and 
they  set  up  a  mixing-bowl  between  the  two  camps,  and  after  that  they 
brought  up  the  children  one  by  one  and  cut  their  throats  so  that  the 
blood  ran  into  the  bowl.  Then  when  they  had  gone  through  the 
whole  number  of  the  children,  they  brought  and  poured  into  the  bowl 
both  wine  and  water,  and  not  until  the  mercenaries  had  all  drunk  of 
the  blood,  did  they  engage  battle"  (iii.  11). 

ARCHAISTIC  VASES 

An  interesting  phase  in  the  history  of  Greek  pottery  which 
modern  research  has  disclosed  2  is  the  imitation  in  later  ages 

1  « 4  There  is  a  possibility  that  the  traitor  had  dedicated  this  costly  vase 
in  the  Apollo  temple  to  win  favour  with  the  god,  and  perhaps  the  dis- 
pleasure of  the  public  at  Phanes  having  taken  such  a  step  may  be 
recognised  in  the  widely  scattered  and  finely  broken  fragments  from 
which  the  vase  was  recovered  "  (J.  H.  Huddilston,  Lessons  from  Greek 
Pottery,  p.  15). 

2  Ruskin,  in  a  reference  to  "one  of  my  kindest  and  best  teachers," 
refers  to  Dr.  A.  S.  Murray  as  ■ '  the  first,  1  believe,  of  our  Greek  anti- 
quaries who  distinguished,  in  the  British  Museum,  the  vases  executed  in 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


of  the  style  of  earlier  and  ruder  times.  The  same  cult  of  the 
primitives  has  been  traced  in  Greek  sculpture  (p.  61);  and 
constantly  in  the  case  of  pottery  taste  reverted  to  earlier  types 
(see  below,  p.  399).  Here  are  collected  some  vases  of  an 
archaistic  kind,  mostly  from  Italy,  made  in  imitation  of  the 
primitive  designs  (Cases  52,  53). 

LATER  CYPRIOTE  VASES 

The  rest  of  the  vases  in  this  room  mostly  come  from  various 
excavations  in  Cyprus  (Cases  54-64).  Those  from  Curium  (54,  5  5) 
are  of  Mycenaean  and  later  periods.  Others  are  from  Amathus 
(56-58).1  Some  quaint  vases,  of  early  Ionic  manufacture, 
were  procured  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay  at  Smyrna,  and  are 
said  to  have  come  from  Phocaea  (C  266,  268  :  see  /.U.S. 
ii.  305).  In  the  Cyprus  ware  of  a  later  date,  5th  to  4th 
century  (Cases  60,  61),  a  peculiarity  is  the  moulded  figures 
which  ornament  the  vases.  C  360  is  curious  :  the  mouth  is 
in  the  form  of  a  grotesque  figure,  wearing  a  sort  of  muzzle, 
which  is  perforated  to  let  out  the  liquid.  In  several  the  spout 
is  in  the  shape  of  a  smaller  vase.  Sometimes  (as  in  C  368)  a 
human  figure  is  moulded  holding,  and  as  it  were  pouring  out 
from,  the  little  vase  which  forms  the  spout.  The  other  vases 
(62-64)  are  of  various  dates.  Some  of  the  patterns  are  pretty, 
as,  e.gn  the  floral  one  on  C  269. 

"GR^CO-ASIATIC"  ANTIQUITIES 

Various  objects,  illustrating  the  Graeco-Asiatic  period  of 
art — the  period,  that  is,  of  strong  Oriental  influence  (about  the 
7th  century  B.C.), — are  arranged  in  Table-case  E.  The  vases 
of  variegated  glass,  the  ivories,  the  porcelain,  the  statuettes, 
the  amulets,  are  Phoenician  and  Egyptian  in  character,  and 
come  from  various  places  on  the  Mediterranean.  We  may 
imagine  some  Tyrian  trader  undoing  on  the  beach  his  corded 
bales,  with  just  such  a  variegated  collection  — "  all  manner 
of  gauds  in  a  black  ship,"  as  Homer  describes  ;  "for  the 

imitation  of  archaic  forms  by  late  Roman  artists,  from  real  Athenian 
archaic  pottery  "  (Flors  Clavigera,  letter  83). 

1  The  excavations  at  Curium  were  conducted  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Walters, 
those  at  Amathus  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Smith.  The  funds  in  both  cases  were 
provided  from  Miss  E.  T.  Turner's  bequest.  The  excavations  and  finds 
are  described  in  detail  in  the  Museum  publication,  Excavations  in  Cyprus. 

X 


306 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Phoenicians,"  says  Herodotus,  "conveying  merchandise  of 
Egypt  and  Assyria,  made  long  voyages  by  sea."  But  some  of 
the  objects  were  doubtless  of  local  manufacture  under  Oriental 
influence.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  porcelain  vase  in  the 
shape  of  a  dolphin — the  name  of  Pythes,  in  archaic  Greek 
letters,  is  inscribed  round  the  top.  The  bronze  bowl  also  shows 
some  mixture  of  style  : — ■ 

"  The  medallion  in  the  centre  represents  an  Egyptian  or  Phoenician 
monarch  in  the  act  of  striking  with  a  mace  three  enemies,  whose  hands 
are  raised  above  and  behind  them.  Before  the  King  there  stands, 
with  right  hand  extended,  the  god  Ra,  or  the  Sun,  hawk-headed  :  the 
action  intimates  that  victory  is  awarded  to  the  monarch  by  the  Sun 
God.  The  frieze  around  this  medallion  is  more  Greek,  representing 
scenes  of  dance,  banquet,  music,  song,  and  love,  a  representation  of 
Cypriote  sensualism"  (Palma  di  Cesnola's  Salamiiiia,  1882,  p.  53). 

The  vase  in  the  form  of  a  gryphon's  head  (A  547)  was 
found  at  ^Egina.  An  interesting  object  is  the  shell  cut  at  the 
joint  into  the  likeness  of  a  female  head,  the  earliest  example 
extant  of  a  shell-cameo.  The  shell  is  also  ornamented  with 
an  incised  design.  A  fragment  of  a  similar  shell  was  found 
at  Camirus  in  Rhodes.  The  shell  (triadacna  squamosa)  is 
of  a  species  not  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  only  in  the 
Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean.  Such  shells  must  have  been 
imported  by  the  Phoenicians,  and,  ornamented  by  them, 
became  an  article  of  their  traffic  on  the  Mediterranean  coasts. 
The  shells  were  used  for  holding  unguents.  The  shell-cameo 
was  found  at  Canino  in  Etruria.  It  may  have  been  such  a 
shell  from  the  far-orT  Erythrean  Sea  that  Glaucus  gave  as  a 
costly  present  to  win  the  favour  of  the  sea-nymph  Scylla  {Guide 
to  the  Second  Vase  Room,  1878,  p.  39;  Cyril  Davenport's 
Cameos,  pi.  i.  ;  Miss  J.  E.  Harrison  s  Myths  of  the  Odyssey, 
p.  211). 

How  do  so  many  specimens  of  early  Greek  (or  Mycenaean) 
work  come  to  be  found  in  Etruria?  Who  were  the  "  Mycenaeans"? 
and  who,  for  that  matter,  the  Etruscans  ?  Did  Mycenaeans 
settle  in  Etruria  ?  Were  the  Mycenaeans  the  Pelasgi,  and 
was  their  civilisation  overwhelmed  by  the  Dorian  con- 
quest ?  Such  questions  are  among  the  unsolved  problems  of 
archaeology.  Positive  answers  are  given,  but  they  are  not 
always  the  same.  Each  generation  gradually  arrives  at  its 
working  hypothesis,  but  fresh  discoveries  may  subsequently 
make  it  work  no  longer.     Nothing  could  be  more  methodical 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


3o7 


than  the  present  arrangement  of  our  antiquities  in  the  British 
Museum.  Readers  whose  familiarity  with  the  collection  dates 
back  to  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  will  remember  that  many 
objects  were  then  differently  classified.  Those  who  live  to 
revisit  the  Museum  a  quarter  of  a  century  hence  may  perhaps 
find,  with  other  times,  other  theories. 

TERRA-COTTA  SARCOPHAGI 

The  most  striking  object  in  this  room  is  the  terra-cotta 
sarcophagus  with  a  cover,  all  richly  painted,  which  occupies 
two  large  standing-cases.  The  case  containing  the  cover  is 
fitted  with  a  mirror,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  paintings  may 
be  seen — paintings  which  remained  invisible  for  so  many 
centuries.  For  the  under  edge  of  the  cover  is  elaborately 
painted,  although  this  decoration  could  never  have  been  seen 
when  once  the  lid  was  closed  upon  the  dead  man  within,  and 
the  same  remark  applies  to  the  top  edge  of  the  sarcophagus 
itself.  The  paintings  of  the  interior  walls  of  the  sarcophagus 
might  be  conceived  as  enlivening  the  dead  man's  ghost  with 
some  pale  memory  of  the  sports  and  contests  of  life.  But  no 
such  idea  would  apply  to  paintings  which  were  shut  down  the 
one  on  the  other.  So  much  care  and  skill  devoted  to  parts  of 
a  monument  never  more  to  be  seen  by  mortal  eyes  are  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  economy  of  labour — call  it  practical' or  heart- 
less, as  one  choose — which  may  be  noticed  in  monuments  of 
later  ages,1  and  which  was  often  practised,  as  we  shall  see,2 
in  the  funeral  offerings  of  the  ancients.  The  sarcophagus, 
as  we  see  it,  has  been  put  together,  having  been  found  broken 
into  many  pieces.  It  was  acquired  by  the  Museum  in  1897, 
and  comes  from  the  site  of  the  ancient  Clazomense,  one  of  the 
twelve  cities  of  the  Ionian  Confederation,  situated  on  the  gulf 
of  Smyrna.  Several  similar  sarcophagi  or  fragments  of  such 
have  there  been  discovered  ;  none  is  more  richly  decorated 
than  ours,  which  is  unique  in  having  an  arched  and  painted 
cover.  "  These,"  says  Mr.  Dennis,  "  are  the  only  monuments 
which  afford  us  a  knowledge  of  Ionian  pictorial  art  at  a  period 
before  Herodotus  wrote  or  Pindar  sang,  and  it  may  be  before 

1  See,  e.g. ,  Ruskin's  description  of  the  tomb  of  the  Doge  Andrea  Van- 
dramin  in  the  church  of  SS.  Giov.  e  Paolo  at  Venice.  On  the  inner  side, 
where  the  effigy  could  not  be  seen  from  below,  the  sculptor  had  stayed 
his  hand  [Stones  of  Ve?zice,  vol.  i.  ch.  i.  §  43).  2  See  p.  451. 


3o8 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Anacreon  fled  from  the  neighbouring-  city  of  Teos  to  sing  the 
praises  of  love  and  wine  at  the  court  of  Polycrates."  Some 
idea  of  the  care  and  labour  devoted  to  an  elaborate  monument 
of  this  kind  may  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that,  according  to 
the  experts,  the  firing  was  probably  effected  by  building  a  kiln 
round  the  sarcophagus,  and  that  the  firing  at  a  low  temperature 
occupied  from  four  to  six  weeks.  The  colours  of  the  inside 
turned  to  red  under  the  firing.  It  will  at  once  be  observed 
that  the  style  of  decoration  resembles  that  of  some  of  the 
vases  which  we  have  already  examined,  being  a  combination 
of  geometrical  patterns  with  long  friezes  of  figures.  The  shape 
of  the  sarcophagus,  with  its  gabled  cover,  may  be  compared 
with  the  Lycian  tombs  (pp.  223-226)  :  it  was  employed  in  later 
Greek  art  (as  in  the  Alexander  sarcophagus  from  Sidon),  and 
revived  in  Christian  architecture.  The  date  of  our  sarcophagus 
is  supposed  to  be  about  550  B.C. 

The  paintings  are  of  great  and  varied  interest.  There  are 
in  all  nine  groups  to  be  studied.  We  shall  describe  them  in 
order,  beginning  with  the  cover : — 

(1)  On  one  side  two  friezes,  divided  by  a  band  of  sphinxes  and 
sirens.  The  upper  frieze  (a)  shows  in  the  middle  the  death  of  Dolon, 
the  Trojan  spy,  slain  by  Odysseus  and  Diomede  {Iliad,  x.  314).  The 
whole  sarcophagus  is  reminiscent  of  the  Homeric  poems.  Mount 
Ida,  which  looks  over  Troy,  is  visible  from  the  heights  above  Clazo- 
mense.  On  either  side  of  the  Dolon  group  are  racing  chariots.  These 
have  no  relation  to  the  central  group  (on  this  point  see  above,  p.  301). 
We  shall  have  more  to  say  about  the  races  presently,  as  the  subject 
recurs  on  the  sarcophagus.  Here  we  must  notice  the  curious  winged 
figures  which  fly  above  the  chariots.  Artistically,  they  are  "the 
prototype  of  those  nude  flying  beings  which  occur  on  the  early  red- 
figure  vases,  as  on  a  kylix  (E  13),  and  under  the  name  of  Eros 
continue  to  be  represented  on  Greek  vases  to  the  end — and  no  wonder  ; 
it  is  a  very  beautiful  conception"  (Murray,  p.  7).1  In  this  case  the 
flying  figures  must  be  supposed  to  be  personifications  of  the  games  or 
of  speed,  {b)  The  lower  frieze  is  of  the  greatest  interest,  for  it  seems 
undoubtedly  to  be  a  historical  picture,  representing  one  of  those  raids 
of  the  barbarian  Cimmerians  into  Asia  Minor  of  which  Herodotus 
speaks  (i.  6,  15,  16).  "  The  use  of  a  huge  sword  to  strike  down  with, 
the  characteristically  Scythian  headgear,  the  accompaniment  of  dogs 
of  war,  and  the  wild  rush  of  the  movement  show  that  we  have  to  do 

1  The  reference  is  to  Terra-cotta  Sarcophagi,  Greek  and  Etrusca?i,  in 
the  British  Museum,  by  A.  S.  Murray,  1898.  This  is  a  .sumptuous 
publication,  containing  full  descriptions  and  discussions,  and  admirable 
phototype  plates. 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


309 


with  a  barbarous  people  "  (Murray,  p.  2).  Dogs,  it  will  be  observed, 
run  also  under  the  chariots  and  horsemen  on  other  parts  of  the 
sarcophagus.  The  artist  seems  to  have  enjoyed  the  motive  as  help- 
ing to  fill  up  his  empty  spaces  ;  it  was  certainly  a  great  improvement 
on  the  pieces  of  geometrical  patterns  which  we  have  sometimes  seen 
introduced  under  the  bodies  of  animals.  A  curious  feature  on  these 
friezes  is  an  object  which  "at  first  sight  suggests  the  idea  of  a  huge 
bell  suspended  from  above  and  swinging  with  a  loose  cord,  but  which 
may  be  nothing  more  than  the  lotus,  so  often  introduced  as  a  floral 
ornament  to  fill  the  vacant  spaces  in  the  field  of  archaic  Greek  art  " 
(Dennis). 

(2)  The  two  friezes  on  the  other  side  of  the  cover  are  in  bad 
condition,  and  the  subjects  have  not  been  identified.  Notice  on  the 
lower  frieze  the  conspicuous  devices  on  the  warriors'  shields.  (3)  One 
end  of  the  cover  is  also  very  much  destroyed  ;  on  the  other  end  are 
two  horsemen  and  two  figures  on  each  side  of  a  central  Ionic  column. 
(4)  On  the  under  edge  of  the  cover  a  battle  scene  is  represented. 
There  are  also  groups  of  Odysseus  and  Diomede  slaying  Dolon,  and 
sphinxes  confronted. 

Turning  now  to  the  body  of  the  sarcophagus,  we  examine 
first  : — 

(5)  The  two  friezes  on  the  long  sides  of  the  interior.  These  are 
substantially  the  same.  The  artist  simply  reversed  and  reduplicated 
his  figures,  sometimes  forgetting  to  make  the  necessary  corrections, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  warrior  near  the  centre  on  the  side,  who  is  made 
to  hold  his  shield  on  his  right  arm  (Murray,  p.  11).  The  subject  of 
the  pictures  is  funeral  games,  such  as  those  of  Patroclus  described  in 
the  23rd  book  of  the  Iliad.  That  the  scene  is  one  of  games,  not  of 
war,  is  shown  by  the  flute -player  in  the  centre  of  the  composition. 
On  either  side  of  him  is  a  warrior  preparing  for  a  combat,  such  as 
that  between  Ajax  and  Diomede  : — 

Next  in  the  ring  the  son  of  Peleus  laid 

A  pond'rous  spear,  a  helmet,  and  a  shield  : 

1 '  For  these  we  call  upon  two  champions  brave 

To  don  their  arms,  their  sharp-edg'd  weapons  grasp, 

And  public  trial  of  their  powers  make. " 

On  either  side  of  this  central  group  are  chariots  preparing  for  the 
race  : — 

"  Do  ye  in  order  range  yourselves,  who  boast 
Your  well-built  chariots  and  your  horses'  speed.  " 
Then  all  at  once  their  whips  they  rais'd,  and  urg'd 
By  rein,  and  hand,  and  voice,  their  eager  steeds. 

Here  between  each  pair  of  chariots  is  a  youth  dancing  and  shaking  a 
kind  of  Castanet,  to  excite  the  horses  (just  as  at  the  boat-races  at 
Oxford  excited  partisans  shake  rattles  or  blow  horns  to  encourage 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


their  college  crews).  Beside  each  chariot  is  a  warrior  holding  up  a 
whip  to  the  driver  ;  this  Dr.  Murray  interprets  as  a  signal  for  the 
start.  The  warriors,  musicians,  and  charioteers  all  wear  a  curious 
piece  of  armour — a  small  shield  on  the  hips.  "  It  appears  to  be 
attached  to  a  girdle,  and  would  thus  be  capable  of  being  moved  round 
to  the  front  of  the  body  or  the  back,  as  danger  suggested,  the  hips  not 
being  vulnerable."  On  our  sarcophagus,  or  on  others  from  Clazomenae, 
the  charioteers  and  musicians  wear  a  headgear  which  has  been  differently 
interpreted.  Mr.  Dennis  explains  it  thus  :  "  The  charioteers  are 
naked,  save  that  their  heads  appear  to  be  covered  with  close-fitting 
skull-caps,  precisely  like  the  fezes  worn  nowadays  by  Turks,  Greeks, 
and  Armenians  in  the  East,  the  long  tassels  streaming  in  the  wind 
as  they  stoop  forward  in  their  eagerness  to  urge  their  horses  to  the 
top  of  their  speed"  {J.H.S.  iv.  6).  Dr.  Murray's  interpretation  is 
different :  "  The  close-fitting  cap,  from  its  being  painted  purple,  may 
be  taken  to  have  been  of  bronze,  that  being  the  colour  employed  on 
the  sarcophagus  to  indicate  bronze.  From  an  opening  on  the  crown 
of  the  head  a  mass  of  hair  escapes,  carefully  cut  at  the  end  like  a 
horse's  tail.  On  the  chariot  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum  is  preserved  a 
youthful  driver  (p.  219),  having  not  only  the  robe,  but  also  the  long 
hair  of  a  girl.  At  present  we  are  ignorant  of  the  origin  of  this  curious 
custom  of  dressing  up  boys,  and  even  men,  in  female  attire  when  they 
appeared  in  certain  public  competitions.  Possibly  it  had  been  Ionian. 
At  all  events  this  peculiar  treatment  of  the  hair  has  been  noticed  as 
occurring  not  only  on  the  sarcophagi  of  Clazomenae,  but  also  in  some 
other  instances  where  Ionian  influence  is  unmistakable,  as  on  a  frag- 
ment of  a  vase  from  Naucratis  and  a  hydria  from  Civita  Castellana, 
both  in  the  British  Museum,  B  59,  B  103  (Terra-cotta  Sarcophagi, 
pp.  9,  10). 

(6)  On  the  upper  edge  we  see  in  full  swing  the  races  for  which  we 
have  been  watching  the  preparation.  In  the  centre  is  a  figure  with 
raised  hand,  like  a  policeman's.  He  is  the  course-keeper,  as  described 
by  Homer  : — 

They  stood  in  line  ;  Achilles  pointed  out, 

Far  on  the  level  plain,  the  distant  goal ; 

And  there  in  charge  the  god-like  Phoenix  placed, 

His  father's  ancient  follower,  to  observe 

The  course  assign'd,  and  true  report  to  make. 

The  winning-post  is  represented  on  our  sarcophagus  by  a  column,  on 
which  stands  the  prize  vase.  Against  the  column  rests  a  shield,  which 
was  another  prize.  The  dejected-looking  figure  leaning  beside  the 
column  may  represent  a  captive  who  is  also  to  be  given  as  a  prize  in 
the  games.  Dr.  Murray,  on  the  other  hand,  suggests  that  the  column 
represents  the  tomb  of  the  dead  man  in  whose  honour  the  games  are 
being  held,  and  that  the  nude  figure  is  his  shade  (p.  6). 

(7)  The  paintings  on  the  short  sides  of  the  sarcophagus  show  us 
armed  warriors,  horses,  and  dogs.     The  two  short  sides  are  very 


XVII 


THE  FIRST  VASE  ROOM 


3" 


similar,  as  in  the  case  of  the  long  sides.  The  warriors'  helmets  are 
worth  noticing.  The  enormous  crest  and  the  horns  are  interesting 
(see  F.  T.  Elworthy's  Horns  of  Honour). 

Sarcophagus  from  Camirus  (Case  48). — This  small  sar- 
cophagus was  acquired  by  the  Museum  in  1863  from  the 
excavations  of  M.  Salzmann  and  Mr.  (now  Sir  Alfred)  Biliotti 
among  the  tombs  of  Camirus  in  Rhodes.  Its  shape  and 
decoration  are  alike  interesting.  It  has  the  appearance  of  a 
doorway,  and  is  thus  an  early  embodiment  of  that  idea  of  the 
tomb  as  the  portal  of  Hades  which  we  have  already  discussed 
(p.  245).  The  style  of  decoration  shows  that  curious  com- 
bination of  drawing  and  painting  to  which  we  have  called 
attention  above  (p.  302).  "The  heads  of  the  animals  are 
examples  of  line-drawing  with  a  brush,  while  the  bodies  are 
painted  in  with  a  full  brush.  In  the  case  of  the  bull  a  large 
patch  of  the  white  ground  represents  the  piebald  colour  of  the 
creature.  In  the  lions  the  feet  and  lower  part  of  the  legs  are 
filled  in  with  colour  and  not  drawn  in  line."  This  alteration 
seems  to  show  that  this  sarcophagus  is  later  than  the  vases 
which  it  otherwise  resembles  : — 

"  Still  more  suggestive  of  a  later  date  is  the  drawing  of  the  lions' 
heads  full  to  the  front  instead  of  in  profile,  implying,  as  it  does,  an 
increased  dexterity  and  a  new  desire  towards  vividness  of  representa- 
tion. .  .  .  The  breadth  of  manner  and  fine  sweep  of  lines  with  which 
the  bull  and  the  two  lions  at  the  head  of  the  sarcophagus  are  painted 
far  exceed  the  work  on  the  vases,  and  prepare  us  for  the  two  heads  of 
warriors  immediately  beneath.  Nothing  comparable  to  the  severe 
and  refined  aspect  of  these  two  heads  has  been  found  in  the  vase- 
painting  of  this  period.  They  point  rather  to  a  higher  walk  of  art,  in 
which  the  Greek  ideal  had  already  begun  to  assert  itself  in  no  in- 
significant manner"  [Terra-cotta  Sarcophagi,  p.  19). 

Fragments  of  other  terra-cotta  sarcophagi  are  exhibited  in 
Wall-case  49.  The  style  of  the  painting  is  similar  to  that  on 
the  large  sarcophagus  from  Clazomenas,  which  will  repay  much 
study.  It  is  the  finest  of  all  examples  of  early  Ionic  painting-, 
and  it  illustrates  by  another  art  the  poetry  of  Homer. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 
{Black- Figure  Vases,  Sixth  Century) 

e<  You  will  soon  find  even  the  earliest  or  slightest  grotesques  of  Greek 
art  become  full  of  interest  to  you.  For  nothing  is  more  wonder- 
ful than  the  depth  of  meaning  which  nations  in  their  first  days 
of  thought,  like  children,  can  attach  to  the  rudest  symbols ;  and 
what  to  us  is  grotesque  or  ugly,  like  a  little  child's  doll,  can 
speak  to  them  the  loveliest  things  .  .  .  Only  the  student  must 
remember  that  in  taking  these  dark  figures  on  their  red  ground 
as  primarily  typical  of  Greek  art,  we  are  to  consider  them  only 
as  holding  the  relation  to  Greek  advanced  painting  that  mediaeval 
illumination  does  to  the  work  of  Giorgione  or  Bellini "  (Ruskin, 
Oxford  Lectures  on  Art>  §  152,  and  Catalogue  of  the  Standard 
Series •,  No.  201). 

The  main  classification  of  Greek  vases,  when  the  primitive 
stage  is  passed,  is  into  (1)  black- figure  and  (2)  red-figure.  In 
the  black-figure  vases  the  figures  are  drawn  in  black,  so  as  to 
form  a  kind  of  silhouette,  on  a  red  ground  ;  in  the  red-figure 
vases  the  figures  are  left  in  the  red  ground  of  the  vases,  and 
the  background  is  painted  black.  In  this  chapter  we  are  con- 
cerned with  the  black-on-red  vases. 

The  development  to  the  black -figure  style  from  the 
archaic  vases  was,  however,  gradual.  The  vases  in  the  wall- 
cases  on  the  left  side  of  the  room  (as  we  enter)  are  chrono- 
logically arranged,  and  in  these  the  development  may  be  traced. 
It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  white  ground  (or  "  biscuit,"  as 
it  is  called)  was  retained,  the  vase -painters  developed  upon 
it  a  new  skill  in  the  drawing.  In  the  earlier  vases  the  subjects 
were  almost  exclusively  (1)  processions  and  combats,  and  (2) 
bands  of  animals  introduced  under  Assyrian  and  Phoenician 
influence.  In  the  present  period  these  animal  friezes  lingered 
for  a  while,  but  they  were  gradually  relegated  to  a  subordinate 


312 


chap,  xviii         THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


313 


position,  and  mythological  subjects  were  introduced.  But 
the  habit  of  painting  on  a  white  ground  was  gradually  super- 
seded by  a  red  ground.  The  white  ground  was  found  to  be 
perishable,  and  the  contrast  of  black  and  white  was  too  strong 
to  please  the  artistic  taste.  The  next  development  was  to  use 
the  red  clay  of  the  vase  itself  as  the  background,  the  design 
being  painted,  as  before,  in  black.  This  method  produced  a 
less  perishable  surface,  and  also  increased  the  vase-painter's 
resources.  He  now  could  use  white  colour,  in  addition  to 
incised  lines,  to  mark  various  details  and  accessories.  Purple 
was  also  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  spectator  must 
remember,  however,  that  colour  was  still  conventional  only. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  white  is  used  appropriately  to  the  natural 
colours  of  the  objects  depicted,  as,  for  instance,  to  show  a  white 
horse,  or  gray  hairs.  But  it  is  used  conventionally  to  dis- 
tinguish men  from  women  ;  and  purple  is  used  often  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  distinguish  one  object  from  another. 

With  regard  to  the  technique,  the  first  step  was  to  draw 
the  design  in  outline.  The  figures  were  then  filled  in  with 
black  paint,  a  broader  brush  being  employed.  The  vase  was 
then  fired.  Next  came  the  process  of  adding  details — (a)  by 
means  of  incised  lines.  The  artist,  in  order  to  define  the 
muscles  and  drapery,  cut  through  the  black  paint  to  the  natural 
red  colour  of  the  vase,  using  for  this  purpose  a  sharp  graving 
tool ;  (&)  by  means  of  subordinate  colours,  as  mentioned  above. 
After  this  process  the  vase  was  again  fired,  but  at  a  lower  heat ; 
hence  the  accessory  colours  are  often  very  much  faded.  In 
technical  skill  the  black-figure  vases  vary,  as  will  be  seen,  from 
the  rudest  daubs  to  the  most  carefully  executed  pictures,  drawn 
with  great  beauty  of  composition  and  firm  accuracy  of  form. 
The  floral  ornaments  are  often  very  pretty,  and  designers 
might  here  find  many  suggestions.  Many  of  the  black  figures 
are  executed  with  extraordinary  minuteness,  owing  to  the  gem- 
like treatment  with  which  the  incised  lines  are  applied,  especially 
in  the  rich  textile  patterns  on  the  draperies. 

"  The  effect  of  a  fine  black-figured  vase  with  incised  designs 
and  polychromic  details  is,"  as  Miss  Harrison  says,  "  bright, 
ornate,  and  highly  wrought."  These  are  the  qualities  which 
the  Greeks  summed  up  by  the  word  dcedal^  and  which  are 
characteristic  in  one  of  its  aspects  of  all  their  art : — ■ 

"As  the  simplest,  so  also  it  is  the  most  complex  of  human  arts. 
An  essential  Greek  character  is  a  liking  of  things  that  are  dappled. 


314 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


If,  instead  of  studying  Greek  art  among  marbles,  you  were  to  look 
at  it  only  on  vases  of  a  fine  time,  your  impression  of  it  would  be, 
instead  of  breadth  and  simplicity,  one  of  universal  spottiness  and 
chequeredness  (ttoiklXLcl)  ;  and  of  the  artist's  delighting  in  nothing  so 
much  as  in  crossed  or  starred  or  spotted  things "  (Ruskin's  Aratra 
Penlelici,  §  204). 

In  the  black -figure  style,  however,  the  painters  devoted 
their  skill  rather  to  enlivening  the  figures  with  incised  lines 
and  accessory  colours  than  to  seeking  greater  freedom  in  the 
drawing.  There  is  little  expression  ;  there  is  much  stiffness 
and  conventionalism.  Faces  are  shown  in  profile,  but  eyes 
front- wise.  The  treatment  of  foliage  is  also  conventional. 
Branches  are  wrought  into  decorative  designs  without  any 
attempt  at  naturalism.  In  the  red -figure  style  much  greater 
freedom  of  drawing  was  attained,  and  there  was  a  nearer 
approach  to  naturalism  ;  but  in  many  respects  the  art  of  vase- 
painting  remained  frankly  conventional.  In  the  fourth  period 
an  attempt  was  made,  as  we  shall  see,  to  adopt  a  more  pictorial 
treatment ;  but  this  was  foreign  to  the  genius  of  the  material, 
and  the  last  stage  was  the  age  of  decadence. 

The  conventionalism  which  characterises  the  technique  of 
the  black- figure  vases  is  noticeable  also  in  their  subjects. 
These  were  for  the  most  part  taken  from  mythology,  and  a 
few  types  were  adopted  as  stock  subjects.  The  labours  of 
Hercules  in  particular  appear  over  and  over  again.  These 
were  favourite  tales  in  popular  mythology,  and  afforded,  as 
Mr.  MacColl  puts  it,  "  a  convenient  series  of  charade  arrange- 
ments of  a  simple  kind,  with  an  element  of  repetition."  At 
the  same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  potters  had 
to  provide  acceptable  wares  for  sale  in  colonial  settlements. 
They  would  naturally,  therefore,  choose  the  myths  which  were 
most  universally  current  in  Greek  popular  tradition.  Some 
slight  variations  in  these  types  occur,  but  the  limits  of  variation 
are  small,  and  the  same  types  are  often  made  to  serve  for 
different  subjects.  The  reader  interested  in  this  branch  of 
the  matter  will  find  an  elaborate  classification  in  volume  ii. 
of  the  Museum's  Catalogue  of  Vases. 

The  date  of  the  black-figure  vases  in  this  room  may  be  put 
roughly  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.  (600-500).  The  Acropolis 
of  Athens  was  sacked  by  the  Persians  in  480  B.C.  In  excava- 
tions on  the  site  which  have  revealed  the  pre-Persian  layer,  a 
large  number  of  red-figure  fragments  have  been  found.  This 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


3*5 


shows  that  the  red-figure  work  had  begun  before  480  B.C. 
Again,  in  a  recent  excavation  of  the  famous  mound  at  Mara- 
thon (490  B.C.),  a  red -figure  fragment  was  found  with  a 
number  of  black- figure  vases.  How,  why,  and  when  the 
transition  from  black  figures  to  red  was  made  is  matter  for 
conjecture.  The  process  may  be  traced  most  clearly  in  the 
development  of  vases  of  the  kylix  shape  (see  p.  353).  But  it 
may  be  seen  also  on  the  amphorae.  At  first  the  red  vases 
were  left  in  the  natural  colour  of  the  clay.  If  the  visitor 
compares  the  vases  on  the  east  side  of  this  room  with  those  in 
the  next  room,  he  will  see  how  complete  is  the  contrast. 
Here  the  whole  vase  is  red,  except  only  for  the  black  figures  ; 
there  the  whole  vase  is  covered  with  black  so  as  to  conceal  all 
the  red  except  where  it  is  left  to  fill  in  the  contours  of  the 
figures.  But  if  we  now  look  at  the  amphorae  on  the  west  side 
of  this  room,  we  shall  see  a  class  of  vases  which  seem  to  be 
intermediate  in  general  effect  between  the  other  two  styles. 
In  these  later  vases  here  the  whole  body  is  covered  with  black, 
except  for  a  panel  which  is  left  red  for  the  black  figures  to  be 
silhouetted  on.  This  introduction  of  black  glaze  proved  before 
long  the  death  of  the  black-figure  style.  For  a  time  the  two 
styles — black-figure  and  red-figure — flourished  side  by  side. 
The  same  artists  worked  in  both,  and  sometimes  the  same 
vase  exhibits  both  styles.  But  by  about  450  B.C.  the  red- 
figure  style  won  the  day. 


We  now  proceed  to  examine,  first,  the  vases  placed  on 
pedestals  or  in  table-cases  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  passing 
afterwards  to  the  cases  against  the  walls.1 

Case  A. — Amphorae  :  about  550-500  B.C. — In  this  case 
the  vases  are  nearly  all  painted  with  the  labours  of  Hercules. 
This  popular  hero — in  whose  personality  the  Greeks  typified 
the  victory  of  civilisation  over  barbarism,  of  man  over  nature 
— had,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  a  fit  of  madness  killed  his 
own  children,  and  for  this  crime  he  was  sentenced  by  Zeus  to 
serve  Eurystheus,  King  of  Tiryns,  with  the  promise  that  after 
fulfilling  the  tasks  assigned  to  him  he  would  be  received 
among  the  gods  and  married  to  Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth. 
The  Labours  which  were  imposed  upon  Hercules  by  Eurystheus, 

1  In  the  event  of  any  of  the  vases  so  described  being  removed  to  other 
positions,  the  index-list  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  may  be  found  convenient. 


3x6 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


and  others  which  he  accomplished  by  the  way,  occur  over  and 
over  again  on  Greek  vases.  For  the  most  part  we  shall  notice 
only  one  or  two  examples  of  each  subject : — 

B  154. — Here  on  one  side  is  Hercules  engaged  in  combat  with 
the  Amazons,  one  of  the  labours  imposed  upon  him  being  to  obtain 
the  girdle  of  Hippolyta,  the  Amazon  Queen,  given  her  by  Ares. 
The  simplest  form  of  this  subject  may  be  seen  in  B  533;  then 
the  subject  was  extended  to  a  general  combat.  The  picture  on  the 
other  side  of  our  vase  represents  the  blinding  of  Polyphemus,  as 
described  in  the  Odyssey.  The  number  of  vase-paintings  suggested 
by  the  Homeric  poems  is  very  large,  and  the  adventures  of  Odysseus 
were  particularly  in  favour.  After  making  the  monster  drunk,  he 
sharpened  the  end  of  a  pine-tree  and  thrust  it,  when  heated,  into  the 
eye  of  Polyphemus.  Here  we  see  him  planting  his  foot  on  the  chest 
of  Polyphemus,  who  tries  to  drag  the  tree  away.  Odysseus  is  assisted 
by  his  sailors,  who  are  drawn  in  strange  attitudes  and  with  enormous 
pointed  feet.  One  tendency  of  archaic  art  seems  always  to  lie  in  the 
direction  of  exaggerating  the  extremities  of  the  figures ;  one  may  see 
the  same  elongated  feet  and  hands  in  early  Italian  pictures,  and  in 
pre-Raphaelite  productions,  such  as  Millais's  "  Lorenzo  and  Isabella." 

B  221. — Here  we  see  another  labour  of  Hercules — his  contest  with 
the  triple  monster,  Geryon,  whose  oxen  he  was  to  capture.  On  the 
other  side  is  Medea  boiling  the  ram.  Medea,  an  enchantress,  was 
married  to  Jason,  whom  she  had  assisted  to  find  the  golden  fleece. 
When  he  consulted  her  how  to  avenge  himself  on  his  brother  Pelias, 
Medea  persuaded  the  daughters  of  Pelias  to  kill  their  father,  cut  him 
in  pieces,  and  boil  his  remains.  By  this  means,  she  said,  they  would 
restore  him  to  life  and  youthful  vigour.  To  convince  them  of  the 
truth  of  her  enchantments,  Medea  killed  and  boiled  a  ram,  and  trans- 
formed it  thereby  into  a  lamb.  Here  we  see  Medea  raising  her  hand 
in  token  of  amazement,  as  she  watches  the  ram  springing  up  with 
renewed  youth  from  a  large  cauldron.  Near  her  is  seated  old  Pelias, 
whose  turn  will  come  next :  white  is  used  to  represent  his  gray  hairs. 
To  the  right  are  his  two  daughters. 

B  228. — Hercules  seizing  the  river-god  Achelous.  CEneus,  King 
of  Calydon,  had  offered  his  daughter,  Deianeira,  in  marriage  to  the 
man  who  should  tame  the  Achelous.  The  river-god  assumed  the  form 
of  a  bull.     Hercules  tore  off  his  horns  and  conquered  him. 

[The  representation  of  rivers  in  the  form  of  bulls  is  very 
frequent  in  Greek  art.  We  shall  see  many  instances  both  on 
vases  and  on  coins.  Classical  poetry  also  abounds  in  the 
same  form  of  impersonation.  Horace  likens  Tiberius,  in 
pursuing  the  foe,  to  the  river  Aufidus  in  flood ;  sic  tauriformis 
volvitur  Aufidus  (Od.  iv.  14,  25).  Tiberius  is  like  the  Aufidus; 
the  Aufidus  is  like  a  bull  charging  down  the  mountain  side. 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


3l7 


Virgil,  again,  speaks  of  the  horns  of  the  river  Eridanus  (G.  iv. 
371),  and  of  the  horned  Tiber  (A.  viii.  77).  Euripides  simi- 
larly likens  the  Cephissus  to  a  bull  (Ion,  1 26 1 ).  Three  theories 
have  been  propounded  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  this  repre- 
sentation of  rivers  as  bulls,  and  all  of  them  may  be  true.  The 
rapid  and  impetuous  course  of  mountain  streams  is  like  the 
rush  of  a  bull :  this  seems  to  be  the  idea  in  the  passage  from 
Horace.  The  roaring  of  a  river  is  like  the  bellowing  of  a  bull 
— a  simile  employed  by  Homer  of  the  river  Xanthus  (II.  xxi. 
237).  Again,  the  primitive  fancy,  as  cattle  were  observed  at 
some  ford  or  beside  some  sluggish  stream,  may  well  have 
compared  the  branching  of  the  water  into  separate  channels  to 
the  diverging  horns  of  a  bull.  To  these  theories,  a  fourth 
has  been  added.  The  bull  was  the  symbol  of  the  productive 
power  of  nature  ;  and  in  southern  lands  this  power  is  seen  to 
depend  for  agricultural  purposes  upon  the  rivers.  The  forms 
in  which  the  simile  is  embodied  in  ancient  art  are  very  various. 
The  river  Achelous  on  this  vase  has  bull's  horns  and  ears  and 
a  bull's  body,  but  is  human  from  the  waist.  On  B  313 
(p.  347)  a  human-headed  body  is  united  at  the  waist  with  the 
shoulders  of  a  bull's  body,  in  which  it  terminates.  On  a  later 
vase,  E  437  (p.  354),  the  river-god  has  a  satyr's  head,  bull's 
horns,  and  a  human  body  terminating  in  a  fish's  tail.  It  is 
probable  that,  as  in  the  case  of  Thetis,  the  transformations 
and  combinations  are  intended  to  express  the  changeful  nature 
of  the  element  water.  Such  fancies  would  readily  occur  to 
those  who  had  watched  the  changes  in  a  southern  stream — 
now  dry  and  now  in  flood,  now  clear,  now  turbid.  Upon 
Greek  coins,  as  we  shall  see,  the  impersonation  of  rivers  takes 
the  form  of  a  man-headed  bull ;  of  a  youthful  figure,  with  small 
budding  horns  ;  of  a  standing  human  figure.  The  recumbent 
human  figure  as  a  river-god — a  representation  familiar  to  us 
all  from  its  adoption  in  Roman  art — was  also  frequent  in 
Greek  sculpture  (see  p.  166).  There  are  interesting  studies 
on  the  whole  subject  by  C.  T.  Newton  in  Ruskin's  Stones  of 
Venice,  vol.  i.  app.  2 1  ;  by  Prof.  P.  Gardner  in  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  N.S.  xi.  173.  "Some  con- 
ception of  personality  or  of  spiritual  power  in  the  stream  is 
almost  necessarily  involved  in  the  passionate  affection  with 
which  a  noble  people  commonly  regards  the  rivers  and  springs 
of  its  native  land"  (Aratra  Pente/ici,  §  88)]. 


3i8 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


B  217. — On  one  side,  Hercules  slaying  the  lion  which  infested  the 
valley  of  Nemea.  This  was  the  first  of  his  labours  —  a  type  of  the 
first  great  adversary  of  life,  whatever  it  may  be — the  lion  in  the  path, 
which  each  man  has  to  destroy,  fighting  in  the  dark,  with  none  to 
help  him,  only  Athena  standing  by  to  encourage  with  her  smile.  There 
are  two  types  on  the  vases  of  this  subject  :  either  (as  here)  the  hero 
kneels  and  strangles  the  lion  with  his  arms  round  his  neck  —  this 
version  is  generally  found  on  kylixes,  being  more  suitable  to  their 
shape  ;  or  (as  in  B  232  in  the  next  case)  the  hero  stands  erect  and 
plunges  his  sword  into  the  lion's  neck. 

B  222. — Hercules  and  Antoeus.  Antaeus,  son  of  Poseidon  and 
Gaea  (Earth),  was  a  monstrous  giant  who  compelled  all  visitors  to 
wrestle  with  him  and,  slaying  them,  built  a  palace  with  their  skulls, 
So  long  as  he  remained  in  contact  with  his  mother,  Earth,  he  was 
invincible.  But  Hercules,  discovering  the  secret  of  his  strength, 
lifted  him  from  the  earth  and  crushed  him  in  the  air.  Here  we  see 
Anteeus  crouching  down  and  clinging  to  the  earth  with  his  right  hand. 

B  226. — On  one  side  is  the  legend  of  Hercules  and  Pholus — the 
good  centaur  who  entertained  the  hero,  setting  roast  meat  before  him 
while  he  supped  on  raw  himself.  On  the  other  side  is  a  representa- 
tion of  olive-gathering.  A  youth  in  the  tree  is  shaking  the  fruit  down, 
and  two  men  are  beating  the  tree,  while  a  youth  with  a  basket  collects 
the  olives  as  they  fall — just  such  a  scene  as  may  now  be  witnessed  in 
southern  Europe. 

B  233. — Contest  between  Hercules  and  Apollo  for  the  Tripod — a 
common  subject  on  vases.  The  story  was  that  Hercules,  when  afflicted 
with  madness,  appealed  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi  for  relief.  Being 
irritated  at  the  replies  of  the  priestess,  he  resolved  to  carry  off  the 
sacred  tripod.  And  Apollo  withstood  him,  and  there  was  a  mighty 
contest,  until  Zeus  intervened. 

In  this  case  there  is  a  two-handled  cup  (cantharos),  very 
minutely  painted.  Beside  it  is  placed  a  modern  fragment 
which  had  been  affixed  to  the  vase  by  some  clever  restorer. 

[The  arts  of  restoration  and  imitation  have  been  widely 
employed  in  the  case  of  Greek  vases,  and  "  even  experienced 
connoisseurs  have  been  deceived.  Pietro  Fondi,  who  had 
established  his  manufactories  at  Venice  and  at  Corfu,  was 
remarkable  for  his  success  in  this  kind  of  deceit.  The  family 
Vasari,  at  Arezzo,  manufactured  vases  of  this  kind ;  there  are 
several  of  them  in  the  Gallery  at  Florence.  Of  this  kind  of 
deception  there  are  several  kinds.  Sometimes  the  vase  is 
ancient  but  the  painting  is  modern,  frequently  details  and 
inscriptions  are  added  to  the  ancient  painting  ;  but  the 
difference  in  the  style  of  drawing,  the  multiplicity  of  details, 
the  nails  indicated  on  the  hands  and  feet,  betray  the  fraud,  as 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


3*9 


well  as  the  coarseness  of  the  earth  (which  makes  the  vases 
heavier),  and  the  metallic  lustre  of  the  varnish.  The  test 
which  the  colours  of  the  false  vases  are  made  to  undergo  is 
also  decisive.  If  colours  mixed  with  water  or  alcohol  have  been 
employed,  it  is  sufficient  to  pass  a  little  water  or  spirits  of  wine 
over  them  to  make  them  disappear"  (H.  M.  Westropp,  Hand- 
book of  Archceology,  p.  242).  Modern  forgers  have  never 
managed,  says  Count  Tyszkiewicz,  to  discover  "  the  secret  of 
the  ancient  potters,  how  to  obtain  the  background  of  a  brilliant 
black  colour,  improperly  known  as  the  varnish  of  Nola.  To 
disguise  their  failure  in  this  respect,  the  forgers  are  obliged, 
when  the  vase  is  entirely  reconstructed  and  repainted,  to  cover 
it  all  over  with  a  varnish  of  their  own  invention  ;  but  the 
surface  of  this  varnish,  although  brilliant,  lacks  the  freshness 
and  brightness  of  that  used  by  the  ancients.55  It  is  this  which 
disappears  under  washing  by  alcohol.  The  Count  adds  many 
interesting  particulars  with  regard  to  "  antique  vases  "  which 
proceed  in  these  days  from  laboratories  at  Athens  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Naples.  "  White  Greek  vases  "  of  modern 
manufacture  are  often  excellent ;  those  vases,  even  when  really 
antique,  cannot  resist  the  action  of  alcohol :  see  Memories  of 
a?i  Old  Collector^  pp.  179-186.] 

CaseB. — Amphorae :  about  550-500  B.C. — Most  of  the  vases 
here  are  painted  with  legends  of  Hercules  and  other  heroes  : — 

B  229. — Hercules  at  the  hot  springs,  Thermae  (Himera)  in  Sicily. 
The  hero  stands  under  the  stream  which  rises  from  a  lion's  head  at  the 
top  of  a  rock.  (Compare  the  coin  of  Himera,  No.  II.  C.  25,  in  the 
collection  of  electrotypes  ;  see  p.  510.) 

B  246,  247. — Theseus  slaying  the  Minotaur.  Ariadne,  daughter 
of  King  Minos,  who  gave  Theseus  the  clue  by  which  he  found  his 
way  through  the  labyrinth  to  the  Minotaur,  looks  on  and  encourages 
the  hero. 

B  248. — From  the  story  of  Perseus.  One  of  the  three  Gorgons 
was  Medusa,  who  turned  into  stone  all  who  beheld  her.  But  the 
hero  Perseus  slew  her.  Here  we  see  the  hero  flying  after  his  exploit 
in  order  to  escape  the  two  Gorgons,  eager  to  avenge  their  sister's 
death.  The  mountains  of  Libya  are  represented  below  him  ;  he  wears 
the  helmet  of  invisibility  given  him  by  Pluto.  Athena  and  Hermes 
assist  his  escape.  The  Gorgons,  with  snakes  on  their  heads,  fly  in  the 
stiff  attitude  of  archaic  art. 

B  223. — A  typical  representation  of  Hercules  in  contest  with  the 
sea-monster  Triton,  who  is  human  to  the  waist,  but  ends  in  a  long 
fish's  tail. 


320 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


B  215. — Peleus  and  Thetis.  Thetis  was  a  sea-nymph,  whom  Zeus 
had  bestowed  against  her  will  on  Peleus,  King  of  Thessaly.  She 
endeavoured  to  escape  from  him  by  assuming  the  forms  of  various 
animals,  until  at  length  Peleus  seized  her  and  she  consented  to  become 
his  wife.  Peleus  is  here  shown  seizing  her  round  the  waist.  Two  ot 
her  transformations  are  indicated — by  the  lion's  head  issuing  from  her 
left  shoulder,  and  by  the  panther  which  has  leapt  upon  Peleus  from 
behind  (cf.  E  9,  p.  354). 

B  239. — The  body  of  Hector  dragged  by  Achilles  round  the  tomb 
of  Patroclus  : — 

his  flying  steeds 
He  then  would  harness,  and,  behind  the  car 
The  corpse  of  Hector  trailing  in  the  dust, 
Thrice  made  the  circuit  of  Patroclus'  tomb. 

Iliad,  xxiv.  16. 

B  240. — On  one  side  is  the  Ghost  of  Patroclus  hovering  over  the 
Greek  fleet.  This  design  is  a  good  instance  of  what  has  been  called 
"  the  simple  shorthand  "  of  the  vase-painters.  A  single  ship  represents 
the  fleet ;  a  single  rock,  the  bay  ;  a  curved  line  and  some  dolphins, 
the  sea.  The  raven,  sacred  to  Apollo,  represents  a  sanctuary.  The 
ghost  is  shown  in  armour,  but  with  wings.  The  lower  part  of  the  vase 
is  decorated  with  a  little  frieze  of  animals — a  survival  of  the  style  in 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  the  whole  body  of  the  vase  was  covered  with 
parallel  friezes. 

Pedestal  I. — The  Callias  Vase  (B  147). 

This  vase  will  repay  a  good  deal  of  attention.  It  is  a  fine 
example  of  the  early  black-figure  style  ;  the  treatment  -of  the 
principal  scene,  the  Birth  of  Athena,  is  very  characteristic  of 
the  Greek  genius ;  and  an  inscription  on  the  vase  affords 
ground  for  dating  it  with  some  precision. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  technique,  the  vase  illustrates 
the  weakness  and  strength  of  the  early  style.  The  figures  are 
stiff,  and  are  all  represented  in  profile.  The  action  is  angular. 
The  faces  are  without  expression.  The  expression  is  conveyed 
by  gesture  only,  and  the  gestures  are  somewhat  ungainly  and 
lack  variety.  On  the  other  hand,  the  outlines  are  drawn  with 
great  precision  ;  the  incised  lines  are  very  careful,  and  the 
accessories  show  invention  and  decorative  effect.  White  colour 
is  introduced  to  distinguish  women  from  men,  and  white  and 
purple  are  used  to  heighten  the  effect  in  the  draperies  and 
elsewhere.  Notice  the  throne  of  Zeus  with  its  inlaid  work, 
and  the  little  statues  supporting  it. 

The  subject  of  the  principal  design  is  the  Nativity  of  Athena. 
Zeus  is  seated,  with  a  thunderbolt  in  his  right  hand  and  a 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


321 


sceptre  in  the  left.  From  his  head  Athena  springs,  ready 
armed  and  brandishing  her  spear.  Before  the  throne  of  Zeus 
stands  Eileithyia,  the  goddess  of  childbirth.  Behind  her  are 
Hercules  and  Ares.  Behind  Zeus  are  Apollo  playing  on  his 
lyre,  Poseidon  carrying  his  trident,  and  Hera.  Hephaestus, 
whose  axe  had  opened  the  head  of  Zeus,  is  running  away,  but 
looks  back  in  wonder  at  the  miracle.  This  representation  of 
the  myth  will  probably  strike  the  modern  spectator  as  straight- 
forward to  the  point  of  grotesqueness,  but  it  persisted  down  to 
the  time  of  the  much  later  red-figured  vases  (see,  e.g.,  E  410). 
The  Greek  artists  treated  their  religious  legends  as  frankly  and 
straightforwardly  as  the  mediaeval  painters  treated  the  Bible 
story  : — 

"  You  have  probably  often  smiled  at  the  legend  itself,  or  avoided 
thinking  of  it,  as  revolting.  It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  painful 
and  childish  of  sacred  myths  ;  yet  remember,  ludicrous  and  ugly  as  it 
seems  to  us,  this  story  satisfied  the  fancy  of  the  Athenian  people  in 
their  highest  state.  And  this  legend  of  the  birth  of  Athena  is  the 
central  myth  of  all  that  the  Greeks  have  left  us  respecting  the  power  of 
their  arts.  To  understand  the  agency  of  Hephaestus,  we  must  return 
to  the  founding  of  the  arts  on  agriculture  by  the  hand.  Before  you 
can  cultivate  land,  you  must  clear  it  ;  and  the  characteristic  weapon 
of  Hephsestus  is  the  clearing  axe.  And  this  rude  symbol  of  his  cleav- 
ing the  forehead  of  Zeus  with  the  axe,  and  giving  birth  to  Athena, 
signifies  indeed,  physically,  the  thrilling  power  of  heat  in  the  heavens, 
rending  the  clouds,  and  giving  birth  to  the  blue  air  ;  but  far  more 
deeply  it  signifies  the  subduing  of  adverse  Fate  by  true  labour ;  until, 
out  of  the  chasm,  cleft  by  resolute  and  industrious  fortitude,  springs  the 
Spirit  of  Wisdom  "  (Ruskin,  Aratra  Pentelici,  p.  70,  where  a  coloured 
reproduction  is  given  of  the  design  on  this  vase). 

On  the  other  side  of  the  vase  is  a  warrior  in  a  chariot. 
The  warrior  is  inscribed  Callias — the  name  borne  by  a  wealthy 
Athenian  family.  The  subject  may  represent  a  Callias  who  is 
known  to  have  been  renowned  for  his  victory  in  the  chariot- 
races  in  the  year  564  B.C.  If  that  be  so,  the  date  of  the  vase 
— namely,  some  year  shortly  after  564 — would  well  accord 
with  its  style. 

Case  C. — Early  black-figure  kylixes,  of  Athenian  design. 

—This  shape  of  vase  came  into  special  favour,  as  we  shall  see, 
in  the  later  red -figure  style.  It  is  interesting  to  trace  the 
process  of  evolution  in  its  decoration.  The  earlier  form  of 
the  kylix  has  a  deep  bowl,  and  is  decorated  on  the  outside 

Y 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM  chap. 


with  a  frieze.  At  first  one  band  of  decoration  only  is  used. 
In  the  first  vase  on  the  top  of  this  case,  B  412,  the  inside 
is  not  painted  at  all ;  on  the  outside  there  are  two  red 
bands  and  some  decorative  ornaments  near  the  handles.  In 
B  425  little  figures  are  introduced  on  the  upper  band.  These 
diminutive  figures  gradually  give  way  to  figured  designs  of  a 
bolder  kind,  and  the  whole  space  under  the  handles  is  utilised 
for  decoration.  The  bowl  becomes  shallower,  and  eyes  are 
introduced  for  decorative  purposes.  In  the  red-figure  period 
these  eyes  are  dispensed  with,  and  the  designs  sweep  round 
the  vase.  The  inside  of  the  kylix  was  at  first  not  decorated 
at  all,  or  decorated  only  with  a  small  medallion.  The  most 
common  design  is  a  Gorgon's  head.  The  fancy  was,  no  doubt, 
to  confront  the  drinker  with  this  grotesque  when  his  cup  was 
empty,  and  thus  to  invite  him,  as  it  were,  to  fill  up  the  bowl 
again.  Some  authorities  see  in  the  development  of  the  kylix 
the  origin  of  the  red-figure  style.  '  The  interior  was  covered 
with  black  varnish  :  w  the  invading  black  ground  has  left  only 
a  small  circle  of  red  ;  it  needed  but  a  few  strokes  with  the 
brush  for  hair,  and  teeth,  and  beard,  and  eyes,  and  a  red- 
figured  Gorgoneion  was  complete.  Some  such  accident  may 
have  led  to  the  wholesale  adoption  of  the  red-figured  technique." 

The  vases  on  the  top  of  the  case  are  signed  with  their 
makers'  names — Hermogenes  (412),  Pasiades  (668),  Xanocles 
(425),  Charinos  (631),  Nikosthenes,  a  painter  with  whom  we 
shall  meet  again  (368),  and  Tleson  (410).  The  painters  of 
this  group,  who  must  have  worked  at  the  end  of  the  black- 
figure  period,  have  been  called  the  "  little  masters,"  from  the 
analogy  between  their  work  and  that  of  the  German  "  little 
masters "  of  engraving  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Two  or 
three  of  these  vases  are  specially  noteworthy  : — 

B  668. — An  alabastron,  or  perfume  vase,  found  in  a  tomb  at  Marion 
(Cyprus),  together  with  a  beautiful  ring  (568).  This  vase  is  "covered 
with  a  creamy  slip,  on  which  are  drawn  in  with  fine  black  lines  two 
female  figures,  the  one  presenting  a  cup  of  wine,  towards  which  the 
other  advances  energetically,  holding  a  branch  of  laurel  in  each  hand. 
Round  her  body  is  tied  a  deer's  skin,  which,  together  with  the  wine- 
cup,  gives  the  ceremony  a  Bacchic  character.  Appropriate  to  this  is 
the  crane — the  messenger-bird  of  Demeter — which  stands  between  the 
two  figures.  It  is  painted  fully  in  black,  a  proceeding  which  saves  the 
trouble  of  indicating  the  wings  and  feathers.  Yet  with  all  its  want  of 
detail  the  form  of  the  bird  is  admirably  rendered."  The  vase  is  signed 
by  Pasiades,  a  painter  as  yet  otherwise  unknown.     The  design  is  a 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


323 


charming  specimen  of  archaic  drawing,  showing  a  "fine  touch  and 
delicate  sentiment"  (J.H.S.  viii.  p.  318). 

B631. — A  jug  with  black  vine-branches  on  a  cream  ground,  with 
an  inscription — 

"Xenodoke,  methinks,  is  a  pretty  girl." 

An  Athenian  alabastron  (acquired  in  1900),  representing  two  men 
training  horses.  The  vase  is  inscribed  with  the  /caXos  names  of 
Carystius  and  Smicrion.  "The  drawing  is  slightly  archaic,  but  excel- 
lent." Horses  and  horsemanship  were  as  much  accounted  among  the 
Greeks  as  among  ourselves.  The  vase-paintings  provide  abundant 
evidence  of  the  fact. 

In  the  lower  part  of  this  case  we  may  notice  several  specimens 
of  the  kyathos,  or  cup  with  a  handle,  used  as  a  ladle  for 
drawing  wine  from  the  mixing  bowl  without  wetting  the  fingers. 
The  eyes  referred  to  above  will  be  noticed  on  several  of  the 
vases  ;  their  significance  is  discussed  below. 

As  an  example  of  the  Gorgons'  heads  painted  in  the  interior 
of  cups,  we  may  notice  B  427  :  two  long  tusks  project,  as 
usual,  from  either  jaw.  It  is  worth  remark  that  no  Greek 
representation  of  the  Gorgon  has  anything  very  terrible  about 
it :  there  is  nothing  in  Greek  art  comparable  to  the  cold 
horror  that  mediaeval  art  put  into  such  fancies.  There  are 
hundreds  of  Gorgons  in  the  Museum,  from  the  Sicilian  sculp- 
tures to  these  painted  vases  :  they  are  all  comic,  rather  than 
terrible.  Ruskin  notes  this  fact  as  characteristic  of  the  Greek 
genius  : — 

"  It  differs  essentially  from  all  other  art,  past  or  present,  in  the 
incapability  of  being  frightened.  Half  the  power  and  imagination  of 
every  other  school  depend  on  a  certain  feverish  terror  mingling  with 
their  sense  of  beauty  ; — the  feeling  that  a  child  has  in  a  dark  room,  or 
a  sick  person  in  seeing  ugly  dreams.  But  the  Greeks  never  have  ugly 
dreams.  They  cannot  draw  anything  ugly  when  they  try.  Sometimes 
they  put  themselves  to  their  wits'-end  to  draw  an  ugly  thing, — the 
Medusa's  head,  for  instance, — but  they  can't  do  it — not  they, — because 
nothing  frightens  them.  They  widen  the  mouth,  and  grind  the  teeth, 
and  puff  the  cheeks,  and  set  the  eyes  a-goggling  ;  and  the  thing  is 
only  ridiculous  after  all,  not  the  least  dreadful,  for  there  is  no  dread  in 
their  hearts"  {Queen  of  the  Air,  §  175). 

There  is  nothing  in  any  Greek  representation  of  the  Gorgons 
that  resembles  in  kind  the  "tempestuous  terror"  of  Leonardo's 
Medusa.  (For  a  discussion  of  all  the  Gorgons  represented  in 
the  British  Museum,  see  an  article  by  J.  Six  in  J.H.S.  vol.  vi.) 


324 


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CHAP. 


Pedestal  II.— A  "Transition"  Vase  (B  193). 

This  vase,  with  nobly  designed  paintings,  is  one  of  the  finest 
specimens  in  existence  of  the  transition  from  black  figures  to 
red,  both  styles  being  represented  on  it : — 

"On  one  side  are  two  seated  figures  of  Greek  warriors,  probably 
Ajax  and  Achilles,  playing  at  a  game  like  draughts  ('taking  their 
pleasure  at  draughts,'  as  Homer  describes — a  very  common  subject  on 
painted  vases).  They  are  painted  in  black,  with  chocolate-red  touches, 
and  minute  details,  such  as  the  drapery  over  their  armour  and  their 
wavy  hair,  executed  in  incised  lines  of  extreme  fineness  and  gem-like 
treatment.  The  other  side  of  the  vase  has  red  figures  on  a  black 
ground — a  most  powerfully  drawn  group  of  Heracles  strangling  the 
Nemean  lion  in  the  presence  of  Iolaus,  his  companion,  who  anxiously 
watches  the  contest.  Behind  the  hero  is  an  archaic  statue-like  figure 
of  Athena.  As  in  the  painting  with  black  figures,  some  touches  of  red 
are  used.  The  treatment  of  Heracles*  hair  is  peculiar,  and  again 
recalls  gem-engraver's  work,  in  which  hair  is  represented  by  a  series  of 
drilled  holes  ;  in  this  painting  the  stiff  curls  are  given  by  a  number  of 
round  dots  of  the  black  enamel,  applied  in  considerable  body  so  as  to 
stand  out  in  relief.  This  treatment  frequently  occurs  on  the  fine  vases 
of  this  and  later  periods,  and  the  same  method  is  occasionally  used  in 
a  very  effective  way  to  represent  bunches  of  grapes  and  the  like " 
(J.  H.  Middleton  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  9th  ed.  xix.  612). 

Case  D. — Amphorae:  550-500  B.C — The  subjects  on 
these  vases  are  mainly  myths  of  the  Olympian  deities,  such 
as  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  giants,  the  birth  of  Athena,  and 
the  Judgment  of  Paris.  In  the  following  notes  some  of  the 
principal  types  are  pointed  out : — 

B  236,  237,  238. — The  Judgment  of  Paris,  a  favourite  subject  with 
the  vase-painters,  as  indeed  with  painters  in  all  ages.  Mediaeval  and 
modern  painters  have  used  this  famous  contest  for  the  prize  of  beauty 
as  an  opportunity  for  the  display  of  physical  charms — as,  for  instance, 
in  the  well-known  picture  by  Rubens  at  the  National  Gallery.  No 
such  attempt  fell  within  the  scope  of  the  old  vase-painters.  There  is 
nothing  pretty  about  the  goddesses  we  see  here  ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  singularly  ill-favoured,  with  their  prominent  chins  and  ugly  noses. 
Greek  vase-painting  was  at  this  stage  not  much  more  than  a  form  of 
pictorial  shorthand  by  symbols.  Another  point  is  very  curious.  The 
legend  in  question  falls,  as  it  were,  into  three  acts  : — (1)  at  the  mar- 
riage of  Peleus  and  Thetis  the  goddess  of  discord  throws  a  golden 
apple  to  be  awarded  to  the  most  beautiful, — Hera,  Athena,  and 
Aphrodite  dispute  the  prize.  (2)  In  order  to  settle  the  dispute,  Zeus 
bids  Hermes  conduct  the  rivals  to  Paris  on  Mount  Ida  to  decide  the 
prize.    (3)  Paris  awards  the  apple  to  Aphrodite.    Of  these  three  acts 


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THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


325 


the  first  and  the  last  are  the  most  important ;  but  it  is  the  intermediate 
one  which  the  vase-painters  most  affected.  The  Judgment  of  Paris  in 
all  the  vase-pictures  before  us  is  a  mere  procession  of  the  three  goddesses 
led  by  Hermes.  In  many  cases  {e.g.  237,  238)  Paris  is  not  present  at 
all.  In  236  he  is  standing.  In  a  vase  in  the  next  case  (171)  he  is 
seated.  It  is  a  curious  way  to  represent  a  myth  with  the  principal 
figure  most  often  conspicuous  by  his  absence.  Miss  Harrison's  explana- 
tion is  that  the  type  of  design  on  these  "Judgment"  vases  was  not 
really  made  for  the  myth  of  Paris  at  all,  but  was  adapted  to  it,  having 
had  originally  another  significance — significance  in  a  different  myth  in 
which  Paris  had  no  part.  Miss  Harrison  traces  the  design  back  to  a 
subject  often  met  with  on  early  reliefs,  namely,  Hermes  conducting 
Three  Graces  to  Pan  (/.U.S.  vii.  196).  If  this  be  so,  it  is  an  inter- 
esting illustration  of  the  economy  of  design  and  stereotyped  fashion  in 
early  art. 

B  208,  145,  250,  252,  etc. — Gigantomachia,  or  battle  of  the  gods 
and  giants.  The  simplest  type  of  this  subject  is  a  single  combat,  such 
as  is  shown  on  252,  where  Athena  in  her  chariot  slays  Enceladus,  the 
most  powerful  of  all  the  giants  who  conspired  against  Zeus.  On  other 
vases  the  same  subject  is  extended  by  the  multiplication  of  contests, 
as  on  208,  where  Zeus,  Hercules,  Athena,  and  Hera  are  all  engaged. 
This  subject,  which  is  frequent  on  the  earlier  vases,  is  symbolical  (says 
Ruskin,  in  a  passage  of  characteristic  fancy)  of  "the  contest  between 
the  Good  and  Evil  Powers,  which  formed  the  first  elements  of  Greek 
religious  design.  Observe  that  in  all  of  these  Heracles  is  manly 
human  power  in  contest  with  disorder  and  pain.  Athena  is  physically 
the  air  ;  mythically,  the  sacred  spirit  of  wisdom  and  strength.  Hermes 
is  physically  the  cloud  ;  mythically,  the  guiding  and  moving  force  in 
the  order  of  heaven.  Athena's  crest  nearly  always  surmounts  the 
boundary  line  of  the  subject,  to  show  her  reign  in  the  two  Others. 
Heracles  usually  fights  the  Nemean  lion,  and  Athena  herself  the 
giants,  the  spirit  of  life  first  conquering  the  physical  and  monstrous 
resistance  of  the  elements  ;  and  then  human  heroism  conquers  the 
merely  bestial  rage"  (Catalogue  of  the  Educational  Series ',  p.  35). 

B  254. — A  quadriga  at  full  speed  in  which  are  Poseidon  and 
Aphrodite  (so  inscribed).  "Very  beautiful,"  says  Ruskin,  "and  of 
great  interest,  because  Aphrodite,  who  is  here  a  sea-power  and  some- 
what angry,  wears  an  aegis  at  first  sight  like  Athena's,  and  indeed 
representing  also  the  strength  of  storm-cloud,  but  not  of  electric  and 
destructive  storm  ;  therefore  its  fringes  are  not  of  serpents"  (Catalogue 
of  Educational  Series,  p.  29).  This  vase  formerly  belonged  to  Samuel 
Rogers. 

B  260  (amphora). — On  one  side  is  a  lyre-player  between  two  Doric 
columns,  each  surmounted  by  a  sphinx.  On  the  reverse  are  Apollo 
and  Artemis.  Round  the  neck  of  the  vase  is  an  elaborate  ornamental 
border: — "Many  of  the  floral  ornaments  of  this  period  still  retain 
clear  signs  of  their  oriental  origin.  The  sacred  tree  of  Assyria,  in  an 
elaborate  and  highly  conventionalised  form,  very  frequently  occurs,  or, 


326 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


worked  into  a  running  pattern,  it  forms  a  continuous  band  of  decoration, 
out  of  which  the  so-called  Greek  '  honeysuckle  pattern '  seems  to  have 
been  developed.  These  vases  have  far  greater  variety  and  richness  in 
their  decorative  patterns  than  those  with  the  black  ground,  the  natural 
result  of  the  great  ease  and  freedom  of  hand  with  which  delicate  floral 
designs  could  be  touched  in  with  the  brush  in  black,  while  in  the  later 
manner  the  red  patterns  had  to  be  laboriously  left  out  by  working  the 
black  ground  all  round  them "  (J.  H.  Middleton  in  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  xix.  612). 

Case  E. — Amphorae  :  560-520  B.C.,  chiefly  in  the  affected 
style. — As  an  example  of  this  style,  notice  on  B  151  how 
the  tendency  of  archaic  art  to  make  tapering  extremities  is 
exaggerated.  Among  the  subjects  represented  in  this  case  is 
one  which  we  have  discussed  on  a  bas-relief  (see  p.  62)— the 
visit  of  Dionysus  to  Icarius  (153,  149).  An  interesting  sub- 
ject in  the  Hercules  legends  is  represented  on  2 1 3  : — 

Among  the  other  labours  imposed  upon  the  hero  by  King  Eurystheus 
was  to  seize  a  wild  boar  on  Mount  Erymanthus  in  the  Peloponnese 
and  bring  it  alive  to  the  king.  The  hero  duly  performed  the  task, 
but  the  king  was  so  frightened  at  the  sight  of  the  boar  that  he  hid 
himself  in  a  pitcher  for  safety.  This  legend  contained  an  element  of 
comedy  dear  to  the  vase-painters,  and  we  find  many  representations  of 
it  in  this  room.  Three  types  occur  :  ( 1 )  Hercules  capturing  the  boar, 
B  462  (Case  31)  ;  (2)  Hercules  bringing  the  boar  to  Athena  (B  447,  492, 
Cases  54,  50)  ;  (3)  as  here  (and  in  B  162,  Case  I.)  bringing  the  boar  to 
Eurystheus.  The  king  has  hidden  himself  in  the  cask ;  and  Hercules, 
in  revenge  for  being  sent  on  so  perilous  an  enterprise,  is  about  to 
throw  the  beast  on  the  king,  who  holds  up  both  hands  to  ward  off  the 
boar.  On  the  other  side  of  the  vase  is  Leto,  carrying  her  two  children 
Apollo  and  Artemis  on  her  shoulder. 

Case  F. — Black  figures  on  red  panels:  560-520  B.C. — In 

this  case  we  may  notice  two  curious  designs.  On  one  side  of 
B  177  are  four  naked  men  being  stung  by  bees.  The  scene 
is  depicted  with  much  spirit  and  abundance  of  broad  humour. 
The  men  are  probably  the  impious  four  who,  according  to  a 
curious  legend,  plundered  the  hives  from  the  honey  of  which 
Zeus  was  nourished  when  an  infant : — ■ 

In  Crete  (says  an  ancient  writer)  there  is  said  to  be  a  cavern  sacred 
to  bees,  where  the  story  goes  that  Rhea  gave  birth  to  Zeus  ;  and  it  is 
unlawful  for  any,  be  he  god  or  man,  to  enter  therein.  Moreover,  at  a 
certain  season  year  by  year  a  flood  of  light  streams  forth  from  the  cave ; 
and  tradition  says  that  this  takes  place  when  the  birth-blood  of  Zeus 
overflows.  Now  it  happened  that  four  men,  attracted  by  the  honey, 
encased  themselves  in  bronze  and  ventured  into  the  cave.     Here  they 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


327 


saw  the  swaddling-bands  of  Zeus  ;  upon  which  their  bronze  armour 
split  and  the  god  was  minded  to  slay  them  with  his  thunderbolt.  But 
the  Fates  intervened  on  the  ground  that  it  was  unlawful  for  any  man  to 
die  in  the  cave.    Zeus  relenting  transformed  the  intruders  into  birds. 

The  vase-painting  gives,  it  will  be  seen,  the  moment  after 
the  bronze  has  fallen  from  the  men  and  before  their  meta- 
morphosis. 

On  one  side  of  the  next  vase,  B  182,  is  another  curious 
scene.  A  brabeus  (umpire  or  referee)  is  seated  and  holds  a 
ball  in  his  hands.  Three  nude  figures  approach  in  single  file. 
Each  has  his  hands  on  his  knees,  and  carries  on  his  shoulders 
a  boy  who  holds  out  his  hands  as  if  to  catch  the  ball.  For 
another  reference  to  this  game  of  mounted  ball,  see  the  Room 
of  Terra-cottas,  p.  702. 

Case  G. — Black  figures  on  red  panels :  560-520  B.C. — 
Subjects  mostly  the  labours  of  Hercules.  Most  of  the 
subjects  here  represented  we  have  already  described.  There 
is,  however,  a  new  subject  on  B  163 — the  sixth  labour  of 
Hercules,  the  killing  of  the  carnivorous  birds  which  ravaged 
the  lake  Stymphalis  : — 

Athena  supplied  him  with  a  brazen  rattle,  the  noise  of  which 
caused  the  birds  to  rise  from  the  lake,  and  he  killed  them  with  his 
sling.  Here,  he  is  about  to  whirl  the  sling  round  his  head,  holding  it 
at  full  stretch  ;  in  the  air  before  him  are  ten  of  the  birds,  either  flying 
or  falling  ;  in  the  lake  below  are  five  more,  and  one  is  behind  his  back. 

Another  subject  of  a  different  kind  is  represented  on 

B  205. — The  death  of  King  Priam  of  Troy.  The  aged  monarch, 
with  white  hair  and  beard,  lies  prostrate  on  the  altar  of  Zeus  ;  his  left 
arm  is  feebly  raised  to  deprecate  the  wrath  of  Neoptolemus,  who 
stands  over  him  resolved  to  revenge  the  death  of  his  father  Achilles. 
Behind  Priam  is  his  queen,  Hecuba,  who  tears  her  hair  and  extends 
her  hand  to  implore  for  mercy. 

Pedestal  III.— The  Chariot  Vase  (B  360) 

On  this  kelebe,  or  crater  (mixing- bowl),  the  designs  are 
executed  in  a  bold  style,  on  red  panels,  with  ivy-leaf  border. 
On  one  side  the  subject  is  the  departure  of  a  warrior  in  a  four- 
horse  chariot  ;  on  the  other  are  two  lions  devouring  a  bull. 

Case  H. — On  the  top  of  this  case  are  some  interesting 
vases  in  the  "  Chalcidian  "  style.     The  earlier  vases,  to  which 


328 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


these  bear  some  resemblance  (B  75,  76,  p.  341),  are  so  called 
from  the  prevalence  of  the  Chalcidian  alphabet  in  the  inscrip- 
tions on  them.  A  more  general  term,  which  covers  the  whole 
class,  is  "  metallic,"  for  these  vases  bear  evident  signs  of  being 
imitated  from  metal  utensils.  A  very  curious  illustration  of 
this  tendency  may  be  noted  in  the  vases  here  numbered  B 
379,  380  :  — 

"  At  the  insertion  of  the  stem  into  the  body  of  the  vase  there 
springs  from  the  body  a  delicately  modelled  spike,  inclosed  within  the 
stem  like  the  pistil  of  a  flower  within  its  calyx.  Judging  from  the 
metallurgic  tendency,  it  would  appear  as  if  the  potter  were  intending 
to  imitate  the  rivet  or  nail  which  in  a  metal  kylix  would  fasten  stem  to 
body.  In  keeping  with  the  richness  and  minuteness  of  ornament  dis- 
played throughout  on  these  vases,  the  artist  has  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
inclose  these  spikes  within  three  tiny  concentric  circles  of  black  colour  " 
(f.H.S.  v.  224). 

Another  point  in  which  these  vases  resemble  metal  work  is 
the  amount  of  incised  lines  on  them.  Other  characteristics 
of  the  "  Chalcidian  "  style  are  the  mixture  of  figure-subjects 
with  decorative  bands  and  borders,  and  the  horror  which  the 
painters  seem  to  have  felt  for  a  vacuum.  Where  the  design 
fails  to  cover  the  space,  figures,  etc.,  are  inserted  to  fill  the 
void.     Some  of  the  subjects  on  these  vases  are  interesting  : — 

B  379  (kylix). — On  the  interior  is  Ajax  seizing  Cassandra,  whom 
he  is  about  to  despatch  with  his  sword.  She  crouches  at  the  foot  of 
an  image  of  Athena ;  behind,  stands  a  siren,  which,  with  two  lotus 
flowers,  seems  merely  inserted  to  fill  the  empty  spaces  in  the  design. 
Notice  that  in  order  to  fill  the  space  between  the  handles,  and  form  a 
division  between  the  two  subjects,  figures  are  inserted  with  no  reference 
to  the  design — a  sphinx  and  a  crouching  warrior.  The  subjects  on  the 
exterior  are  (a)  a  combat  of  warriors,  and  (b)  the  apotheosis  of 
Hercules.  As  we  have  studied  so  many  of  the  labours  of  the  hero, 
we  may  pause  for  a  moment  before  this,  the  crowning  episode  in  his 
career,  when,  after  much  tribulation,  he  is  at  length  permitted  to  dwell 
with  the  gods  in  Olympus — as  Odysseus  describes  in  his  descent  into 
Hell,  "and  next  I  descried  the  mighty  Heracles,  his  phantom,  I  say; 
but  as  for  himself  he  hath  joy  at  the  banquet  among  the  deathless 
gods,  and  hath  to  wife  Hebe  of  the  fair  ankles,  child  of  great  Zeus 
and  of  Hera  of  the  golden  sandals  "  (Odyssey,  xi.  602).  Generally,  the 
vase-painters  describe  an  earlier  stage  in  the  apotheosis  of  the  hero, 
when  he  is  carried  up  to  heaven  in  a  chariot,  escorted  by  Athena  or 
Victory  as  charioteer  (see,  e.g.,  B  317-321).  But  here,  and  in  the  next 
vase  (424),  the  hero,  after  his  translation  to  the  skies,  is  being  intro- 
duced to  the  company  of  the  gods.    Zeus  is  seated  in  state,  his  sandalled 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


329 


foot  resting  on  a  footstool  ;  in  his  left  hand  is  his  thunderbolt.  His 
ambrosial  locks  fall  low  upon  his  shoulders,  and  he  is  robed  in  a 
gorgeous  dress  not  unworthy  of  the  King  of  gods.  The  procession  of 
deities  approach,  each  with  some  distinguishing  attribute.  In  the 
thrones  of  Zeus  and  Hera  the  artist  finds  full  scope  for  his  love  of 
decoration.  "  The  delightful  naivete  and  freshness  of  this  group,"  says 
Mr.  Cecil  Smith,  "  look  almost  as  though  they  must  have  been  inspired 
by  Homer  himself.  The  scene  might  perfectly  represent  the  court  of 
one  of  the  poet's  kings,  into  whose  presence,  seated  beside  his  consort, 
an  embassy  is  being  introduced  by  the  court  herald.  It  is  an  excellent 
example  of  the  Chalcidian  manner  at  its  best,  the  work  of  artists  who 
are  beginning  to  feel  their  way  out  of  the  stiff  conventionality  of 
oriental  tradition.  The  scene  is  instinct  with  the  life  which  breathes 
throughout  every  line  of  the  Greek  epics"  {J.H.S.  v.  236). 

B  424  (kylix,  signed  by  Phrynos).- — In  the  interior  is  a  relief, 
representing  the  carrying  off  of  the  infant  Dionysus  :  this  is  a  later 
addition  to  the  vase.  On  the  exterior  (a)  the  apotheosis  of  Hercules, 
see  preceding  vase  ;  (b)  the  birth  of  Athena.  The  type  here  is  earlier 
and  simpler  than  on  the  vase  already  discussed  (B  147,  p.  320).  There 
is  a  woodcut  of  this  design  in  Ruskin's  Aratra  Pentelici^  §  74.  It 
illustrates,  he  says,  "  the  childishness  of  the  Greek  mind  at  the  time 
when  its  art-symbols  were  first  fixed  ;  but  it  is  of  peculiar  value,  because 
the  physical  character  of  Vulcan  (Hephaestus)  as  fire  is  indicated  by  his 
wearing  the  iySpd/mides  (high  shoes)  of  Hermes,  while  the  antagonism 
of  Zeus,  as  the  adverse  chaos,  either  of  cloud  or  of  fate,  is  shown  by 
his  striking  at  Hephaestus  with  his  thunderbolt "  (for  further  remarks 
on  this  aspect  of  the  myth  as  signifying  the  power  of  heat  in  the  heavens, 
rending  the  clouds,  and  giving  birth  to  the  blue  air,  see  above,  p.  321). 

Below,  in  this  case,  are  later  black- figure  kylixes  of 
Athenian  make  :  520-500  B.C.  In  the  interior  is  the  head 
of  Medusa  (see  above,  p.  322)  ;  on  the  exterior,  eyes  are  intro- 
duced on  either  side  of  figures.  These  eyes  are  very  curious. 
The  conventional  nose  between  two  eyes  was  a  familiar  motive 
in  ancient  art,  and  it  appears  on  some  of  the  vases—  e.g.  on 
B  376.  There,  under  each  handle,  are  satyrs  plaiting  vine 
branches,  which  spread  over  the  sides  of  the  vase,  enclosing 
on  each  side  two  eyes.  In  some  cases  the  eyes  may  have 
special  reference  to  Dionysus,  and  be  symbolical  of  the  eyes 
of  the  ship  in  which  he  crossed  the  sea  (some  further  remarks 
on  this  subject  will  be  found  at  p.  341).  In  the  vase  just  men- 
tioned the  eyes  are  the  principal  ornamentation  of  the  vase. 
In  other  cases  they  are  used  as  convenient  devices  for  dividing 
different  subjects  or  filling  up  blank  space.  Their  use  in  this 
respect  survived  into  the  later  red-figure  style,  as  we  shall  see, 
for  it  was  a  long  time  before  the  vase-painters  acquired  the 


330 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


skill  to  conceive  and  execute  designs  of  a  continuous  character. 
On  two  of  the  vases  in  this  case  there  are  subjects  of  special 
interest : — 

B  432. — In  the  interior  is  a  potter  at  work.  Nude  and  beardless, 
he  sits  at  the  wheel,  on  which  is  a  kylix,  of  archaic  shape,  the  handle 
of  which  he  is  moulding.     On  a  shelf  above  him  are  other  vases. 

B  436  (kylix).— On  each  side  of  the  exterior  is  a  merchant-vessel 
and  a  war-galley.  The  former,  it  will  be  observed,  is  wide  and  roomy, 
and  trusts  to  the  sail ;  the  warship  is  of  the  pirate  type.  The  sea  is 
represented  by  a  wavy  line.  The  merchantman  is  a  soiling  vessel, 
rigged  with  mast  and  sail.  On  the  prow,  an  eye  ;  at  the  stern,  a 
landing  ladder  and  a  steersman  with  steering  oars  ;  along  the  sides, 
lattice-work  bulwarks.  Sailing  towards  it  is  a  war-galley  with  mast 
and  sail ;  prow  in  the  form  of  a  boar's  head  ;  bulwarks  as  before  ;  high 
fore-deck  ;  steering  oars  and  landing  ladders.  There  are  two  banks  of 
rowers,  four  sailors  furling  sail,  and  a  steersman. 

Pedestal  IV.— The  Burgon  Vase  (B  130) 

This  vase,  called  by  the  name  of  its  finder,  is  celebrated  as  the 
earliest  known  specimen  of  a  very  interesting  class,  namely,  the 
Panathenaic  Amphorae,  or  vases  given  as  prizes  in  the  Pan- 
athenaic  Festival  at  Athens.  Pillarwise  down  the  side  of  the 
vase  is  inscribed,  "  I  am  of  the  prizes  of  Athens."  These  vases, 
filled  with  oil  from  the  sacred  olive  trees,1  were  much  prized 
by  the  winners,  who  took  them  to  their  homes  in  all  parts  of 
the  Greek  world.  Thus  Pindar,  in  an  ode  in  honour  of  an 
Argive  wrestler,  says,  "  Sweet  preluding  strains  are  those 
that  twice  have  welcomed  his  triumph  at  the  festival  of  the 
Athenians  ;  and  in  earthenware  baked  in  the  fire,  within  the 
closure  of  figured  urns,  there  came  among  the  Argives  the 
prize  of  the  olive  fruit."  Many  of  the  Panathenaic  vases  in 
our  collection  were  found  in  Cyrene,  Capua,  or  Cervetri. 
They  were  preserved  in  families  for  many  generations,  and 
often  were  placed  in  the  tombs  of  their  possessors.  This 
"Burgon  vase"  was  found  in  18 13,  in  Mr.  T.  Burgon's 
presence,  in  the  course  of  excavations  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 

1  "In  the  Panathenaic  prize-lists  which  have  come  down  to  us  the 
prizes  are  estimated  at  so  many  amphorae  of  oil.  The  Panathenaic 
amphorae  of  our  museums  were  never  intended  to  serve  a  practical,  but 
only  a  festal  and  symbolical,  purpose,  one  such  being  given  to  each 
winner  as  representative  of  the  measures  of  oil  which,  together  with  it, 
comprised  his  prize"  (Cecil  Smith  in  Annual  of  the  British  School  of 
Athens,  No.  Hi.  p.  191).    The  Burgon  vase  holds  eight  English  gallons. 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


33i 


cemetery  outside  the  city  walls  of  Athens.  It  was  thickly 
encrusted,  and  only  by  accident  did  one  of  the  labourers  catch 
sight  of  a  piece  of  paint.  It  was  found  in  the  earth,  three 
feet  below  the  surface,  in  a  nearly  upright  position,  with  a 
heavy  rude  slab  placed  over  its  mouth.  It  retained  its  shape 
and  position  perfectly  after  the  earth  was  cleared  away  around 
it,  although  it  was  cracked  all  over  in  every  direction,  and  was 
taken  up  in  about  forty  pieces.  Inside  it  were  found  six 
smaller  earthen  vessels  and  some  burnt  bones  (see  Burgon's 
statement  in  Transactions  Royal  Society  of  Literature^  vol.  ii. 
part  i.  p.  109).  The  bones  may  have  been  those  of  the 
successful  competitor  to  whom  it  once  belonged.  The  great 
antiquity  of  this  vase  has  been  inferred  not  only  from  the  very 
rude  drawing  of  the  figures,  but  from  the  archaic  form  of  the 
letters  of  the  inscription,  and  also  from  some  peculiar  details. 
For  instance,  the  wheel  of  the  chariot  is  held  together  not  by 
spokes  radiating  from  a  common  centre,  but  by  a  diametrical 
bar  divided  into  three  nearly  equal  parts  by  two  bars  crossing 
it  at  right  angles.  The  vase  cannot,  however,  be  older  than 
566  B.C.,  in  which  year  the  Panathenaic  Festival  was  re- 
instituted. 

In  the  next  case  (I.)  is  a  collection  of  other  Panathenaic 
vases  of  an  early  date.  In  the  Fourth  Vase  Room  are  others 
of  a  later  date.  Nine  Panathenaic  vases  exist  which  can  be  pre- 
cisely dated  from  the  name  of  the  archon  (magistrate)  inscribed 
upon  them.  Of  these  nine,  the  Museum  possesses  six  :  their 
dates  range  from  367  to  328  B.C.  Though  a  period  of  more 
than  two  centuries  separates  some  of  the  vases  from  the  one 
before  us,  it  will  be  found  that  the  general  treatment  of  these 
Panathenaic  vases  remained  constant  to  the  original  type. 
On  one  side  of  the  vase  is  always  a  figure  of  Athena  as 
Warrior  ;  on  the  other  side  is  a  representation  of  the  particular 
contest  for  which  the  prize  was  awarded.  In  this  case  the 
prize  was  for  the  chariot  race.  A  chariot  is  here  being  driven 
at  high  speed  by  a  seated  charioteer.  He  holds  in  his  right 
hand  a  goad  ;  in  his  left,  a  long  pole  terminating  in  a  crook, 
from  which  hang  two  pointed  objects,  which  were  probably  of 
metal,  and  used  to  incite  the  horses  by  making  a  jingling 
noise.  With  this  staff  the  driver  guides  the  horses,  who  have 
no  harness  except  headstalls,  and  are  yoked  like  oxen  to  a 
transverse  bar.  On  the  hind  quarter  of  one  of  them  appears 
a  crimson  mark,  where  the  goad  has  made  a  wound.  The 


332 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


figure  of  Athena  shows  the  original  type  of  the  warrior  goddess 
as  protectress  of  the  city  of  Athens.  With  one  foot  advanced, 
she  prepares  to  hurl  her  spear  at  the  enemies  of  Athens. 
Over  long  flowing  hair  she  wears  a  crested  helmet.  On  the 
black  border  of  her  sleeveless  purple  garment  a  masander 
pattern  is  incised.  Her  breastplate,  the  aegis,  has  a  fringe  of 
snakes.  The  device  on  her  shield  is  a  dolphin — symbolical 
of  her  power  over  the  waves  (see  on  this  subject  Ruskin's 
Queen  of  the  Air,  §  39).  Round  the  neck  of  the  vase  is  on 
one  side  a  siren,  and  on  the  other  the  owl  of  Athena.  The 
drawing,  as  we  have  said,  is  very  rude,  and  the  figure  of  the 
goddess  is  squat  and  ungainly. 

Case  I. — Early  Panathenaic  Vases:   550-500  B.C, — 

These  smaller  prize  vases,  many  of  them  inscribed  "  one  of 
the  prizes  from  Athens,"  are  all  designed  on  the  model  already- 
explained.  On  one  side  is  Athena,  standing  generally  between 
two  Doric  columns  (symbolical  of  her  Temple),  which  are 
surmounted  with  cocks ;  on  the  other  side  is  the  contest, 
athletic  or  "musical,"  for  which  the  prize  was  awarded.  The 
vases  come  from  Vulci,  Rhodes,  Gela,  and  other  Greek  settle- 
ments. It  may  be  interesting  to  notice  a  few  of  the  contests 
in  detail : — 

B  132.  Horse-race. — Two  youthful  riders,  naked  and  beardless; 
each  has  a  three-thonged  whip  ;  the  foremost  brandishes  it,  the  other 
holds  it  downwards.  They  keep  their  left  hands  on  the  left  side  of 
the  horses'  crests.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  painted  horsemen 
with  those  on  the  Elgin  Marbles. 

B  134.  The  Pentathlon,  or  contest  of  five  "events" — (1)  long 
jump,  (2)  throwing  the  quoit,  (3)  hurling  the  spear,  (4)  running,  and 
(5)  wrestling. — Of  these  five  sports,  only  1,  2,  and  3  were  peculiar  to 
the  Pentathlon,  and  it  is  these  events,  therefore,  which  are  figured  on 
the  prize  vase.  The  jumper  has  stretched  out  his  hands  in  front  of 
him.  In  each  hand  he  has  one  of  the  haltei'es,  or  weights,  like  our 
dumb-bells,  which  were  supposed  to  assist  the  leap.  The  jump  is 
taken  standing,  it  will  be  observed,  not  running.  The  throwing  of 
the  quoit  is  already  familiar  to  us  from  the  statues  of  the  discobolus. 
The  spear  was  hurled  by  a  thong  at  a  mark.  The  fourth  figure  shown 
on  this  vase  is  probably  the  trainer.  (An  interesting  and  sportsmanlike 
paper  on  the  Pentathlon  will  be  found  in  /.U.S.  i.  215.) 

B  188.  A  Musical  Competition  of  Boys.— The  teacher  leans  on 
his  staff.  (This  is  not  a  Panathenaic  vase  ;  the  same  subject  is  given 
on  both  sides.)  B  139  (Panathenaic)  shows  the  victory  of  a  lyre- 
player.  B  131  shows  a  chariot-race.  In  this  case  the  device  on 
Athena's  shield  is  appropriately  the  winged  horse  Pegasus.     This  vase 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


333 


should  be  contrasted  with  the  Burgon  vase.  Here  the  charioteer  has 
reins. 

B  144.  A  Horse-race. — A  herald  (or  possibly  the  figure  is  meant 
for  the  owner)  announces  the  winner,  the  inscription  proceeding,  as  it 
were,  out  of  his  mouth:  "The  horse  of  Dysneiketos  wins."  The 
Greek  horse-races  were  ridden  by  boy  jockeys  (see  Pausanius,  vi.  2-4  : 
"  Beside  the  statues  of  Timosthenes  are  statues  of  Timon  and  his  son 
yEsypus,  the  latter  a  child  on  horseback  ;  for  the  boy  won  the  horse- 
race "). 

Case  K. — Amphorae  :  black  figures  on  red  panels.  Sub- 
jects mainly  the  labours  of  Hercules.  We  confine  ourselves 
to  subjects  not  hitherto  noticed  : — ■ 

B  156.  —  On  one  side  are  Hercules  and  Geryon,  who  has  three  bodies 
joined  at  the  hips.  Athena  looks  on.  On  the  other,  Hercules  slaying 
Cycnus — a  combat  which  formed  the  main  subject  of  Hesiod's  poem, 
the  "  Shield  of  Hercules."  According  to  Hesiod,  Zeus  took  no  part  in 
the  contest,  and  merely  sat  in  Olympus  thundering  mightily  and 
raining  drops  of  blood  as  a  sign  to  his  son.  Here  Zeus  is  present — 
an  instance  of  the  early  Greek  practice  of  representing  the  deity  who 
presided  over  an  action  as  bodily  in  its  midst  (Torr's  Rhodes  in 
Ancient  Times,  p.  115).  # 

B  197. — On  one  side,  the  nuptials  of  Zeus  and  Hera.  Their 
marriage  procession  is  a  common  type  on  vases.  This  is  one  of  the 
few  representations  of  it  which,  by  the  attitudes  of  the  figures,  can  be 
definitely  identified  as  the  marriage  of  Zeus  and  Hera.  In  the  chariot 
is  Zeus  (black  face)  and  beyond  him  Hera  (white  face),  who  is  veiled. 
Apollo  is  behind,  striking  his  lyre.  On  the  farther  side  of  the  chariot 
are  Dionysus,  with  an  ivy  branch,  Aphrodite  carrying  a  vase  on  her 
head,  and  Poseidon  with  his  trident.  At  the  horses'  heads  stand 
Artemis,  who  carries  the  nuptial  torches,  and  Hermes  to  lead  the  way. 
On  the  other  side  is  Hercules  slaying  Cycnus,  a  son  of  Mars.  This 
exploit  of  the  hero  was  not  one  of  his  labours,  but  is  frequently  repre- 
sented on  vases. 

B  160. — On  one  side,  Hercules  and  the  Nemean  lion.  On  the 
other,  a  marriage  procession.  The  bridal  pair  are  in  a  chariot,  beside 
which  walk  two  female  figures  bearing  a  sieve,  which  a  bride  was 
accustomed  to  bring  with  her  to  her  new  home  in  sign  that  her  future 
life  was  not  to  be  idle. 

We  now  pass  to  examine  the  vases  in  the  Wall-cases.  Those 
on  the  east  side  of  the  room  are  arranged  chronologically  and 
geographically  so  as  to  exhibit  the  development  of  the  art,  and 
the  visitor  will  find  it  interesting  to  study  the  vases  from  this 
point  of  view. 

Cases  1-5. — Archaic  Vases  from  Daphnse  and  Naucratis. 

— The  vases  and  fragments  from  Daphnas  were  discovered  by 


334 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Professor  Flinders  Petrie  in  1886  at  the  village  of  Defenneh.1 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Daphne,  which  Herodotus 
visited.  Situated  near  the  Pelusiac  mouth  of  the  Nile,  de  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Delta  to  Xaucratis,  it  was  settled  by  Greek 
colonists,  and  was  an  old  frontier  fortress  guarding  the  high- 
way to  Syria.  The  potter}7  from  this  site  has  black  figures 
on  a  light  ground.  The  shapes  of  the  vases  B  104,  105 
are  plainly  imitated  from  Egyptian  bronze  pitchers  ;  but  the 
subjects  of  the  paintings  are  Greek,  though  here  too  Egyptian 
influence  is,  as  we  shall  see,  sometimes  discernible.  The 
vases  and  fragments  from  Naucratis  were  found  by  Prof. 
Petrie  and  Prof.  E.  Gardner  on  that  site  in  the  years  1884-86. 
The  history  of  Xaucratis  has  been  already  referred  to  (p.  95). 
Two  periods  of  Xaucratis  ware  are  here  exhibited.  Those 
numbered  100- 103  belong  to  the  transitional  stage  from  the 
earlier  and  half-oriental  styles  to  the  regular  black-figure  style 
(600,  601).  The  designs  are  mostly  in  black  on  a  rich  butt 
or  pale  drab  ground  with  accessories  of  white  and  purple. 
The  workmanship  resembles  that  of  the  Daphnce  pottery. 
The  designs  are  mostly  sphinxes,  sirens,  and  waterfowl  arranged 
in  friezes  or  heraldic  groups.  The  potter}'  came  from  the  sites 
of  ancient  temples,  and  the  vases  had  been  used  in  the  service 
of  the  gods — as  we  know  from  the  dedication  to  Apollo  and 
Aphrodite  inscribed  upon  them.  We  will  now  examine  more 
in  detail  a  few  of  the  pieces  in  these  cases  : — 

B  105  (a  pitcher  from  Daphne). — The  lower  portion  of  the  vase  is 
decorated  only  wirh  floral  ornament,  but  on  the  top  we  are  in  the 
region  of  Greek  legend.  On  one  side  is  Bellerophon,  the  Corinthian 
hero,  mounted  on  his  winged  horse,  Pegasus — the  wonderful  creature 
that  had  sprung  from  the  neck  of  the  Gorgon  Medusa  when  Perseus 
cut  her  head  off.  In  the  course  of  his  adventures,  Bellerophon 
visited  the  Lycian  court,  and  the  king  despatched  him  with  orders  to 
slay  the  terrible  monster,  the  Chimera.  On  the  other  side  of  this 
vase  the  monster  is  shown  with  open  jaws  waiting  for  Bellerophon. 
It  has  the  head  of  a  lion,  the  body  of  a  goat,  and  a  serpent's  tail. 


1  The  Taphanhes  of  the  Bible.  ' '  So  they  came  into  the  land  of 
Egypt,  even  to  Taphanhes.  Then  came  the  word  of  the  Lord  unto 
Jeremiah  in  Taphanhes,  saying,  Take  great  stones  in  thy  hand,  and  hide 
them  in  the  clay  in  the  brick-kiln  which  is  at  the  entry  of  Pharaoh's  house 
in  Taphanhes"  (Jer.  xliii.  7-9).  It  was  this  very  Pharaoh's  house  that 
Mr.  Petrie  discovered  /see  an  interesting  article,  with  pictures,  by  Mr. 
Cecil  Smith  in  the  Illustrated  Loudon  A'ews,  Sept.  11,  1886). 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


335 


"The  drawing  is  full  of  archaic  spirit  and  beauty"  (Murray,  Hand- 
book of  Archeology,  p.  81  ;  Tanis  (in  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund's 
memoirs),  ii.  67). 

B  104  (pitcher  from  Daphnae). — The  figures  are  Egyptian  in 
character;  the  patterns  are  derived  from  the  "geometric  vases"  of 
Greece. 

B  106  (fragments). — The  shaven  faces  of  the  figures,  their  close- 
cut  hair,  circumcision,  and  method  of  fighting  all  show  the  Egyptian 
influence  (  Jams,  ii.  62). 

B  116. — Here  again  the  subject — a  nude  female  on  horseback — is 
derived  from  the  East.  The  saddlecloths  are  of  oriental  type,  and  the 
nude  female  rider  is  not  a  Greek  motive.  Reference  has  been  made 
in  this  connection  to  the  legend  of  Johtar  (Aphrodite)  descending 
naked  to  Hades,  as  told  on  a  tablet  in  the  British  Museum  (see  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology's  Records  of  the  Past,  i.  141). 

B  124  (stamnos  from  Daphnae). — Here,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
subjects  are  Greek.  Above,  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  boar  ;  below, 
funeral  games. 

Case  7. — The  most  interesting  vases  here  are  those  from 
the  Temple  of  the  Cabiri,  near  Thebes.  The  Cabiri  were 
sons  of  Hephaestus,  the  fire-god,  and  were  personifications  of 
his  powers.  Their  worship  at  Thebes  was  mixed  with  elements 
from  the  earlier  worship  of  Dionysus  and  from  the  Orphic 
mysteries.  "I  must  crave  pardon,"  says  Pausanias,  "if  I 
preserve  silence  as  to  who  the  Cabiri  are,  and  what  rites  are 
performed  in  honour  of  them  and  their  mother."  The  spirit 
of  the  cult  was  half  serious,  half  burlesque,  and  this  mixed 
character  is  found  in  the  vases  before  us  (see  J.H.S.  xiii.  84). 
The  temple  was  discovered  by  German  archaeologists,  1887-88, 
and  many  vases— of  local  Boeotian  manufacture — were  found. 

Many  archaic  vases  are  amusing  from  helplessness  or 
naivete,  and  on  the  late  vases  from  South  Italy  there  is  a 
conscious  cultivation  of  burlesque.  But  the  specimens  before 
us  are  the  only  known  examples  of  early  grotesque.  Though 
rude  in  style,  there  are  evidences  which  point  to  some  of 
the  rudeness  being  deliberately  assumed.  The  eyes,  for 
instance,  are  shown  in  profile,  and  not  as  in  archaic  art  in 
face.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Panathenaic  vases,  these  Cabiric 
vases  probably  retained  the  older  technique  from  ceremonial 
motives  (H.  B.  Walters  in  J.H.S.  xiii.  77). 

B  78  (skyphos). — Grotesque  nude  figures  dancing  before  a  tree  to 
the  strains  of  a  flute-player  with  puffed-out  cheeks — possibly  a 
Dionysiac  rite  :  "  is  it  rash  to  suppose  that  at  Thebes  as  elsewhere 
Dionysus  was  originally  worshipped  in  his  character  of  Dendrites,  and 


336 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


that  here  we  have  the  sacred  tree  which  later  piety  adorned  with  human 
clothing  and  metamorphosed  into  a  rough-and-ready  image  ?  "  (A.  B. 
Cook  in  Classical  Review >,  ix.  373). 

B  77  (skyphos). — A  centaur,  with  shaggy  hair  and  beard,  confronts 
two  grotesque  male  figures  :  perhaps  a  representation  of  Peleus  bring- 
ing the  young  Achilles  to  Chiron  (see  below,  p.  343).  On  the  reverse, 
a  pigmy  with  a  hump- back  attacking  a  crane. 

On  another  vase  is  Circe  offering  wine  to  Ulysses  ("  And  she  made 
me  a  potion  in  a  golden  cup,  that  I  might  drink,  and  she  also  put  a 
charm  therein,  in  the  evil  counsel  of  her  heart,"  Odyssey,  x.  314).  The 
caricature  here  is  very  strong.  The  beautiful  enchantress  is  figured  as 
squat  and  dumpy,  with  a  snub  nose  and  protruding  lips  and  chin. 
Ulysses  (who  wears,  like  modern  globe-trotters,  a  very  modern-looking 
pith  helmet)  holds  out  his  hands  to  receive  the  tempting  draught. 
Behind  him  is  the  loom  of  Circe  whereon  she  wrought  "delicate  and 
pleasing  and  splendid  works  as  is  the  manner  of  goddesses. "  Beyond  is 
one  of  the  companions  of  Ulysses,  changed  by  Circe  into  a  boar  :  ''so 
they  had  the  head  and  voice,  the  bristles  and  the  shape  of  swine,  yet 
was  their  mind  steadfast  as  before." 

A  few  other  vases  in  this  case  are  also  worth  special 
attention  : — 

B  98.  — A  platter  from  Marion  in  Cyprus.  The  rim  is  pierced  with 
two  small  holes  for  hanging  it  up  by  on  a  wall. 

B  79  (skyphos). — Early  Attic  make,  found  in  Sicily.  Dionysus 
seated  in  a  car,  the  body  of  which  is  the  shape  of  a  ship,  with  a  boar's 
head  for  prow.  On  the  other  side  is  a  sacrificial  bull,  probably  the 
prize  of  a  dithyrambic  victory.  Representations  of  the  ship  of  Dionysus 
often  occur  on  vases,  and  they  give  the  clue,  Miss  Harrison  argues,  to 
the  story  of  Dionysus  and  the  pirates  which  we  have  seen  sculptured 
on  the  monument  of  Lysicrates  : — "  Dionysus,  when  he  was  worshipped 
on  islands  and  sea-coast  places,  was  naturally  held  to  be  god  of  sea 
as  well  as  land.  In  his  honour,  for  example,  at  Smyrna,  a  ship  was 
led  round  in  procession,  steered  by  his  priest,  and  the  story  went  that  the 
procession  commemorated  a  triumph  over  the  Chians,  who  had  invaded 
the  city  when  it  was  celebrating  the  sacred  festival  ;  the  god  himself 
had  put  to  sea  and  fought  for  his  people.  Such  legends  would  be  apt 
to  arise  everywhere  by  the  sea  ;  and  among  primitive  coast  tribes, 
when  they  saw  the  ship  decked  out  and  the  vine  about  the  mast,  what 
more  likely  than  that  they  should  imagine  the  god  himself  had  been, 
first  the  captive,  then  the  conqueror  of  the  most  dreaded  of  the  sea- 
marauders?"  (Harrison  and  Verrall,  Mythology  and  Monuments  of 
Ancient  Athens,  p.  253). 

B  80  (kylix,  from  Athens). — The  design  on  the  exterior  is  of  interest 
as  being  in  all  probability  a  contemporary  illustration  of  those  choric 
games  at  popular  festivals  out  of  which  the  Greek  drama  was  developed. 
Four  scenes  are  shown  : — (1)  A  tragic  chorus.  The  goat  who  gave 
his  name  to  the  goat-song  (rpaytodia)  is  being  caught  by  the  horn  and 


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THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


337 


led  to  the  sacrifice  by  men  who  carry  wreaths  and  dance.  Next  (2)  a 
comic  chorus  :  men  riding  in  a  cart,  from  which,  as  we  know,  they 
cracked  jokes  as  they  rode  along,  as  in  a  modern  carnival.  Then  (3) 
a  dithyrambic  chorus  :  figures  carrying  wreaths  and  vases,  headed  by 
a  flute-player  and  a  tethered  bull  being  led  to  the  sacrifice.  (4)  The 
sacrifice  takes  place  before  the  temple  of  Athena,  indicated  by  a  Doric 
column.  The  goddess  stands,  as  on  the  Panathenaic  amphorae,  with 
shield  and  outstretched  spear,  in  front  of  the  altar,  which  is  surmounted 
by  a  bird,  while  on  the  left  a  priestess  bears  a  tray  laden  with  offerings 
on  her  head  (Harrison  and  Verrall,  pp.  289,  458  ;  Classical  Review, 
i.  315.  It  shows  how  difficult  and  uncertain  is  the  interpretation  of 
vase-paintings  that  another  high  authority  considers  the  scene  to  be  an 
illustration  of  an  Athenian  wedding  :  J.H.S.  i.  202). 

Cases  8,  9. — Etruscan  vases,  in  imitation  of  early  Greek  : 
6th  century. — The  experts  claim  to  distinguish  two  kinds  of 
vases  under  this  head:  —  (1)  "  Caeretan "  vases,  so  called 
because  found  at  Caere  (Cervetri)  :  these  have  a  certain 
Egyptian  character,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the  product  of 
Asiatic  Greeks,  imported  into  Italy.  B  58  and  59  are  ascribed 
to  this  class.  (2)  Nos.  60-74  :  these  are  supposed  to  be  the 
product  of  Etruscan  artists,  who  took  their  general  design  from 
Greek  pottery  of  the  time.  A  fondness  for  white  accessories  is 
a  characteristic  of  this  class  : — 

B  60  (hydria). — A  naval  fight.  A  bireme  galley  with  18  oars — 
the  prow  in  the  form  of  a  boar's  head.  Along  the  sides  of  the  fore- 
deck  is  a  screen  of  open  woodwork  (as  in  B  436,  p.  330).  Archers  are 
shooting,  and  opposite  in  the  air  are  visible  the  points  of  hostile  spears 
and  arrows. 

B  64  (amphora). — In  the  centre  of  the  frieze  are  two  boxers  :  on 
the  right  is  a  youth  acting  as  "  second  "  and  holding  a  sponge.  Below 
is  a  row  of  large  palmettes  and  lotus  flowers — an  Etruscan  imitation 
of  "  Cseretan  "  ornament. 

B  72. — A  wine-cup,  the  spout  modelled  in  the  form  of  a  gryphon's 
head.  This  creature  of  the  Greek  imagination  who  has  passed  into 
the  mythology  and  heraldry  of  after  ages  was  the  emblem  of  the  solar 
light  and  brightness,  which  receives  into  its  care  the  golden  solar  egg 
when  sent  up  in  the  morning  from  the  earth  and  the  underworld.  The 
gryphon  combines  the  potencies  of  the  heaven-soaring  king  of  birds 
and  of  the  majestic  king  of  beasts.  Note  that  his  ears  are  erect. 
Like  the  sun  himself,  with  keen  eye  and  pricked-up  ear,  he  hears  and 
sees  all  things  (see  Archaologia,  xlviii.  355). 

Cases  1  o,  1 1 . — Black  figures  on  a  cream  ground.  Corinthian 
and  so-called  Cyrenaic  fabric  ;  first  half  of  the  sixth  century. — 
Here  again  two  classes  are  distinguished  :  (1)  B  1-7,  Cyrenaic. 

z 


338 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  vases  of  this  kind,  though  found  at  Naucratis,  are  sup- 
posed, on  account  of  the  subjects  represented  (see  B  4  below), 
to  have  been  made  at  Cyrene.  "  The  Greeks  of  Cyrene  in 
the  sixth  century  had  no  difficulty  of  intercourse  with  Egypt. 
The  queen  of  King  Amasis  was  by  birth  a  princess  of  Cyrene, 
and  in  her  time  there  was  much  coming  and  going  between 
the  two  countries."  Among  these  "  Cyrenaic  "  vases  the  kylix 
— destined  to  be  the  most  popular  and  beautiful  product  of 
Greek  pottery — shows  a  great  advance.  The  influence  of 
metal  vases  may  be  traced  in  the  thinness  of  the  clay,  the 
lustrous  black  varnish  on  the  stem,  the  palmettes  on  either 
side  of  the  handles,  and  the  firmness  of  the  incised  lines.  (2) 
B  8-53,  Corinthian,  or  imitations  of  Corinthian  vases.  The 
semi-Greek,  semi- Oriental  style  of  vase-painting,  which  we 
have  been  noting  in  the  case  of  Greek  settlements  in  Egypt, 
flourished  contemporaneously  in  Greece  itself,  and  therein 
chiefly  at  Corinth,  which  was  then  a  great  trading  centre,  and 
which,  as  we  have  seen  (Room  I.,  p.  300),  was  famous  for  its 
vases.  Scenes  both  of  mythology  and  of  daily  life — banquets, 
hunting,  dancing — are  now  found.  We  proceed  to  notice  in 
detail  a  few  of  the  vases,  whose  general  characteristics  we 
have  described  : — 

B  4  (kylix,  found  at  Naucratis,  1886). — In  the  interior  is  the 
nymph  Cyrene.  She  holds  in  her  hand  a  large  branch  of  silphium 
and  another  branch  with  pomegranates  or  apples  from  the  gardens  of 
the  Hesperides — both  symbols  known  on  the  coins  of  Cyrene.  The 
silphium  plant,  which  appears  to  have  been  largely  used  in  food  and 
medicine,  was  a  principal  source  of  the  revenue  of  Cyrene  ;  and  on  a 
kylix  at  Paris,  Archesilaus,  King  of  Cyrene,  is  seen  weighing  silphium. 
Around  the  nymph  are  winged  figures — harpies  and  Boreades.  The 
harpies  guarded  the  garden  of  Hesperides,  which  was  localised  at 
Cyrene.  The  Boreades  (daughters  of  the  wind)  are  introduced  as  the 
winds  bearing  the  fruit  and  fertilising  the  land. 

B  3  (kylix). — The  drawing  on  the  interior  is  very  interesting  as 
illustrating  one  of  the  uses  to  which  vases  were  put.  On  a  fragment 
of  a  large  vase  from  Naucratis  there  is  an  inscription  which  reads, 
"  Polemarchus  dedicated  me  along  with  a  ewer  (irpoxoos)  and  a 
stand."  The  vase  before  us  shows  a  sacrifice  "where  the  utensils 
employed  are  exactly  of  the  kind  dedicated  by  Polemarchus,  viz.  a 
large  crater,  like  that  on  which  his  inscription  is  incised,  a  small  ewer, 
and  a  stand,  while  the  man  sacrificing  holds  in  his  hand  one  of  those 
bowls  which  Mr.  Petrie  found  in  great  numbers  at  Naucratis,  inscribed 
with  the  name  of  Apollo,  and  obviously  without  any  value  except 
that  which  they  derived  from  having  been  used  at  a  religious  rite" 


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THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


339 


(Murray's  Archeology,  p.  70).  The  other  figure  is  a  flute-player,  a 
functionary  who,  as  we  know  from  Pausanius  (v.  15.  6),  assisted  at 
sacrifices  "  after  the  ancient  fashion."  The  eagle  of  Zeus  is  descending 
on  the  altar. 

B  1  (kylix). — In  the  interior  is  a  horseman  who  holds  the  goad  in 
one  hand,  the  reins  in  the  other.  Behind  him  is  a  winged  female 
figure  flying  towards  him — -possibly  Victory  crowning  a  victor  in  a 
horse-race.  This  vase  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  human  figures  as  the  main  element  in  the  design  from  the 
animals  of  the  earlier  style.  Various  kinds  of  birds  are  still  introduced, 
but  they  are  combined  with  the  figures.  A  bird  is  perched  on  the 
horse's  neck  ;  an  eagle  is  flying  towards  his  chest ;  three  waterfowls 
stand  under  or  beside  the  horse. 

Cases  12,  13. — Black  figures  on  red  ground:  archaic 
Style,  in  imitation  of  the  Corinthian  vases  ;  chiefly  animals. — 
Here  we  may  notice  : — 

B  57. — On  the  neck  are  two  panthers,  confronting  each  other,  in 
heraldic  fashion.  Dr.  Murray  refers  to  this  arrangement  in  a  very 
interesting  discussion  on  "  Perspective  as  applied  in  early  Greek  art" 
{/.U.S.  ii.  318).  As  every  one  knows  who  remembers  or  has  observed 
infantile  drawing,  the  primary  desire  is  to  show  as  much  of  the  object 
as  possible.  On  the  Burgon  vase  (p.  330)  the  owl  stands  in  profile, 
yet  the  wing  of  the  farther  side  is  drawn  nearly  as  if  seen  from  the 
front.  In  another  stage  the  artist  draws  each  side  of  an  animal  as  if 
it  were  standing  strictly  in  profile,  and  places  them  confronted,  as 
here,  so  that  they  appear  to  represent  two  animals.  This,  as  already 
suggested  (p.  296),  is  the  real  explanation  of  the  two  lions  confronting 
each  other  on  the  Lion  Gate  of  Mycenoe.  Dr.  Murray  thinks  that  this  idea 
survived  in  much  later  Greek  art.  Thus,  on  the  pediments  of  a  temple 
— e.g.  at  iEgina — the  two  groups  on  either  side  of  the  central  figure 
are  to  be  conceived  as  sections  seen  from  the  front.  On  this  theory 
an  artistic  justification  is  found  for  the  diminution  in  scale  of  the  end 
figures,  a  diminution  which  is,  of  course,  constructionally  necessary.  The 
same  theory  has  been  ingeniously  applied  to  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon 
(p.  177).  Returning  to  the  vase  before  us,  we  notice  below  the  panther 
a  mythological  subject.  According  to  Middleton,  this  stamps  the  vase  as 
an  Etruscan  imitation  of  Hellenic  work  :  "the  scene  belongs  specially 
to  Latin  mythology,  viz.  the  contest  at  Pylus  between  Hercules  and 
Juno  Sospita  5  Minerva  stands  behind  Hercules,  and  Poseidon  behind 
Juno.  On  each  side  of  Juno  is  a  cauldron  full  of  snakes,  probably  an 
allusion  to  the  sacred  serpent  which  was  kept  in  the  grove  of  Juno 
at  Lanuvium  "  {Encyclopedia  Britannica,  xix.  616).  According  to  the 
Official  Catalogue,  on  the  other  hand,  the  workmanship  is  Asiatic.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  these  rival  attributions  of  particular  vases  to 
particular  styles  and  periods  are  often  highly  conjectural. 

Here  also  we  may  notice  some  vases  acquired  in.  1899.     A  black- 


340 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


figured  kyathos,  with  a  frieze  representing  a  irpbdecris,  or  laying-out  of 
a  corpse.  The  body  lies  on  a  bier,  with  a  man  and  two  women 
bending  over  it.  On  either  side  is  a  row  of  mourners  :  on  one  side, 
women  beating  their  breasts  ;  on  the  other,  men  beating  their  foreheads. 
The  vase  may  be  dated  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  ; 
the  subject  forms  a  link  between  the  Dipylon  vases  and  the  Athenian 
"prothesis  amphorae"  {British  Museum  Return  for  1899,  p.  66. 
The  vase  was  bought  at  the  Forman  Sale,  No.  279). 

A  black-figured  amphora,  an  early  example  of  Athenian  work  under 
Ionic  and  Chalcidian  influence.  The  subject  is  Troilus,  Polyxena, 
and  Achilles.  The  Grecian  hero  was  enamoured  of  Polyxena,  daughter 
of  the  Trojan  King  Priam.  He  is  lying  in  wait  for  Troilus,  her 
brother.  Polyxena  is  carrying  a  hydria  to  a  fountain,  on  the  top  of 
which  is  seated  a  crow,  the  bird  of  evil  omen.  It  cannot  be  said  that 
the  vase-painter  gives  us  much  idea  of  the  beauty  for  which  Polyxena 
was  famed.  She  is  also  represented  as  very  under-sized  :  she  only 
reaches  to  the  horse's  nose  (British  Museum  Return  for  1899,  p.  66, 
and  Forman  Sale  Catalogue,  No.  308,  where  a  coloured  illustration 
is  given  of  the  design  described  above). 

Archaic  amphora,  Athenian  imitation  of  Corinthian  work,  sixth 
century,  representing  the  sacrifice  of  Polyxena  at  an  altar  beside  the 
tomb  of  Achilles.  Polyxena  is  held  over  the  altar  by  three  Greeks, 
while  Neoptolemus  stabs  her  in  the  throat.  Her  dress  is  carefully 
wrapped  round  her  ;  "she  makes  no  struggle  nor  effort  to  escape  her 
fate,  but  appears  to  be  anxious  above  everything  to  die  decently 
(euox^ws)  as  Euripides  describes  in  the  Hecuba,  568  fol."  (British 
Museum  Return  for  1897,  p.  59). 

Cases  14-17. — Here  are  further  specimens  of  the  archaic 
style — mostly  of  Corinthian  fabric,  in  which  we  see  subjects 
of  mythology  and  daily  life  replacing  animals,  which  latter 
are  gradually  relegated  to  subordinate  positions.  We  may 
notice  : — ■ 

B  46  (lebes). — This  is  supposed  to  be  an  early  Athenian  vase,  in 
imitation  of  the  Corinthian  style.  The  side  facing  us  is  of  interest  as 
containing  one  of  the  earliest  representations  of  a  banquet — a  subject 
which  was  afterwards  to  become  a  favourite  with  the  vase-painters  :— 

"On  seven  couches  men  are  reclining,  two  on  each;  coverlets^ 
purple,  red,  or  black  spotted  with  purple,  are  thrown  over  them.  The 
scene  is  probably  in  the  house  of  a  wealthy  Greek.  The  guests  have 
drinking-cups  in  their  hands  ;  they  wear  garlands,  as  wras  customary  at 
feasts  in  Greece  and  Rome,  whilst  other  garlands  and  a  lyre  hang  on 
the  wall  ;  behind  the  fourth  couch,  an  alabastron  (or  perfume  vase)  is 
suspended.  Beneath  the  couches  dogs  are  chained  to  lick  up  the  food 
falling  from  the  tables,  which  are  placed  beside  each  couch  ;  five 
attendants  or  slaves  stand  ready  to  wait  on  the  guests  ;  one  fills  an 
oinochoe  or  jug  from  the  crater  in  which  the  wine  was,  as  usual,  mixed 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


341 


with  water  ;  another  has  his  oinochoe  full,  and  prepared  to  pour  into 
the  cup  ;  and  two  hold  garlands"  (Susan  Horner,  Greek  Vases,  p.  29). 
The  dogs,  it  will  be  seen,  here  fill  a  subordinate  position  in  a 
figure-subject.  On  the  reverse  of  the  vase  are  more  animals  in  the  old 
style. 

B  75. — A  Chalcidian  vase,  with  inscriptions  in  the  Chalcidian 
alphabet.  The  handles  have  cross-pieces  at  junctures,  with  imitations 
of  rivets  on  the  lip. 

B  30  (lekythos). — This  vase,  found  at  Corinth,  is  sufficiently  quaint 
in  itself,  and  is  also  interesting  as  illustrating  the  transition  from  the 
Oriental  to  the  Greek  style.  The  rosettes  and  leaves  scattered  about 
are  Oriental,  but  there  is  a  definite  mythological  subject — Nessus  carry- 
ing off  Dejanira,  Hercules  pursuing. 

Cases  1 8-2 1 . — Athenian  Vases  :  end  of  the  sixth  century. 

— A  marked  improvement  in  the  designs  is  noticeable  in  the 
vases  here  collected.    Eyes  on  the  vases  are  a  feature  : — 

The  meaning  of  these  eyes  on  the  painted  vases  (referred  to 
above,  see  p.  329)  has  not  been  satisfactorily  determined.  As  Dennis 
remarks,  they  are  generally  termed  mystic,  and  they  are  certainly 
mysterious.  They  occur  most  frequently  on  vases  with  Bacchic 
subjects — as,  e.g.,  on  B  264  below  and  on  B  215.  But  they  are  intro- 
duced also  in  other  kinds  of  design.  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
eyes  were  painted  on  vases  as  charms  against  the  evil  eye,  in  which 
the  ancients  believed  as  strongly  as  the  southrons  of  modern  Europe. 
Others  suggest  that  the  eyed  vases  were  presents  made  by  the  bride- 
groom on  seeing  his  bride  unveiled.  A  more  satisfactory  explanation 
may  be  found  in  the  resemblance  and  relation  of  vases  to  boats.  The 
presence  of  eyes  on  the  bows  of  ancient  vessels,  perhaps  originating  in 
a  fanciful  analogy  with  fish,  is  well  known.  The  names  of  several 
sorts  of  goblets  are  common  to  them  with  boats,  and  it  is  on  vases  of 
this  description  that  eyes  are  most  frequently  painted.  This  analogy 
between  boats  and  cups  is  greatly  confirmed  by  the  fables  of  Hercules 
crossing  the  sea  to  Spain  in  a  goblet  (see  Dennis's  Etrnria,  i.  471). 

A  good  specimen  of  the  eyed  Bacchic  vases  is  B  266 — on 
which  is  a  head  of  Dionysus,  bearded  and  with  hair  falling  in 
long  tresses,  between  two  large  eyes.  Another  is  B  264.  On 
one  side  is  a  figure  of  Dionysus  between  eyes  :  on  the  other, 
also  between  eyes,  is  the  return  of  Hephaestus  to  heaven. 
This  subject,  which  frequently  occurs  on  vases,  is  also  Diony- 
siac.  Pausanias  says  that  in  one  of  the  temples  of  Dionysus 
at  Athens  there  was  a  picture  representing  Dionysus  bringing 
Hephaestus  back  to  heaven  : — 

' '  For  the  Greeks  say  that  Hera  flung  Hephaestus  down  as  soon  as 
he  was  born,  and  that,  bearing  her  a  grudge,  he  sent  her  as  a  gift  a 


342 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


golden  chain  with  invisible  bonds.  When  Hera  sat  down  on  it  she 
was  held  fast,  and  Hephaestus  would  not  listen  to  the  intercession  of 
any  of  the  gods,  till  Dionysus,  his  trustiest  friend,  made  him  drunk, 
and  so  brought  him  to  heaven  "  (i.  20.  3). 

The  vase-painters  found  in  this  subject  scope  for  a  good  deal 
of  broadly  humorous  treatment. 

Cases  22,  23. — Black  figures  on  white,  Athenian  fabric: 
about  500  B.C. — These  vases,  belonging  to  the  later  period 
of  the  black-figure  style,  show  a  revival  of  the  older  fashion. 
As  white  is  used  for  the  "slip"  on  which  the  designs  are 
painted,  white  accessories  are,  it  will  be  noticed,  avoided  on  the 
figures  themselves.  Some  of  the  shapes  are  curious.  B  587 
is  in  the  shape  of  a  sandalled  foot;  B  660  and  661  are  in 
the  form  of  legs.  Several  of  the  subjects  on  these  vases  are 
interesting  : — 

B  651  (lekythos). — On  a  pillar,  representing  a  grave  monument, 
stands  a  siren  holding  a  lyre,  on  which  she  is  playing.  Two  men 
with  their  dogs,  grouped  in  heraldic  fashion,  pause  to  look  at  her,  Just 
such  a  siren  adorned  the  grave  of  Baucis,  according  to  the  epitaph  in 
the  Anthology  : — 

Tombstones  and  Sirens  mine,  and  urn  of  funeral 

That  holds  of  me  my  little  dust  of  death, 
To  them  that  pass  my  mound,  to  one  and  all 
Say  Hail  ! 

As  monuments  on  tombs  the  sirens  seem  to  have  filled  a  double 
function  :  they  were  sweet  singers,  and  they  were  mourners  to  lament 
for  the  beauty  of  youth  and  maiden  (Harrison  and  Verrall,  p.  584). 

B  621. — Hercules  and  the  Nemean  lion  (see  p.  318).  Ruskin  made 
a  copy  of  this  design,  and  has  included  it  in  his  "  Educational  Series  " 
at  Oxford.  "It  is  not  my  fault,"  he  says,  "that  one  of  the  limbs  is 
thinner  than  the  other,  it  is  so  on  the  vase.  The  purple  colour,  observe, 
in  the  hair  of  Heracles,  and  the  lion's  mane,  stands  in  both  cases  for 
the  glow  or  lustre  connected  with  anger  and  strength,  as  on  the  crest 
of  Achilles.  It  is  continually  used  on  the  manes  of  the  chariot  horses. 
All  the  purple  spots,  like  a  crown,  on  the  head  of  Heracles  are  meant 
for  the  luxuriant  but  crisp  hair ;  they  are  not  leaves "  {Catalogue  of 
Examples ',  1870,  p.  44). 1 

1  In  giving  the  reference  to  this  vase  in  the  old  Museum  Catalogue, 
Ruskin  adds  :  "It  is  highly  desirable  that  you  should  possess  this  book, 
and  if  Mr.  Newton  will  kindly  see  that  every  vase  named  in  it  retains  its 
number  as  described,  whatever  future  changes  may  be  made  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  collection,  it  will  be  of  the  utmost  use  for  purposes  of  study." 
But,  alas,  for  the  poor  student,  the  numbers  have  already  been  changed 
twice  since  the  time  of  Ruskin 's  appeal.    The  loss  of  time  and  temper 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


343 


B  633. — Theoxenia  with  the  Dioscuri.  —  The  great  twin  brethren, 
the  strange  horsemen  of  Macaulay's  Lay,  are  riding  through  the  air, 
and  as  they  pass  at  a  flying  gallop  their  dark  hair  and  red  mantles 
float  behind.  Their  figures  are  full  of  life,  and  are  drawn  with  the 
utmost  delicacy  and  finish.  The  twin  brethren,  the  sons  of  Zeus,  were 
worshipped  throughout  the  Greek  world  : — 

By  many  names  men  call  us  ; 

In  many  lands  we  dwell  ; 
Well  Samothracia  knows  us  ; 

Cyrene  knows  us  well. 

On  the  couch  below  is  a  branch  of  silphium,  the  sign  of  Cyrene. 
The  Dioscuri  were  great  favourites  at  the  Theoxenia,  or  sacred  feast 
provided  for  gods  or  heroes  (Pindar,  01.  hi.  35),  and  this  appears  to 
be  the  subject  of  the  present  design.  At  these  feasts  the  Greeks  ima- 
gined the  gods  or  goddesses  to  be  present.  The  more  literal  Romans 
emphasised  the  real  presence  by  placing  statues  of  the  deities  on  the 
couches.  The  Greek  painters  merely  indicated  the  spiritual  presence 
by  some  fanciful  representation  such  as  we  see  on  this  vase.  A  couch 
is  prepared  with  a  cushion  at  either  end.  It  alone  represents  the 
feast  about  to  take  place  ;  the  spread  table  is  not  depicted. 

620  (oinochoe). — Peleus,  at  the  desire  of  Thetis,  who  is  constrained 
by  destiny  to  leave  him,  takes  their  child  Achilles  to  receive  from  the 
wise  centaur,  Chiron,  the  training  of  a  hero.  As  Matthew  Arnold 
has  sung  : — 

In  such  a  glen,  on  such  a  day, 

On  Pelion,  on  the  grassy  ground, 

Chiron,  the  aged  centaur,  lay, 

The  young  Achilles  standing  by. 

The  centaur  taught  him  to  explore 

The  mountains  ;  where  the  glens  are  dry 

And  the  tired  centaurs  come  to  rest, 

And  where  the  soaking  springs  abound 

And  the  straight  ashes  grow  for  spears  .  .  * 

He  told  him  of  the  Gods,  the  stars, 

The  tides  ; — and  then  of  mortal  Wars* 

And  of  the  life  which  heroes  lead 

Before  they  reach  the  Elysian  place 

And  rest  in  the  immortal  mead  ; 

And  all  the  wisdom  of  his  race* 

In  this  myth — often  represented  in  vase-paintings — of  Chiron,  as 
the  trainer  of  heroes  in  all  noble  discipline  and  the  gentleness  of 

herein  involved  had  better  be  left  .to  the  imagination.  It  is,  I  suppose, 
too  much  to  expect  that  each  new  broom  should  not  in  turn  make  a  clean 
sweep  of  the  old  numbers.  But  at  least  it  might  be  arranged  that  no 
keeper  of  a  department  should  alter  the  numbers  more  than  once  during 
his  tenure  of  office.  The  present  arrangement  and  cataloguing  of  the  vases 
are  so  excellent  that  there  should  not  be  much  temptation  to  alter  them 
for  a  long  time  to  come* 


344 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


chivalry,  the  Greeks  symbolised  ' 'the  strange  mystery  of  relation 
which  exists  between  the  soul  of  man  and  the  wild  natural  elements  of 
nature  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  wild  lower  animals  on  the  other." 
A  conventional  tree  of  very  dainty  design  here  stands  for  the  forests  of 
Pelion.  In  front  of  it  Chiron's  dog  advances  with  his  head  and  one 
forepaw  raised  inquiringly  at  the  newcomers.  Chiron,  as  usual  in 
early  representations,  is  in  the  semblance  of  a  complete  man,  but  with 
the  hinder  parts  of  a  horse  appended  to  his  back.  While  the  general 
horde  of  centaurs  are  horses  with  only  the  heads  and  breasts  of  men, 
Chiron  is  a  draped  philosopher  encumbered  with  half  a  horse  behind. 
He  carries  over  his  shoulder  his  customary  pine,  and  extends  his  right 
arm  in  welcome.  Peleus  holds  the  infant  Achilles  in  both  arms. 
The  workmanship  is  fine  and  precise  (Sidney  Colvin  in  JJI.S.  i. 
132). 

Cases  24,  25. — Opaque  colours  on  black  ground. — Many 
of  the  vases  here  form  a  link  between  the  black  and  the  red 
figure  styles.  B  687  and  693  resemble  the  black-figure  style  ; 
B  692  and  694  are  more  like  the  red.  In  all  cases  the  vase 
is  covered  with  black  varnish,  and  the  design  is  applied  in  a 
slip  of  white,  red,  or  buff  on  the  black.  Thus  in  B  687, 
Odysseus  under  the  ram  is  in  red  ;  the  ram  is  depicted  only 
by  incised  outline,  with  the  exception  of  the  fleece  of  the  head, 
which  is  applied  in  white.  In  B  690  the  horse  is  outlined  by 
incision  ;  the  body  of  the  Amazon  is  red.  The  subject  of  one 
of  the  vases  just  mentioned  is  interesting  : — 

B  687. — Ulysses  escaping  from  the  cave  of  Polyphemus  on  the 
belly  of  a  ram  (see  for  this  subject,  B  502,  p.  345).  This  drawing  is 
engraved  in  Butcher  and  Lang's  well-known  translation  of  the  Odyssey. 

Two  peculiar  objects  —  B  597,  598 — should  be  noticed. 
They  used  to  be  explained  as  rain-tiles  \  they  are  semi- 
Cylindrical  in  shape,  and  it  was  supposed  that  they  were  used 
to  cover  the  joints  of  the  flat  roof-tiles.  But  their  true 
identification,  which  is  widely  different,  has  been  settled  by  a 
representation  on  a  recently  found  specimen  (pictured  and 
described  by  Carl  Robert  in  the  'E^r^epts  3 KpyaioXoytKri 
of  Athens,  1892,  p.  247).  They  were  employed  in  spinning. 
Women  placed  them  on  their  knees  and  used  them  to  rub  the 
wool  upon  before  placing  it  on  the  distaff. 

Cases  26-32. — Athenian  black-figure  vases,  various 
shapes  :  sixth  century. — Among  the  vases  collected  here,  the 
following  may  be  noticed  : — 

B  280. — i^Eneas  carrying  off  on  his  back  his  father  Anchises  from 
Troy.    The  aged  Anchises  has  white  hair  and  beard. 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


345 


B  227. — Hercules  slaying  the  centaur  Nessus.  When  preparing 
to  cross  a  river  with  his  consort  Dejanira,  Hercules  called  for  the 
assistance  of  the  centaur  who  helped  travellers  at  the  ford  ;  he  first 
carried  over  Dejanira,  but  on  arriving  at  the  opposite  bank  so  terrified 
her  that  Hercules  hastened  to  the  rescue  and  slew  Nessus. 

B  569  (lekythos,  from  Cyprus). — A  characteristic  specimen  of 
the  archaic  style. 

Cases  33-37. — More  black-figure  vases  of  a  late  period  : 
about  520-500  B.C. — Many  of  these  are  of  somewhat  coarse 
workmanship.    We  may  notice  a  few  interesting  subjects  : — 

B  362  (kelebe). — A  sacrifice.  Before  a  term  of  Hermes  is  a 
blazing  altar  ;  behind  the  statue  of  the  god  a  wreath  is  suspended. 
A  youth  is  roasting  part  of  a  goat  on  a  spit  ;  at  his  side  is  a  lebes, 
showing  once  more  the  use  of  these  for  sacrificial  vases.  Behind  is 
a  table  with  other  parts  of  a  victim  which  are  being  cut  up.  Beneath 
the  table  is  a  goat's  head,  and  hanging  up  above  are  two  haunches. 

B  173  (amphora). — On  one  side  Acamas  and  Demophron  (sons  of 
Theseus)  are  conducting  /Ethra  (their  grandmother)  who  had  been  a 
captive  at  Troy.  This,  as  we  knew  from  Pausanias  (x.  25.  7),  was  the 
subject  of  a  painting  by  Polygnotus.  "Demophron,"  says  Pausanias, 
' 'is  considering  whether  it  will  be  in  his  power  to  rescue  ^Ethra." 
Expression  of  this  kind  was  outside  the  range  of  the  vase-painters  in 
the  silhouette  stage. 

Cases  38-41. — Vases  of  the  late  black-figure  period: 
520-480  B.C. — There  are  some  curious  shapes  among  these 
vases  :  notice,  for  instance,  B  663,  in  the  shape  of  a  duck. 
There  are  also  some  interesting  subjects  : — 

B  509  (oinochoe). — Actors  representing  birds.  They  have  purple 
crests  on  their  heads  and  bunches  of  feathers  at  their  knees.  The  vase 
is  earlier  than  the  time  of  Aristophanes,  but  is  of  interest  as  a  possible 
illustration  of  the  dress  of  the  Birds  of  that  poet  (see  Cecil  Smith  in 
/.U.S.  ii.  309). 

B  485  (oinochoe). — A  wedding  party  in  a  car  drawn  by  two  mules. 

B  502  (oinochoe). — Odysseus  and  Polyphemus.  This  subject,  taken 
from  the  well-known  tale  in  the  Odyssey,  was  a  favourite  with  the  vase- 
painters  : — 

1 '  Every  three  sheep  bare  their  man.  But  as  for  me  I  laid  hold  of  a 
young  ram  who  was  far  the  best  and  the  goodliest  of  the  flock,  and  curled 
beneath  his  shaggy  belly  there  I  lay,  and  so  clung  face  upward,  grasping 
the  wondrous  fleece  with  a  patient  heart.  So  for  that  time  making  moan 
we  awaited  the  bright  dawn.  So  soon  as  early  dawn  shone  forth,  the 
rosy-fingered,  then  did  the  rams  of  the  flock  hasten  forth  to  pasture,  but 
the  ewes  bleated  unmilked  about  the  pens,  for  their  udders  were  swollen 
to  bursting.  Then  their  lord,  sore  stricken  with  pain,  groped  at  the  backs 
of  all  the  sheep  as  they  stood  up  before  him,  and  never  guessed  in  his 


346 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


folly  how  that  my  men  were  bound  beneath  the  breasts  of  his  thick- 
fleeced  flocks.  Last  of  all  the  sheep  came  forth  the  ram,  cumbered  with 
his  wool  and  the  weight  of  me  and  my  cunning.  And  the  strong  Poly- 
phemus laid  his  hands  on  him  and  spoke  to  him  "  (Odyssey,  ix.  431). 

On  this  vase  we  see  Ulysses  clinging  to  the  ram.  The  Cyclops  is 
half  reclining  under  a  tree  with  large  white  fruit.  His  right  hand  is 
stretched  out,  and,  as  Miss  Harrison  notes,  "in  curious  opposition  to 
the  Homeric  account,  he  feels  under  the  ram,  and  the  hero  seems  on 
the  verge  of  detection.  Slight  deviations  in  details  such  as  this  serve 
clearly  to  show  the  free  attitude  of  art  towards  literature.  The  artist 
depicted  a  story  current  in  every  one's  mouth,  known  probably  ages 
before  Homer,  wrote,  and  liable  to  all  manner  of  local  variations " 
(Myths  of  the  Odyssey,  p.  16,  pi.  6,  b). 

Cases  42-47. — Athenian  vases  :  end  of  sixth  century. — 

Among  these  there  are  a  great  many  hydriae  or  water-jugs. 
The  favourite  design  on  them  is  appropriate  to  the  use  to 
which  they  were  put :  a  group  of  women  coming  and  going 
from  the  spring,  carrying  pitchers  on  their  heads.  This 
subject  will  be  found  very  frequently  repeated  on  the  vases. 
Its  most  beautiful  expression  in  Greek  art  is  on  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon  (p.  182).  We  may  take  as  the  best  type  of  this 
vase-subject  a  celebrated  hydria  from  Vulci  which  was  formerly 
in  the  collection  of  Samuel  Rogers  : — 

B  331  (in  Case  47),  which  is  of  further  interest  because  the  fountain 
is  inscribed  Kallirrhoe  ("fair-flowing").  "The  spring,"  says  Thucy- 
dides  (ii.  15),  "which  is  now  called  Enneacrunus  ('with  nine  jets') 
because  the  tyrants  constructed  it  so,  but  which  of  old,  when  the 
springs  were  open,  was  called  Callirrhoe,  was  used  by  the  ancient 
Athenians  for  most  purposes  because  it  was  near,  and  to  this  day  it  is 
still  the  custom,  derived  from  antiquity,  to  use  the  water  before 
marriages  and  for  other  sacred  rites."  A  spring  which  still  retains  the 
name  is  situated  in  the  bed  of  the  Ilissus  to  the  south-east  of  the 
temple  of  Olympian  Zeus.  This  vase  may  give  us  some  idea  of  its 
ancient  appearance.  The  water  gushes  out  from  a  lion's  head,  within 
a  Doric  portico.  Branches  are  scattered  over  the  background,  to 
indicate  a  grove.  The  maidens  are  inscribed  "snub-nose,"  "the 
lovely,"  "the  dark,"  and  so  forth.  The  potter  amused  himself,  we 
may  suppose,  by  thus  expressing  his  opinion  of  the  looks  of  various 
maidens  he  was  wont  to  see  at  the  spring.  "  Their  rich  dresses  prove 
them  to  belong  to  wealthy  families,  it  being  the  universal  custom  for 
women  of  all  classes  to  draw  water  at  the  fountain,  as  we  read  of 
Rebecca,  Leah,  Rachael,  and  the  women  of  Samaria"  (Horner,  p.  37). 
The  vase  is  inscribed  with  the  dedication-name  Hippocrates  ;  he  may 
have  been  the  brother  of  Cleisthenes.  The  whole  design  is  enclosed 
in  a  panel,  with  borders  of  ivy  down  the  sides  and  lotus  and  honey- 
suckle along  the  bottom. 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


347 


We  now  go  back  to  Case  42,  and  note  in  order  a  few  of  the 
vases  with  subjects  other  than  the  water-carrying  : — 

B  319  (hydria). — On  this  vase  and  on  several  others  in  these  cases 
is  the  apotheosis  of  Hercules,  a  subject  we  have  already  discussed 
(p.  328).  Here  the  hero  is  being  driven  in  triumph  to  Olympus  by 
Athena  and  other  gods — his  translation  to  the  sky,  like  that  of  Elijah, 
is  in  a  chariot. 

B  461  (kylix,  from  a  tomb  at  Poli,  Cyprus). — A  rider,  who  is  nude 
but  for  a  white  cloth  about  his  loins,  reins  in  with  both  hands  the 
impatience  of  his  high-mettled  horse.  The  animal  has  the  thick  high 
neck,  bold  front,  and  proud  bearing  which  the  Greeks  seem  to  have 
particularly  fancied,  and  he  is  evidently  intended  to  be  a  noble  and 
spirited  creature.  In  front  is  a  man  who  walks,  in  the  delicate  archaic 
fashion,  on  his  toes.  He  holds  in  his  right  hand  a  fillet,  and  raises  his 
left,  but  looks  round,  apparently  at  the  horse's  hoofs.  The  potter  has 
used  incised  lines  sparingly,  and  not  one  is  wasted.  The  style  is  not 
finished,  but  has  a  certain  strength  and  vigour.  Notice  the  dots 
scattered  about  :  they  are  imitations  of  inscriptions,  a  substitute  for  the 
actual  letters  to  which  the  eye  had  become  accustomed.  The  vase  no 
doubt  celebrates  a  victory  in  a  horse-race  :  the  successful  competitor 
advances  to  receive  the  prize  (J.  A.  R.  Munro  in  J.H.S.  xi.  45). 

B  313  (hydria). — On  the  shoulder  Theseus  seizes  the  Minotaur  by 
the  horn  and  plunges  a  sword  into  his  neck.  The  young  men  and 
maidens  represent  the  human  tribute  from  Athens  which  Theseus 
saved  from  the  Minotaur.  On  the  body  of  the  vase  is  the  contest 
between  Hercules  and  the  Achelous  (see  B  228,  p.  316). 

B  507  (oinochoe). — The  forge  of  Hephaestus  (Vulcan),  the  god  of 
fire.  In  the  centre  is  the  furnace,  a  high  cylindrical  building,  on  the 
top  of  which  is  placed  a  vase.  On  the  left  the  smith,  seated  on  a  stool, 
thrusts  a  mass  of  iron  in  at  the  open  door,  through  which  a  blazing 
fire  is  visible.  He  holds  the  iron  with  tongs,  and  at  his  feet  are  two 
anvils.  He  screens  himself  from  the  fire  with  his  left  hand.  Behind 
the  furnace  part  of  the  bellows  is  visible,  and  above  are  a  hammer  and 
tongs. 

Cases  48,  49. — Select  Athenian  vases :  about  550-500 

B.C. — These  vases  are  mostly  signed.  We  shall  meet  some 
of  the  same  painters  in  the  next  room.  Among  the  more 
interesting  specimens  are  : — 

B  300  (hydria).  — On  the  shoulder,  a  chariot-race  ;  on  the  panel 
below,  a  Bacchic  revel;  below,  a  frieze  of  animals,  "drawn  without 
spirit  or  truthfulness,  yet  with  a  certain  delicacy  in  the  flow  of  lines, 
apart  from  their  significance  or  want  of  significance."  This  vase  is 
signed  conspicuously  by  Pamph88US,  a  painter  who  also  worked  in  the 
figure  style  (p.  354)>  and  who  brought  to  great  perfection  the  decorative 
grace  at  which  the  later  black-figure  masters  aimed  (for  some  interesting 


348 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


remarks  on  the  merits  and  limitations  of  their  work  as  illustrated  by 
this  vase,  see  Murray's  Handbook  of  Greek  Archeology ,  p.  91). 

B  471  (olpe,  signed  by  Amasis).  —  Very  quaint.  Perseus  is  plunging 
his  sword  into  the  Gorgon's  throat,  and  looks  away.  Hermes  is  present 
to  indicate  that  Perseus  is  doing  the  bidding  of  the  gods.  The  figure 
of  Medusa  is  elaborately  fearsome,  and  snakes  rise  from  her  head. 

B  364  (crater). — This  is  signed  by  Nikosth.en.es.  The  seventy-two 
vases  signed  by  him  which  have  come  down  to  us  far  exceed  in  number 
those  of  any  other  artist.  He  was  far  more  potter  than  painter.  As 
a  potter,  he  was  a  clever  entrepreneur  who  tried  experiment  after 
experiment  to  hit  the  popular  taste.  His  amphorae  (see  below)  were 
imitated  from  the  metal  vases  in  use  at  the  time.  As  a  painter, 
however,  he  is  mechanical  and  uninteresting.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  Athenian,  but  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  connect  him  with 
Naucratis,  where  a  fragment  (B  600-53)  has  been  found  with  his 
signature  {Naucratis,  i.  52).  For  the  most  part  he  reproduces  stereo- 
typed black-figure  types — dancing  satyrs  and  monads,  sirens,  decorative 
motives  without  mythological  content.  Heraldic  schemes  abound  on 
his  vases,  and  the  old  conventional  rows  of  real  and  fabulous  animals 
(Harrison  and  MacColl,  p.  15;  Smith's  Dictionary  of  'Antiquities,  1891, 
ii.  928).  The  principal  design  on  this  vase  is  the  contest  between 
Hercules  and  Cycnus. 

B  209  (amphora). — On  one  side  is  Achilles  slaying  Penthesilea. 
On  the  other,  the  Egyptian  hero  Memnon  standing  between  two 
Ethiopian  attendants  with  woolly  hair.  The  cuirass  of  Memnon  is 
white.  This  is  unusual ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  artist, 
wishing  to  mark  the  Egyptian  origin  of  Memnon,  clothed  him  in  the 
famous  product  of  Egyptian  looms.  For  King  Amasis,  of  Egypt,  sent 
as  an  offering  to  Greece  "a  corslet  of  embroidered  linen  worthy  to  be 
seen"  (Herod,  ii.  182,  iii.  47).  The  vase  is  inscribed  with  the  name 
Amasis.  Whether  this  is  a  reference  to  the  above  story,  or  the  name 
of  the  artist,  is  uncertain.     (See  J.H.S.  iv.  82  ;  1899,  140). 

B  210  (amphora). — This  finely-painted  vase  is  signed  by  Ezekias. 
On  one  side,  Dionysus  instructing  Oinopeus  (wine-red)  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  vine.  On  the  other,  Achilles  slaying  Penthesilea,  Queen 
of  the  Amazons.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  vase -painter  makes  no 
attempt  to  hint  at  the  pathos  of  the  story.  His  figures  are  full  of 
action,  but  wholly  devoid  of  sentiment  (Magazine  of  Art,  viii.  102). 
The  quality  of  his  glaze  is  also  much  admired. 

B  295,  296,  297.  Amphorce  by  Nikosthenes  (see  above). — The 
strange  flat  handles  are  by  some  new  process  made  of  one  piece  with 
the  vase.     The  drawings  are  quaint  and  lively. 

Cases  50-64. — The  remaining  wall-cases  in  this  room  con- 
tain miscellaneous  vases,  mostly  of  the  latest  black-figure 
style  :  520-480  B.C. — The  designs  are  generally  of  the  stock 
subjects  with  which  we  are  already  familiar.  A  few  may  be 
noticed  to  which  we  have  not  yet  called  attention  : — 


XVIII 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


349 


B  301  (hydria).  —  On  one  side,  Hercules  strangling  the  Nemean 
lion  ;  on  the  other,  the  repose  of  Hercules  after  his  labours.  The  hero 
is  reclining  on  a  couch.  Above,  hanging  on  the  wall,  are  his  sword 
and  lion's  skin.  Behind  him  stands  Athena,  about  to  place  a  wreath 
on  his  head.  She  is  accompanied  by  Hermes.  At  the  foot  of  the 
couch  stands  the  hero's  mother,  Alcmena. 

B  492. — On  this  oinochoe  we  see  a  later  stage  of  the  story  of  the 
Erymanthian  boar  (p.  326).  Hercules  is  here  bringing  the  boar  to 
Athena  as  an  offering,  who  extends  her  hands  to  signify  her  approval 
of  the  gift. 

B  497  (Case  52). — Hercules  and  his  companion  Iolaus  dining  after 
their  labours.  They  recline  on  white  couches  ;  food  is  placed  by  their 
sides.  There  are  imitation  inscriptions,  and  branches  from  which  are 
suspended  the  sword  and  bow  of  Hercules,  and  above  Iolaus  a  quiver. 

B  309  (Case  55). — On  the  shoulder  of  this  hydria  is  a  representa- 
tion of  Hercules  seizing  the  Cretan  bull,  as  on  one  of  the  metopes  of 
the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  (see  Ch.  vii.). 

B  324  (Case  57). — On  this  hydria  we  see  Polyxena  again — a  favourite 
and  appropriate  subject  on  water-jars,  as  she  was  drawing  water  at  the 
fountain  when  Achilles  sought  to  catch  her.  On  this  vase,  as  on  many 
others,  there  are  inscriptions  scattered  about  which  have  no  meaning. 
"The  fact  was,  that  the  foreigners  to  whom  the  ware  was  sold  wTere 
ignorant  of  the  Greek  language,  and  were  satisfied  if  they  but  saw 
Greek  letters,  and  the  impostors  played  a  harmless  swindle  by  palming 
off  vases  with  no  intelligible  words,  but  heterogeneous  sprinklings  of 
Greek  characters"  (Huddilston's  Lessons  from  Greek  Pottery,  p.  37). 

B  416. — On  this  kylix  is  an  inscription  which  is  often  found  on 
drinking-cups — -"hail  and  drink." 

B  541  (lekythos,  Case  59). — Two  heroes  casting  lots  before  a 
statue  of  Athena — a  very  common  subject  on  vases. 

B  342  (Case  63). — On  this  hydria  we  see  two  sirens,  face  to  face, 
the  body  of  each  composed  of  a  large  eye  ;  and  Dionysus,  seated 
between  two  large  eyes. 

Oh  the  walls  above  the  cases  in  this  room,  and  in  the 
next,  are  facsimiles  from  Etruscan  tomb -paintings.  For 
descriptions  of  them  see  pp.  465-69. 


35o 


THE  SECOND  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP.  XVIII 


List  of  Vases  referred  to  in  this  Chapter 


No. 

Page 

B  i 

•  339 

3 

•  338 

4 

•  338 

3° 

•    34 1 

46  . 

340 

57 

339 

58-9  . 

337 

60  . 

•  337 

64  , 

•  337 

72 

•  337 

75 

341 

77 

•  336 

78  . 

•  335 

79 

•  336 

80  . 

•  336 

98  , 

•  336 

100-3  . 

•  334 

104 

335 

105 

•  334 

106 

,  335 

116  . 

335 

124 

•  335 

130 

330 

132 

332 

134 

332 

144 

333 

x45 

325 

147 

320 

151 

326 

1 53 

326 

r54 

316 

156  . 

•  333 

160 

■  333 

163  . 

■  327 

173  ■ 

•  345 

177  . 

326 

182  . 

•  327 

188  . 

•  332 

193  • 

•  324 

No. 

Page 

B  197  . 

333 

205  . 

327 

208  . 

•  325 

209  . 

•  348 

210  . 

•  348 

213  . 

326 

215  . 

320 

217  . 

.  318 

221  . 

.  316 

222  . 

3l8 

223  . 

•  319 

226  . 

•  3i8 

227  . 

•  345 

228  . 

•  316 

229  . 

•  3:9 

232  . 

.  318 

233  • 

•  318 

236-8 

324 

239  • 

320 

240  . 

320 

246-7 

319 

248  . 

•  3X9 

250  . 

•  325 

252  . 

•  325 

254  ■ 

•  325 

260  . 

325 

264  . 

•  341 

266  . 

•  341 

280  . 

344 

295-7 

•  348 

300  . 

•  347 

301  . 

•  349 

309  • 

•  349 

313  . 

317,  347 

317-21 

•  328 

319  • 

•  347 

324  ■ 

•  349 

33i  • 

•  346 

342  • 

•  349 

No. 

Page 

B360  . 

327 

362  . 

345 

364  . 

348 

368  . 

322 

376  . 

329 

379-80 

328 

410  . 

322 

412  . 

322 

416  . 

349 

424  . 

329 

425  • 

322 

427  • 

322 

432    .  . 

33° 

436  . 

33° 

447  • 

326 

461  . 

347 

462  . 

326 

471  . 

348 

485  . 

345 

492  . 

349 

497  • 

349 

502  . 

345 

5°7  • 

347 

509  .. 

345 

541  . 

349 

569  . 

345 

597-8 

344 

600-1 

334 

620  . 

343 

621  . 

342 

631  • 

322-3 

633  ■ 

343 

651  • 

342 

668  . 

322 

687  . 

344 

690  . 

344 

Also  vases  unnum- 

bered   at  pp. 

318, 

323,  336,  340« 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 
{Red- Figure  Vases,  chiefly  Fifth  Century) 

"  The  heart  and  the  high  spirits  of  a  Brygos,  a  Titian,  a  Rubens  are 
uncommon.  In  our  land  it  is  now  some  time  since  the  Lady 
banished  Comus.  Romance  and  Revel  are  not  received  notes  in 
our  religion,  and  a  kind  of  haughty  shyness  is  the  mark  of  our 
manners.  To  find  the  image  of  a  people  less  ashamed  of  life, 
and  who  could  yet  marry  grace  and  dignity  with  their  mirth,  we 
must  burrow  in  Greek  graves,  and  it  is  a  pious  kind  of  sacrilege 
to  steal  from  the  dead  housekeeper  these  brittle  relics  from  the 
jolly  prime  of  the  world.  The  wine  and  the  oil  are  dry,  and  the 
cup  is  often  broken,  but  the  laughter  and  the  poetry  still  flicker 
on  its  sides.  Tomb  has  delivered  them  to  museum,  and  it  is 
time  that  the  book-worm  should  not  be  the  only  heir  of  his 
brother  "  (D.  S.  MacColl). 

The  vases  in  this  room  are  painted  with  red  figures  on  black 
ground,  instead  of  with  black  figures  on  red  ground.  In  the 
black-figure  style,  the  design  consisted,  as  we  have  seen,  of 
black  silhouettes  on  a  red  ground,  and  details  were  rendered 
either  by  the  addition  of  purple  or  white,  or  by  the  use  of 
the  graving-tool.  In  the  red-figure  style,  the  first  process  was 
the  same  as  in  the  black-figure  style.  The  artist  sketched  in 
his  design  in  outline.  Next,  he  enclosed  the  figures  thus  in- 
cised with  a  black  line,  drawn  with  the  brush  about  the  eighth 
of  an  inch  broad.  The  external  spaces  were  then  filled  with 
the  same  pigment ;  this  work  would,  no  doubt,  be  left  to  an 
assistant.  It  was  in  filling  in  the  details  of  the  figures  that  the 
master-hand  found  its  most  congenial  employment.  The  vase 
was  then  baked,  and  the  glaze  (of  saltpetre  and  soda)  was  added. 

The  greater  elaboration  of  the  drawing  which  the  red-figure 
style  made  possible  is  very  marked.  Hair,  for  instance, 
instead  of  being  represented  by  a  black  mass,  is  drawn  by  fine 

35i 


352 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


lines.  Eyes  and  other  features  are  made  more  lifelike  and 
mobile.  Expression  is  called  in,  instead  of  mere  gesture,  to 
give  the  artist's  meaning.  In  the  finer  red -figure  vases 
there  are  also  elaborate  inner  markings  which  enable  the 
artist  to  express  the  bodily  forms  beneath  the  draperies.  This 
greater  command  of  resources  naturally  made  the  new  style 
popular,  and  the  red-figure  vases  of  the  central  period,  exhibited 
in  this  room,  include  the  finest  work  in  this  kind  that  the 
Greeks  executed.  But,  as  Ruskin  points  out,  the  new  method, 
together  with  the  possibilities  of  development  described  above, 
contained  also  the  seeds  of  decay.  "  In  the  black-figure  style 
the  merit  of  the  composition  was  strictly  dependent  on  the 
purity  of  the  terminal  lines,  and  the  position  of  this  terminal 
line  is  executively  the  safeguard  of  noble  art  in  all  ages.  But 
the  outlining  of  the  figures  with  a  broad  band  in  the  red-figure 
style  gradually  induced  carelessness  in  contour,  while  also  the 
interior  lines  of  drapery,  etc.,  being  now  painted,  became 
coarse  if  too  quickly  laid  (the  incised  line,  on  the  contrary, 
might  be  hasty  and  wrong,  but  was  always  delicate).  Hence, 
in  concurrence  with  gradual  deadening  in  conception,  arose 
a  bluntness  in  work  which  eventually  destroyed  the  art 55 
{Catalogue  of  Examples,  1870,  pp.  23,  26).  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  noted  further  that  in  spite  of  the  gradual  approach  to 
more  lifelike  representation  which  we  shall  observe  in  this 
room,  the  art  of  vase-painting  remains  to  a  large  extent 
symbolic  ;  it  frankly  retains  many  absurdities  and  conven- 
tions ;  its  aim  is  still  to  hint  and  to  suggest,  rather  than  to 
present ;  grace,  not  realism,  is  its  ideal ;  it  combines  "  the 
minimum  of  statement  with  the  maximum  of  reference  to  the 
elements  of  dignity  and  grace." 

It  is  customary  in  catalogues  of  Greek  vases  to  distinguish 
various  red-figure  styles.  One  classification  tells  of  "  archaic," 
"severe,"  "large,"  "strong,"  "fine,"  "florid."  Another  is 
based  on  the  style  of  various  groups  of  artists,  whose  signatures 
appear  on  vases  and  whose  differing  characteristics  may  thus 
be  examined  and  analysed.  Thus  ( 1 )  the  School  of  the  Transi- 
tion from  black  figures  to  red  is  associated  with  the  name  of 
Epictetus  (see  below,  Table-cases  A  and  B) ;  (2)  the  culminat- 
ing art  of  the  red-figure  style  is  connected  with  the  names  of 
Euphronius,  Duris,  Hieron  and  Brygos  (see  Table-cases  D  and 
E)  ;  (3)  the  later  style,  freer  and  more  florid,  is  represented 
by  Meidias  (see  Pedestal  4). 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


353 


The  new  method  which  we  have  described  led  to  alteration 
in  subject.  In  the  black-figure  period  the  subjects  were  com- 
paratively few  and  were  almost  entirely  mythological.  Instead 
of  confining  themselves  to  these  stock  subjects,  the  painters 
now  gave  freer  play  to  their  fancy,  and  we  shall  be  struck  in 
the  vases  here  collected  with  their  much  wider  range  of  subject 
and  greater  variety  and  originality  of  treatment.  This  point 
can  best  be  illustrated  during  the  detailed  examination  of  the 
vases,  to  which  we  now  proceed.1 

Case  A. — Athenian  kylixes  of  early  or  severe  style 

(500-480  B.C.)  by  Epictetus,  Pamphaeus,  Hischylus,  and  other 
painters  who  have  signed  their  names  on  the  vases.  In  the 
red-figure  period,  the  kylix — the  most  graceful  and  simple  of 
all  vase  forms — is  the  favourite,  and  the  first  few  cases  in  this 
room  are  devoted  to  vases  of  this  shape.  The  kylixes,  having 
designs  both  on  the  exterior  and  in  the  interior,  could  not 
be  satisfactorily  exhibited  without  sacrificing  the  one  or  the 
other.  In  many  cases,  therefore,  the  interiors  have  been  photo- 
graphed, and  photographic  facsimiles,  printed  on  terra-cotta 
paper,  are  exhibited  beside  each  vase. 

In  this  case  we  may  notice  first  the  process  of  transition 
from  the  black-figure  style  to  the  red,  for  on  some  of  the  vases 
both  kinds  of  figure  exist  side  by  side.  Thus,  on  E  2  the  boy 
lifting  the  amphora  is  a  red  figure  ;  the  galleys  sailing  round 
the  river,  with  fishes  to  indicate  the  sea,  are  in  black. 
Similarly,  in  E  3  and  4,  the  interiors  have  black  figures  ;  the 
exteriors,  red  figures.  Another  interesting  point  may  be 
noticed  as  illustrating  the  gradual  development  of  the  new 
style.  In  the  earlier  kylixes — in  most  of  those,  for  instance, 
in  Cases  A  and  B — the  medallion  in  the  centre  of  the  cup  is 
enclosed  in  a  plain  circle,  and  is  ornamented  with  a  single 
figure.  The  painters  show  considerable  ingenuity  in  making 
these  figures  fill  up  the  whole  space  of  the  circle.  Thus,  we 
have  figures  flying  (E  13),  carrying  (E  35),  lifting  (E  6),  run- 
ning (E  30),  kneeling  (E  52),  stooping  (E  32),  and  dancing 
(E  7).     In  most  cases,  however,  the  flexibility  of  the  human 

1  For  a  study  of  the  vases  in  this  room  the  Trustees  have  published  not 
only  the  Catalogue,  vol.  iii. ,  with  numerous  figures  in  black  and  white, 
but  also  two  beautifully  illustrated  folio  volumes — Dr.  A.  S.  Murray's 
Designs  from  Greek  Vases  in  the  British  Museum  (with  facsimiles  of  sixty- 
two  designs),  and  the  same  editor's  White  Athenian  Vases  (similarly 
illustrated). 

2  A 


354 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


figure  is  in  the  earlier  vases  mare  apparent  than  real.  The 
figures  look  not  unlike  jointed  dolls.  Gradually,  however,  as  in 
most  of  the  vases  in  Cases  D  and  E,  a  border  with  an  elaborate 
pattern  comes  to  be  substituted  for  the  plain  circle,  and  the  design 
expands  into  compositions  of  two  or  more  figures  ;  the  artist 
succeeds  in  imparting  to  them  greater  freedom  of  action,  and 
the  draperies  become  rich  and  varied.  We  may  now  proceed 
to  notice  some  of  the  specimens  in  this  case,  which,  for  one 
reason  or  another,  are  of  special  interest  : — 

E  437  (stamnos). — This  vase  is  in  the  finest  style  of  Pamphseus, 
by  whom  it  is  signed.  This  artist  lived  just  at  the  transition  from  the 
black-figure  to  the  red-figure  style.  He  first  excelled  in  the  former, 
in  which  he  indulged  to  excess  his  sense  of  refinement  and  grace,  in 
which  qualities  he  was  unsurpassed  (see  B  300,  p.  347).  The  subject 
on  one  side  is  the  combat  between  Hercules  and  the  Achelous  (cf. 
B  228,  p.  316).  The  river-god  is  here  represented  with  a  satyr's  head 
and  long  bull's  horns  on  the  forehead;  his  form,  human  to  the  waist, 
terminates  in  a  fish's  tail ;  his  hair  falls  down  his  back  ;  his  beard  is 
long  and  shaggy.  In  this  type,  says  Sir  Charles  Newton  {Stones  of 
Venice,  vol.  i.  app.  21),  we  see  a  continuation  of  the  three  forms 
separately  enumerated  by  Sophocles  at  the  commencement  of  the 
u  Trachinise,"  where  Dejanira  says:  "For  there  came  to  woo  me  a 
river-god,  e'en  Achelous,  who  often  asked  me  of  my  sire,  appearing 
visibly  in  three  shapes  ;  now  as  a  bull  he  would  come  ;  now  as  a 
writhing  speckled  snake  ;  and  other  whiles  with  human  trunk  and 
forehead  of  an  ox,  with  streams  of  his  fountain's  water  gushing  from 
his  shaggy  beard  on  every  side." 

E  9. — On  the  exterior  is  Peleus  seizing  Thetis  between  two  winged 
and  bridled  sea-horses.  On  either  side  two  Nereids  rush  away  with 
gestures  of  fear.  Notice  the  quaint  representation  of  successive  stages 
in  the  transformation  of  Thetis  as  simultaneous  :  while  Thetis  moves 
away  from  the  grasp  of  Peleus,  she  also  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
lion  mounted  on  his  back.  Also  Hermes  and  the  Nereids  bringing 
the  news  to  their  father,  Nereus.  The  scheme  of  decoration  is  worth 
noticing.  "  The  sea-horses  form  decorative  groups  beside  the  handles, 
by  which  their  bodies  are  interrupted  :  their  tails,  passing  beneath  the 
handles,  cross  each  other,  each  pair  of  tails  thus  forming  a  handle 
ornament"  {Cat.  of  Vases,  vol.  iii. ).  This  ingenuity  of  composition 
shows  a  great  advance  on  the  earlier  style. 

E  1 1  (kylix).  —  In  the  designs  of  the  exterior  it  is  interesting  to 
notice  how  the  figures  are  drawn  to  cover  as  much  space  as  possible. 
This  is  an  artistic  advance  on  the  older  method  of  filling  up  with  eyes, 
palmettes,  etc.  But  in  the  present  case  the  artist  has  only  conquered 
this  decorative  difficulty  at  the  cost  of  distortion.  Thus  the  extended 
arms  of  Dionysus  are  out  of  all  proportion.     (Artist,  Pamphaeus. ) 

E  12  (kylix). — In  one  of  the  exterior  designs  two  wind-gods  are 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


355 


carrying  off  the  dead  body  of  Memnon,  the  prince  of  ^Ethiopia,  and 
supposed  son  of  Eos,  the  Dawn.  He  brought  a  contingent  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Trojans,  and  was  slain  in  battle  by  Achilles.  But 
Eos  appealed  to  Zeus  for  permission  to  carry  the  body  of  her  goodly 
son  from  the  battlefield.  The  execution  of  this  design  shows  a  re- 
markable advance  in  power  of  expression.  The  lifeless  character  of 
the  corpse  is  shown  by  a  general  limpness,  by  the  closed  eye,  and  by 
the  left  arm  hanging  helplessly.  "  Surely  in  the  whole  realm  of 
Greek  vase-painting  there  is  hardly  to  be  met  with  a  finer  conception. 
No  wonder  that  it  has  been  ascribed  to  the  greatest  of  vase-painters, 
Euphronius.  There  is  a  largeness  and  breadth  of  style,  especially  in 
the  figure  of  Memnon,  which  instantly  suggest  that  name.  And  yet 
the  vase  bears  on  its  foot  the  signature  of  Pamphaios,  while  the 
interior  design,  a  figure  of  Silenos,  is  unmistakably  an  example  of 
his  ordinary  work  "  (Murray's  Designs  on  Greek  Vases). 


Pedestal  I. — The  Knucklebone  Vase  (E  804) 

This  curious  and  beautiful  vase  is  moulded  in  the  shape 
of  an  astragalus,  or  sheep's  bone,  such  as  were  used  in  the 
favourite  game  (see  p.  58).  The  vase  was  found  in  ^Egina, 
and  obtained  thence  by  Lord  Aberdeen,  who  presented  it  to 
the  Museum  in  i860.  The  designs  are  remarkable  for  their 
grace  and  delicacy.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  give  the 
dancing  figures  an  allegorical  significance,  and  to  identify  them 
with  a  personification  of  the  Breezes  (see  J. U.S.  xiii.  131). 
But  who  in  that  case  is  the  somewhat  vulgar  fellow  with  up- 
turned nose  and  shaggy  beard  ?  More  probably  he  is  the  old 
dancing-master,  who  is  teaching  the  dames  represented  on 
the  other  side  of  the  vase  skirt-dances  in  imitation  of  the 
flight  of  birds.  Dances  of  this  kind  are  referred  to  in  Xeno- 
phon's  Banquet :  u  Supposing  your  young  people  yonder 
were  to  tread  a  measure  to  the  flute — some  pantomime  in 
dance,  like  those  which  the  Graces  and  the  Hours  with  the 
Nymphs  are  made  to  tread  in  pictures "  (vii.  5).  Whether 
this  be  the  idea  here,  or  whether  the  girls  represent  the  Breezes, 
the  dainty  designs  are  very  appropriate  to  the  astragalus, 
being  thoroughly  in  keeping  with  its  playful,  light,  and  unsteady 
character. 

Case  B. — Athenian  kylixes  of  early  or  severe  style : 
500-480  B.C.  On  the  top  of  this  case  we  may  notice  the 
following  vases  : — 


356 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP, 


E  290  (amphora).  —  One  of  the  subjects  here — identified  by 
Mr.  Cecil  Smith  {J.H.S.  iv.  96)  as  Hercules  driving  off  Geras  (old 
age) — illustrates  a  trait  which  Mr.  Mahaffy  in  his  Social  Life  in  Greece 
notes  as  very  characteristic  of  the  Greeks,  namely,  their  hatred  and 
horror  of  old  age.  In  the  lank  form,  lean  shrunken  limbs,  and  pinched 
expression  of  the  wrinkled  face,  the  artist  has  succeeded  in  producing 
a  sufficiently  characteristic  and  repulsive  conception  of  old  age,  and  it 
is  not  thought  inconsistent  with  the  heroic  character  of  Hercules  to 
beat  the  unwelcome  intruder.  To  the  Greeks  old  age  was  figured 
like  the  lean  pantaloon,  "wretched  and  hideous  old  age,"  in  the 
words  of  Mimnermus,  "hateful  and  dishonouring,  which  changes  the 
fashion  of  a  man's  countenance,  injuring  his  sight  and  clouding  his 
mind."  This  vase  is  one  of  several  which  are  inscribed  with  the  pet 
name  of  Charmides  (see  below). 

E  293  (amphora). — Eros,  hovering  along  the  ground,  stretching  out 
his  arms  to  catch  a  hare  running.  Many  representations  of  Eros  and 
a  hare  will  be  observed  in  this  case  :  the  hare  was  a  customary  love- 
gift  among  the  Greeks. 

E  289. — Badly  broken — most  of  the  ancient  vases  have  been  found 
in  several  pieces.  In  many  cases  the  restoration  is  so  complete  as 
hardly  to  be  noticed.  But  in  other  cases,  as  in  this  vase,  the  chipping 
has  gone  too  far. 

E  571  (lekythos). — Eros  holding  a  hare  beside  an  altar.  This  vase 
— like  E  290 — is  inscribed  XapfjLidrjs  kcl\6s  :  "  Charmides  is  beautiful." 
These  inscriptions  on  Greek  vases  offer  many  points  of  curious  interest, 
which  are  indicated  lower  down  (p.  359).  Here  we  may  note  in 
passing  that  vases  inscribed  with  the  name  Charmides  are  presumably 
by  the  same  artist.  Mediaeval  and  modern  artists  often  put  some 
private  mark  of  identification  on  their  works,  as,  for  instance,  the  pink 
of  Garofalo  or  the  butterfly  of  Mr.  Whistler.  Similarly,  the  Greek 
vase-painter  put  the  name  of  some  person  on  his  vase  as  a  pleasant 
means  of  identification. 

Below  are  kylixes  in  the  style  of  Epictetus,  by  whom  several 
of  them  are  signed.  "  His  drawing,"  says  Dr.  Murray  (Designs 
on  Greek  Vases),  "is  always  precise  and  fastidious.  He  loves 
slim,  youthful  forms,  where  his  qualities  of  drawing  have  perfect 
scope.  He  prefers  to  draw  his  figures  on  a  small  scale,  where 
his  minute  touches  produce  at  times  a  startling  vividness.'' 
"  He  seems  anxious,"  says  Miss  Harrison  {Greek  Vase  Paint- 
ings, p.  16),  "it  should  be  clearly  understood  he  is  no  mere 
potter.  He  signs  typa^xrev  (painted)  not  hrotiftrev  (made)  : 
other  potters  made  the  cups  which  he  painted.  The  subject 
was  nothing  to  him,  the  motive  everything.  He  is  in  love 
with  posture  and  gesture." 

E  38  (painted  by  Epictetus,  made  by  Python). — On  the  outside  are 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


357 


two  subjects : — (a)  Hercules,  who,  on  his  visit  to  Egypt,  was  doomed  to 
death  by  a  soothsayer  to  appease  the  gods  and  stay  a  famine  in  the 
land,  is  shown  slaying  instead  the  king  Busiris  with  his  attendant 
priests.  Busiris  is  falling  back,  his  leg  bent  under  him,  with  blood 
streaming  from  two  wounds.  All  the  Egyptians  have  shaven  heads, 
with  a  patch  of  hair,  indicated  by  brown  dots,  left  over  the  ear, 
thick  lips,  and  snub  noses  :  in  stiff  Egyptian  attitudes.  (5) 
The  other  drawing  on  the  outside  shows  two  men  reclining  and 
waited  on  by  a  cup-bearer  and  a  flute-player.  No  subject  is  com- 
moner on  the  kylixes  of  this  period  than  the  symposium  or  banquet — 
a  subject  specially  appropriate  to  the  use  of  the  cups  themselves.  Just 
as  on  the  funeral  lekythi  funeral  scenes  were  depicted,  so  on  wine 
cups  scenes  of  conviviality  were  shown.  These  vase-pictures,  showing 
young  men  reclining  at  a  wine-party — sometimes  playing  cottabos 
(see  pp.  419-420),  sometimes  listening  to  a  flute-girl,  sometimes  con- 
versing— recall  many  a  page  in  Plato  :  as,  for  instance,  the  opening 
scene  in  the  Symposium  itself : — 

"  Socrates  took  his  place  on  the  couch  ;  and  when  the  meal  was  ended, 
and  the  libations  offered,  and  after  a  hymn  had  been  sung  to  the  god, 
and  there  had  been  the  usual  ceremonies,  as  they  were  about  to  com- 
mence drinking,  Pausanias  reminded  them  that  they  had  had  a  bout 
yesterday.  .  .  .  All  agreed  that  drinking  was  not  to  be  the  order  of  the 
day.  'Then,'  said  Eryximachus,  'as  you  are  all  agreed  that  drinking 
is  to  be  voluntary,  and  that  there  is  to  be  no  compulsion,  I  move,  in  the 
next  place,  that  the  flute-girl,  who  has  just  made  her  appearance,  be  told 
to  go  away.  On  this  day  let  us  have  conversation  instead  ;  for  I  mean 
to  propose  that  each  of  us  in  turn  shall  make  a  discourse  in  honour 
of  love. 

Pedestal  II.— The  Castellani  Rhyton  (E  788) 

This  beautiful  rhyton  (or  drinking-horn),  in  the  form  of  a 
sphinx,  from  the  Castellani  collection,  was  found  in  a  tomb 
at  Capua  in  1872,  together  with  other  vases  in  our  collection 
(E  65,  E  140,  and  E  795).  The  sphinx  is  admirably  modelled, 
and  the  drawings  on  the  cup  are  in  the  finest  style.  Between  the 
feet  of  the  sphinx  is  a  small  spout  connected  with  the  interior 
of  the  vase  ;  this  may  have  been  used  for  cleaning  it  out. 
The  design  represents  the  favourite  Athenian  legend  of  the 
birth  of  Erichthonius.  His  mother,  Gaia  (the  earth),  confided 
him  to  Athena,  who  in  turn  concealed  him  in  a  chest,  which 
she  gave  in  charge  to  the  daughter  of  King  Cecrops  with  in- 
junctions as  to  secrecy.  Here  Erichthonius  is  represented 
sitting,  wrapped  up  in  a  mantle,  on  a  rock  of  the  Acropolis. 
One  of  the  daughters  of  Cecrops  holds  a  sceptre  before  him — 
a  symbol  of  the  power  which  is  one  day  to  be  his.    Victory  is 


358 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


offering  a  libation  to  Cecrops.  (For  a  discussion  of  the 
subject,  see  A.  S.  Murray  in  J. U.S.  viii.  i.) 

Case  C. — Vases  of  the  finest  period,  many  of  them 
signed  (500-450  b.c),  from  the  collection  of  A.  van 
Branteghem,  a  well-known  amateur,  which  was  sold  in  1892. 
(An  illustrated  catalogue,  edited  by  W.  Frohner,  was  published 
at  Brussels.)  The  pieces  purchased  for  the  British  Museum 
include  some  choice  specimens  of  the  polychrome  kylix.  Cups 
of  this  kind,  painted  in  various  colours  on  a  cream-coloured 
ground,  are  rare,  because  the  style,  introduced  by  Euphronius 
and  his  set,  had  a  short  vogue.  The  colours  were  found 
friable  after  contact  with  wine ;  polychrome  decoration  was 
therefore  transferred  to  the  outside  of  vases,  as  in  the  lekythi 
noticed  below  (see  on  this  subject  Miss  Harrison  in  Greek 
Vase  Pai?itings,  p.  27).  We  now  notice  in  detail  some  of  the 
more  interesting  of  the  vases  : — 

D  7  (probably  by  Sotades). — The  subject  is  the  death  of  Arch- 
emorus,  whose  story  was  connected  with  the  foundation  of  the 
Nemean  games.  Lycurgus,  King  of  Nemea,  had  an  infant  son, 
Opheltes,  of  whom  the  oracle  had  given  warning  that  on  no  account 
should  the  boy  be  set  upon  the  ground  before  he  could  walk.  The 
child's  nurse  was  thus  instructed  ;  but  it  chanced  one  day  that  the 
Seven  Champions  against  Thebes  halted  in  the  Vale  of  Nemea,  and, 
meeting  the  nurse,  begged  her  to  show  them  a  fountain  where  they 
might  quench  their  thirst.  She  led  them  to  a  spring  in  a  bed  of  wild 
parsley  (or  celery),  and  there  she  set  down  the  child.  But  the  dragon 
that  guarded  the  spring  stole  out  and  killed  the  child.  The  prophet 
Amphiaraus  told  the  Seven  Champions  that  the  child's  death  was  an 
omen  of  coming  doom  to  themselves.  So  they  called  his  name 
Archemorus  ("the  beginner  of  doom"),  and  in  his  memory  the  Nemean 
games  were  instituted,  with  a  crown  of  wild  celery  for  the  prize  of 
victoiy.  On  this  vase  we  see  one  of  the  Champions  throwing  a  stone 
at  the  serpent,  which  rises  out  of  a  bed  of  reeds. 

D  5. — A  very  beautiful  kylix,  most  delicately  moulded  in  form,  and 
finely  painted  (signed  by  Sotades).  The  subject  is  the  legend  of  Poly- 
eidus  and  Glaucus.  Glaucus,  son  of  King  Minos  of  Crete,  had  been 
smothered  in  a  pot  of  honey.  Polyeidus,  a  magician,  was  called  in 
to  restore  him  to  life,  and,  when  he  declared  this  to  be  beyond  his 
art,  was  imprisoned  by  Minos  in  the  tomb  with  Glaucus.  The  tomb 
on  our  vase  is  shown,  in  sectional  view,  as  a  conical  tumulus.  Glaucus, 
closely  wrapped  in  a  cloak,  sits  on  the  floor.  On  the  left  is  Polyeidus, 
thrusting  with  a  spear  at  one  of  two  snakes  ;  for,  when  in  the  tomb, 
Polyeidus  saw  a  serpent  approaching,  which  he  killed,  and  thereupon 
another  serpent,  with  a  herb  in  its  mouth,  touched  its  dead  companion, 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


359 


which  was  thus  restored  to  life.  Which  things  Polyeidus  saw ;  he 
took  the  herb,  and,  touching  Glaucus  with  it,  restored  the  boy  to  life. 

D  6. — Another  very  delicate  vase,  also  by  Sotades  :  a  girl  gather- 
ing apples. 

E  46  (kylix). — A  boy  running  after  a  hare.  This  vase,  like  so  many 
others  of  the  same  period,  is  inscribed  with  a  name  to  which  is  added 
KaAos,  "Leagros  is  beautiful." 

[The  inscription  of  favourite  names,  though  adopted  by  some  of 
the  black-figure  masters  (see,  e.g.,  B  210  in  Room  II.  Case  48),  only 
came  into  general  use  among  the  earlier  red-figure  masters,  and  among 
them  it  was  confined  to  Athens.  The  precise  meaning  of  the  custom, 
and  therefore  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  it,  are  matters  which 
have  not  yet  been  conclusively  determined.  A  few  points,  however, 
may  be  explained.  In  many  cases  the  inscription  was  impersonal  :  6  wals 
fcaXos,  "  the  boy  is  beautiful" — an  inscription  corresponding,  as  Miss 
Harrison  points  out,  to  the  mugs  of  our  childhood  inscribed  "for  a 
good  boy."  It  may  be  assumed,  therefore,  that  where  a  name  is  given, 
"Leagros  is  beautiful,"  the  person  celebrated  is  also  a  youth.  The 
German  archaeologists  call  these  dedication  names  "  pet  names,''  but 
this  may  suggest  a  meaning  which  is  not  proved,  and  is  not  indeed 
altogether  probable.  The  custom,  it  should  be  said,  was  not  confined 
at  Athens  to  pottery.  Aristophanes  tells  us  that  Sitalkes  of  Thrace 
was  so  fond  of  the  Athenians  that  he  wrote  upon  his  walls  'AOrjvaioi 
kclXol  ("the  Athenians  are  beautiful"),  like  those  lovers,  says  an  old 
commentator,  who  scrawl  the  name  of  the  beloved  on  walls,  trees,  or 
foliage.  Elsewhere  Aristophanes  makes  play  with  the  custom  when 
he  tells  how  Philokleon,  bitten  with  the  ballot,  wherever  he  found 
written  up  8t)/ulos  kcl\6s,  would  write  below,  ktj/jlos  kclKos  ("lovely  is  the 
ballot-box").  In  Lucian's  Dialogue  between  Melissa  and  Bacchis, 
Melissa  says,  "  I  sent  my  maid  to  the  Potters'  Quarter,  where  she 
found  written  on  the  walls  *  Melissa  loves  Hermotimus,  and  Hermo- 
timus  Melissa.'"  In  the  case  of  these  vase  inscriptions  it  seems 
probable  that  the  youths  whose  names  were  inscribed  were  not  the  pets 
of  obscure  potters,  but  were  noble  youths — the  jeunesse  dore'e,  in  fact — 
of  Athens.  "The  potters'  quarter,  the  Kerameikos,  was  the  parade 
place  of  the  young  horsemen.  These  wealthy  youths  were,  no  doubt, 
among  the  best  customers  of  the  potters.  Vases,  and  rare  ones,  were 
needed  at  their  banquets,  and  for  their  favourite  game  of  cottabos." 
The  choice  of  a  particular  name  for  inscription  on  a  vase  was  partly 
dictated  by  personal  admiration,  partly  by  commercial  shrewdness — 
the  bid  for  the  custom  of  the  youth  with  the  laden  purse  (Harrison's 
Greek  Vase  Painters ;  p.  18).  "  Leagros  is  beautiful  "  does  not,  therefore, 
quite  express  the  idea  in  English.  "  Leagros  is  a  swell"  would,  says 
Miss  Harrison,  if  it  were  not  slang,  about  express  it.  The  American 
expression,  "  Leagros  is  just  lovely,"  perhaps  comes  even  nearer  to  it. 
Particular  potters  seem  to  have  had  a  fondness  for  particular  names. 
The  dedication  served  as  a  sign-manual  and  an  advertisement  for  the 
brand.     "  Leagros  kcl\6s  "  is  thus  the  Gladstone  bag,  the  Langtry  soap, 


360 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


of  antiquity.  The  custom  resembles  also  the  dedication  of  books  to 
particular  patrons.  The  custom  revived  in  the  pottery  of  the  sixteenth 
century  in  Italy,  when  it  was  "  Lucrezia  bella,"  u  Angelica  diva,"  that 
the  majolica -maker  cared  to  celebrate,  and,  oddly  enough,  as  the 
custom  is  in  Greece  confined  to  something  less  than  a  century  of 
Athenian  life,  these  Italian  dedicatory  inscriptions  end  abruptly  in  1 550 
A.  D.  It  remains  to  notice  that  the  kclKgs  names  may  afford  some  clue 
to  the  chronology  of  vases.  In  the  first  place,  if  these  names  were 
those  of  real  youths,  inscribed  during  the  period  of  their  golden  youth, 
then  all  vases  dedicated  to  the  same  youth  must  belong  to  the  same 
decade.  Secondly,  if  particular  artists  affected  particular  names,  then, 
in  the  absence  of  an  artist's  name,  the  dedication  name  may  give  a 
clue  to  the  school — for  instance,  vases  of  Euphronius  may  be  recog- 
nised by  his  favourite  inscription,  "  Leagros  is  beautiful."  Thirdly, 
some  of  the  names  on  the  vases  are  historical  characters,  and  if  an 
identity  between  them  can  be  assumed,  approximate  dates  for  the 
vases  can  be  fixed.  Thus  we  know  from  Herodotus  that  a  certain 
Leagros  fell  in  battle  about  476  B.C.  He  would,  therefore,  have  been 
a  beautiful  youth  about  495  B.C.  His  son,  Glaucon — a  name  which 
also  appears  on  vases — had  a  command  at  Corcyra  in  432  B.C.,  and 
would  have  been  a  youth  about  455  B.C.  Another  vase  in  our  collec- 
tion is  dedicated  to  Hipparchos.     A  man  of  that  name  was  slain  in 

sis-] 

E  268. — An  amphora  with  twisted  handles  in  the  late  stage  of  the 
severe  style.  On  one  side,  Hermes ;  on  the  other,  Athena.  The 
figure  of  the  goddess  is  reproduced  by  Ruskin  at  §  67  of  Aratra 
Pentelici,  to  illustrate  his  remarks  on  the  Imagination  of  the  Greeks. 
What  he  says  is  worth  quoting  as  a  hint  to  the  spirit  in  which  we  should 
approach  all  these  specimens  of  Greek  art.  He  distinguishes  between 
Idolatry,  which  consists  in  the  attribution  of  spiritual  power  to  a  material 
thing,  and  Imagination,  that  is  to  say,  the  invention  of  material  .symbols 
which  may  lead  us  to  contemplate  the  character  and  nature  of  gods, 
spirits,  or  abstract  virtues  and  powers,  without  in  the  least  implying 
the  actual  presence  of  such  beings  among  us,  or  even  their  possession, 
in  reality,  of  the  forms  we  attribute  to  them  : — "For  instance,  in  the 
ordinarily  received  Greek  type  of  Athena,  on  vases  of  the  Phidian  time, 
no  Greek  would  have  supposed  the  vase  on  which  this  was  painted  to 
be  itself  Athena,  nor  to  contain  Athena  inside  of  it,  as  the  Arabian 
fisherman's  casket  contained  the  genie  ;  neither  did  he  think  that  this 
rude  painting,  done  at  speed  as  the  potter's  fancy  urged  his  hand, 
represented  anything  like  the  form  or  aspect  of  the  goddess  herself. 
Nor  would  he  have  thought  so,  even  had  the  image  been  ever  so 
beautifully  wrought.  The  goddess  might,  indeed,  visibly  appear  under 
the  form  of  an  armed  virgin,  as  she  might  under  that  of  a  hawk  or  a 
swallow,  when  it  pleased  her  to  give  such  manifestation  of  her  presence  ; 
but  it  did  not,  therefore,  follow  that  she  was  constantly  invested  with 
any  of  these  forms,  or  that  the  best  which  human  skill  could,  even  by 
her  own  aid,  picture  of  her,  was,  indeed,  a  likeness  of  her.     The  real 


>'1X 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


use,  at  all  events,  of  this  rude  image,  was  only  to  signify  to  the  eye 
and  heart  the  facts  of  the  existence,  in  some  manner,  of  a  Spirit  of 
wisdom,  perfect  in  gentleness,  irresistible  in  anger  ;  having  also  physical 
dominion  over  the  air  which  is  the  life  and  health  of  all  creatures,  and 
clothed,  to  human  eyes,  with  aegis  of  fiery  cloud,  and  raiment  of  falling 
dew."  It  will  be  observed  that  Athena,  as  the  goddess  of  peaceful 
wisdom,  does  not  wear  her  helmet,  but  holds  it  in  her  hand.  (For  some 
remarks  on  this  motive,  see  under  E  324,  p.  383.) 

Pedestal  III. — The  Camirus  Vase  (E  424) 

This  celebrated  vase,  which  merits  careful  attention  for  its 
many  artistic  beauties,  was  found  in  1862  by  Salzmann  and 
Biliotti  in  a  tomb  at  Camirus,  Rhodes.  The  person  with 
whom  it  was  buried  must  have  been  of  some  importance  in 
his  day,  for  in  the  same  tomb  were  found  a  gold  reel  with 
reliefs,  an  alabaster  box,  and  a  chalcedony  intaglio.  The 
principal  subject  here  is  Peleus  seizing  his  bride,  Thetis, 
when  she  was  bathing  in  the  sea  (represented  by  a  dolphin 
swimming)  :  the  same  subject  frequently  occurs  on  vases. 
The  present  vase  is  a  magnificent  specimen  of  the  polychrome 
style.  "  Though  not  highly  finished  in  details,  such  as  the 
hands  and  feet,  this  picture,"  says  Middleton,  "is  a  perfect 
marvel  of  skilful  touches  rapidly  applied,  and  of  extreme 
beauty  of  form  and  general  composition."  Thetis  crouches  in 
the  attitude  of  the  well-known  statue,  known  by  the  name 
Venus  acci-oupie.  She  is  naked,  but  with  her  left  hand 
raises  from  the  ground  a  mantle  wherewith  to  cover  herself. 
A  marine  serpent  has  coiled  round  the  leg  of  Peleus — 
symbolical  of  the  power  of  transformation  possessed  by  Thetis. 
Above  the  head  of  Peleus,  Eros  hovers  in  the  act  of  crowning 
the  hero  in  token  of  his  victory  over  the  capricious  sea-goddess 
who  has  so  long  eluded  him  : — 

"  The  incident  (says  Newton)  is  well  told,  and  in  the  general  motive 
there  is  a  passionate  tenderness  which  transcends  the  limited  range  of 
expression  in  the  earlier  monochromes,  and  which,  if  attempted  by  any 
ordinary  artist  of  the  later  school,  would  have  been  overlaid  with  more 
or  less  of  affectation  and  mannerism,  such  as  we  see  in  the  celebrated 
Meidias  vase.  The  features  of  Peleus  himself  and  of  Aphrodite  are 
drawn  with  exquisite  delicacy,  and  the  artist  has  thrown  into  their 
countenances  as  much  expression  as  perhaps  has  ever  been  obtained 
in  ancient  vase-painting.  The  figure  of  Thetis,  being  painted  in  a 
perishable  material,  has  unfortunately  suffered  more  than  any  of  the 
others,  and  her  face  is  nearly  obliterated,  but  the  form  is  beautifully 


362 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


modelled.  Perhaps  the  most  masterly  piece  of  drawing  in  the  whole 
composition  is  the  back  of  the  Nereid  who  is  flying  to  the  right,  which 
on  the  vase  has  a  morbidezza  which  no  engraving  can  adequately 
express,  because  this  figure,  in  the  original  design,  is  adapted  to  a  con- 
cave surface,  while  on  a  plate  the  same  outline  is  transferred  to  a  plane. 
This  careful  adaptation  of  the  figures  to  the  surface  on  which  they  are 
delineated  is  observable  throughout  the  composition.  It  is  not  through 
accident  but  design  that  the  figure  of  Thetis  herself,  the  central  point 
of  interest,  is  placed  on  the  lower  part  of  the  vase,  and  that  the  figures 
of  Peitho,  Aphrodite,  and  the  flying  Nereid  are  on  a  higher  level. 
These  figures  are  intended  to  be  in  the  background,  and  their  position 
relatively  to  the  rest  is  suggested  by  the  receding  surface  of  the  vase 
as  it  narrows  upwards  ;  while  the  figure  of  Thetis,  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  foreground  as  the  principal  point  of  interest,  acquires  still  greater 
importance  from  being  painted  on  the  part  of  the  vase  nearest  to  the 
eye.'5 

The  same  beautiful  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  may  be 
observed  in  the  arrangement  of  the  colours  : — 

"  So  soon  as  the  vase-painter  began  to  introduce  difficult  foreshorten- 
ings  and  more  intricate  groups  in  his  compositions,  he  was  obliged,  in 
order  to  make  his  design  intelligible,  to  introduce  more  prominently 
colours  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  only  applied  to  accessories,  and 
thus  it  was  that  his  style  became  polychrome  instead  of  monochrome  ; 
and  to  heighten  the  effect  he  uses  gold,  not  as  the  mediaeval  painter 
used  it,  for  a  background,  but  to  heighten  the  effect  of  subordinate 
details.  .  .  .  The  central  figure  in  this  composition,  Thetis  herself,  is 
painted  in  opaque  white,  and  the  mantle  which  she  is  about  to  throw 
over  her  naked  form  is  a  kind  of  sea-green.  Above  her  head  flutters 
Eros.  He,  too,  has  his  body  painted  in  opaque  white,  his  wings  being 
picked  out  with  gold.  The  cap  of  Peleus  is  gilt,  but  his  body,  and  that 
of  several  subordinate  female  figures  on  each  side  of  the  central  group, 
are  painted  red,  with  no  gilding  except  on  necklaces  and  armlets.  By 
thus  reserving  white  colour  for  the  two  figures  round  which  the  main 
interest  of  the  subject  centres  (Thetis  and  Eros),  the  painter  has  given 
due  prominence  and  emphasis  to  the  principal  group  ;  and  this  brilliant 
mass  of  colour  in  the  centre  of  the  composition  may  be  considered 
as  a  sort  of  foreground,  which  helps  to  send  back  the  eye  to  the  two 
subordinate  figures  in  the  distance.  Here  we  see  the  rude  and  simple 
expedient  by  which,  in  the  absence  of  aerial  perspective,  the  vase- 
painters  indicated  the  background  of  their  compositions.  Figures 
more  distant  from  the  eye  are  always  represented  seated  or  standing  on 
a  higher  level  than  figures  in  the  foreground  "  (C.  T.  Newton  in  the 
Portfolio,  1874,  p.  183). 

The  excellence  of  design  and  execution  which  we  may 
thus  find  in  this  vase -picture  is  rarely  to  be  met  with  in 
extant  specimens  of  polychrome  art.     The  date  is  probably 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


363 


350-320  B.C.  It  is  of  Rhodian  fabric,  and  must  have  been 
executed  when  the  celebrated  painter  Protogenes  flourished  at 
Rhodes.  Perhaps  the  native  artist  who  drew  this  beautiful 
composition  on  the  clay  with  so  sure  a  hand  may  have  learnt 
the  principles  and  design  in  the  school  of  the  great  master 
whom  Apelles  delighted  to  honour  (C.  T.  Newton  in  Fine  Arts 
Quarterly,  1864,  p.  1). 

Case  D. — Kylixes  in  the  style  of  Kachrylion,  Euphronius 
and  Duris  :  end  of  fifth  century.    Here  we  may  notice  : — 

E  41. — Signed  by  Kachrylion,  a  painter  whose  style  is  midway 
between  that  of  Epictetus  and  that  of  Euphronius.  His  manner  is 
still  somewhat  archaic,  but  he  aims  at  being  expressive.  "  His  faces 
have  none  of  the  characterisation  that  is  so  remarkable  in  Euphronius. 
But,  like  Euphronius,  he  tells  a  story  vivaciously.  There  exists  a  vase 
moulded  by  him  and  painted  by  Euphronius,  and  some  have  thought  he 
was  master  of  Euphronius "  (see  Murray's  Designs  on  Greek  Vases, 
p.  9;  and  Harrison  and  MacColl's  Greek  Vase- Painting,  p.  16).  The 
subject  on  the  interior  here  is  believed  to  be  the  meeting  of  Theseus 
and  Ariadne  (see  Harrison  and  Verrall,  p.  cxxiii.). 

E  49. — This  vase  is  signed  by  Duris.  Banquet  scenes  are  his 
favourite  subject.  On  the  exterior  here  three  men  are  reclining  on 
couches.  The  central  figure  holds  up  a  kylix,  as  if  proposing  a  toast  ; 
a  boy  comes  forward  to  fill  it  from  his  oinochoe. 

E  44.  — This  is  the  only  vase  in  the  Museum  which  is  actually 
signed  by  Euphronius  (on  one  of  the  handles).  It  is,  however,  a  work 
of  his  ripest  period,  and  is  constantly  quoted  in  books  about  vase- 
painting.  Euphronius  was  renowned  both  as  a  potter  and  a  vase-painter, 
and  was  the  greatest  artist  of  his  time  in  both  branches  of  the  art.  He 
sometimes  described  his  own  vases  in  descriptions  as  brilliant,  and  his 
estimate  of  himself  was  endorsed  by  his  rivals.  There  is  a  vase  at 
Munich  with  the  inscription,  "  Such  a  vase  as  Euphronius  never  made  " 
— a  clear  recognition  of  his  fame.  In  some  respects  he  retained  the 
archaic  style,  as,  e.g.,  in  representing  the  eye  in  front  on  a  face  seen 
in  profile.  His  drawing  is  large  and  spirited.  He  tells  a  story  viva- 
ciously. His  draperies  are  full  of  refinement  and  beauty,  and  his  faces 
are  remarkable  for  their  successful  characterisation.  A  technical 
peculiarity  of  his  figures  is  their  large  prominent  noses  (Murray's 
Designs  on  Greek  Vases,  p.  10  ;  Horner,  p.  63).  In  the  inside  of  this 
vase  is  a  group  of  two  figures — a  bald  middle-aged  man  and  a  female 
lyre-player,  sometimes  called  "  Alcseus  and  Sappho."  There  is  a 
marked  striving  after  perspective  effects,  as  seen  in  the  frontways  feet 
of  the  woman  and  the  half-turned  body  of  the  man.  The  part  of  the 
woman's  chiton  above  the  waist  is  drawn  with  close  wavy  lines  in  light 
brown  ;  it  is  transparent,  and  the  entire  outlines  and  details  of  her 
body  are  visible  through  it.     But  notice  the  frankly  decorative  treat- 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


ment  of  the  woman's  feet,  which  the  artist  turns  at  the  end  into  a  pretty 
pattern.  On  the  exterior,  we  have  on  one  side  Hercules  bringing  the 
Erymanthian  boar  to  Eurystheus  (see  Room  II.  p.  326)  ;  on  the  other 
a  chariot  stopped  by  Hermes.  Here  we  see  Euphronius  as  the  prince 
of  story-tellers.  The  vase  shows  him.  too,  as  a  painter  who  takes  the 
old  material  and  re-informs  it  with  new  life.  His  subjects  belong  to 
the  good  old  black-figured  repe7'toire  of  types.  But  everything  here 
is  individual  and  alive,  from  the  chamois  horns  of  the  bow  of  Hercules 
to  the  wrinkled  double  chin  of  the  mother  of  Eurystheus.  The  old 
father  comes  up  second,  true  to  life  with  his  wrinkled  face  and  bald 
pate  (Murray's  Designs  for  Greek  Vases,  p.  10  :  Harrison  and  MacColl, 
p.  19).  In  the  chariot  scene,  the  figure  of  the  youthful  driver  is  fine, 
with  body  bent  forward  and  hair  streaming  back. 

E  768  (psycter). — This  vase  is  in  the  finest  style  of  Duris,  signed. 
The  revels  of  the  satyrs  are  depicted  with  great  vivacity.  Notice  the 
one  who  is  almost  standing  on  his  head  to  drink. 


Pedestal  IV.— The  "Meidias"  Vase  (E  224) 

This  celebrated  vase,  called  by  Winckelmann  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  world,  is  signed  by  Meidias,  and  is  the  only 
example  that  has  come  to  light  of  that  painter,  who  must  have 
been  one  of  the  best  artists  of  the  time.  The  drawing  is  in 
a  somewhat  florid  style,  but  is  very  fine.  Gilding  is  used,  it 
will  be  seen,  on  raised  ground  for  jewellery,  fruit,  etc.  The 
figures  are  very  numerous,  but  are  skilfully  composed,  and  the 
draperies  are  graceful.  We  may  note  here  very  clearly  an 
interesting  point  of  technique  which  appears  on  many  of  the 
better  class  of  red -figure  vases.  Underneath  the  draperies,  the 
sketch-marks  of  the  limbs  are  clearly  visible.  Thus,  in  draw- 
ing a  draped  figure  the  painter  sketched  the  nude  figure  com- 
pletely before  he  added  the  drapery.  In  method,  as  well  as  in 
general  effect,  the  finest  Greek  vases  sometimes  recall  our  own 
Leighton. 

The  vase  is  divided  by  a  band.  The  subjects  on  the  lower 
part  are  (a)  Hercules  in  the  garden  of  the  Hesperides.  with 
(b)  various  Athenian  tribal  heroes  [see  J.H.S.  xiii.  119).  The 
subject  of  the  upper  part  is  the  Rape  of  the  Leucippidar. 
These  daughters  of  Leucippus  were  priestesses  of  Athena  and 
Artemis,  and  were  betrothed  to  others,  but  the  twin  brothers, 
Castor  and  Pollux,  being  invited  to  the  marriage,  carried  them 
off  and  married  them  (see  Harrison  and  Verrail,  p.  161,  for  a 
detailed  description  and  discussion  of  the  scene). 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


365 


Case  E. — Kylixes  in  the  style  of  Hieron  and  Brygos  : 
finest  red -figure  period,  480-450  B.C.  Here  we  may 
notice : — 

E  61. — Signed  on  one  of  the  handles  by  Hieron.  Some  of  this 
painter's  designs  are  as  beautiful  as  any  that  have  come  down  to  us. 
We  may  see  in  his  cups  a  complete  break  from  the  amphora  tradition. 
On  the  amphora,  the  shape  of  the  vase,  with  its  obverse  and  reverse, 
led  to  two  distinct  designs,  and  this  kind  of  arrangement  was  at  first 
followed  on  the  kylixes  also.  Hieron  was  among  the  first  to  fling  his 
design  clean  round  the  cup  (Harrison  and  MacColl,  p.  22).  Peculiarities 
of  his  style  are  the  massive  chin  and  jaw  of  his  figures,  and  the  puffed- 
out  folds  of  his  draperies.  He  was  especially  fond  of  love-scenes  such 
as  are  depicted  on  this  vase. 

E  68. — In  the  interior  a  very  young  dancing-girl,  Callisto,  dances 
before  a  youth.  She  wears  a  wreath  of  ivy,  and  her  hair  flies  free 
with  the  rapidity  of  her  movement.  The  youth,  Philip,  reclines  on  a 
couch.  By  his  side  a  table  with  myrtle -twigs  and  drinking- cup. 
Above  him  his  flute-case.  He  has  stopped  playing  on  the  double 
flute,  and  marks  the  time  with  his  hand. 

E  65. — Signed  (round  the  foot)  by  ErygOS,  the  last  of  the 
Euphronius  set,  and  an  excellent  specimen  of  his  style  ;  much  admired 
for  its  skilful  composition  and  vivacious  drawing  (for  notes  on  some  of 
his  peculiarities,  see  Harrison  and  MacColl,  p.  23).  In  the  interior  is 
a  scene  of  welcome  home  or  departure  ;  a  seated  warrior  holds  his 
wine-cup,  which  a  maiden  fills  with  a  ladle.  On  the  exterior,  Iris  and 
Hera  attacked  by  satyrs.  Behind  the  altar  stands  Dionysus  in  rich 
Oriental  costume,  and  holding  his  characteristic  two-handled  wine-cup, 
the  cantharus.  On  the  other  side  of  the  vase  Hera,  assailed  by  four 
satyrs,  is  protected  by  Plermes  in  front  and  Hercules  behind.  Notice 
that  the  fourth  satyr  is  in  a  crouching  position,  so  as  to  fill  the  space 
beneath  the  handle  (see  Murray's  Designs  on  Greek  Vases ;  Harrison 
and  MacColl,  p.  24  ;  Horner,  p.  92). 

E  70. — In  the  centre,  a  banquet  scene  ;  an  illustration  of  a  kylix 
being  thrown  in  the  game  of  cottabos  (see  p.  419). 

On  the  top  of  this  case  is  a  very  fine  vase  : — 

E  140  (cotyle). — The  sending  of  Triptolemus.  Signed  by  Hieron, 
and  in  his  finest  style.  This  vase  deserves  close  study  for  its  mytho- 
logical significance  as  well  as  for  its  severe  beauty.  We  have  already 
told  the  story  of  Demeter.  The  subject  of  this  vase  is  a  supplement 
to  it.  When  once  more  Demeter  had  suffered  the  earth  to  yield  its 
fruits,  "she  visited  Triptolemus  and  the  other  princes  of  Eleusis,  and 
instructed  them  in  the  performance  of  her  sacred  rites."  The  episode 
of  Triptolemus,  to  whom  Demeter  imparts  the  secrets  of  agriculture, 
like  the  details  of  some  sacred  rite,  that  he  may  bear  them  abroad  to 
all  people,  was  a  favourite  subject  with  the  vase-painters.  On  this 
vase  we  see  Triptolemus,  a  beautiful  youth  with  flowing  locks  and  a 


366 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


myrtle  crown,  seated  in  the  chariot  given  him  by  the  goddess  and 
about  to  start  on  his  journey  through  the  world.  In  his  left  hand  he 
holds  a  bunch  of  corn-ears — symbolical  of  his  mission.  In  his  right  he 
holds  a  bowl  into  which  Persephone  pours  a  draught  of  wine  :  a 
common  motive  in  scenes  of  departure  on  vase-paintings.  On  either 
side  of  his  car  is  a  winged  serpent — the  serpent  symbolical  of  the  soil, 
but  winged,  as  sending  up  the  dust  committed  to  it,  after  subtle  fusing, 
in  colours  and  odours  of  fruit  and  flowers.  Behind  Persephone,  a 
nymph  slightly  raises  the  skirt  of  her  dress  (a  symbol  on  vase-paintings 
of  departure)  ;  the  name  Eleusis  is  inscribed  above  her,  and  she  thus 
personifies  the  place  from  which  Triptolemus  set  forth.  Behind  his 
car  stands  Demeter  with  a  torch  in  her  right  hand,  corn -ears  in  her 
left.  She  wears  a  splendid  garment  with  fine  embroidery.  Beneath 
each  handle  of  the  vase  is  a  seated  figure  ;  the  one  to  the  left  is 
Eumolpus,  with  his  sceptre  in  his  hand  as  King  of  Eleusis.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Eumolpidae  (the  sweet  singers),  to  whose  care  was 
given  the  golden  key  laid  on  the  tongue  of  the  initiated  in  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  and  who  had  to  produce  and  interpret  the 
sounds  which  proceeded  from  the  shrines.  The  swan  beside  Eumolpus 
symbolises  his  function.  The  other  seated  figure  is  Poseidon.  The 
remaining  figures  are  Zeus,  Dionysus,  and  Amphitrite  (a  full  discussion 
of  their  mythological  import  in  this  connection  will  be  found  in 
Harrison  and  Verrall's  Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens, 
p.  1.).  In  presence  of  this  severely  beautiful  representation  of  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  Greek  myths,  it  may  be  interesting  to  read  what 
Ruskin  says  in  comparing  the  earlier  representations  of  Greek  deities 
on  vases  with  the  later  : — 

' '  The  gods  are  at  first  thought  of  only  as  vital  embodiments  of  a  given 
physical  force,  but  afterwards  as  high  personal  intelligences,  capable  of 
every  phase  of  human  passion.  They  are  first  conceived  as  in  impetuous 
and  ceaseless  action  ;  afterwards  only  in  deliberate  action  or  in  perfect 
repose.  They  are  first  conceived  under  grotesque  forms,  implying  in  the 
designer,  with  great  crudeness  and  unripeness  of  intellect,  a  certain  savage  , 
earnestness  incapable  of  admitting  or  even  perceiving  jest  ;  together  with 
an  almost  passive  state  of  the  imagination,  in  which  it  is  no  more 
responsible  for  the  spectre  it  perceives  than  in  actual  dreaming.  After- 
wards, they  are  conceived  by  deliberately  selective  imagination,  under 
forms  of  beauty  which  imply  in  the  designer  a  relative  perception  and 
rejection  of  all  that  is  vulgar  and  ludicrous  "  (Catalogue  of  Examples,  1870, 
P-  25). 

E  284  (amphora). — Sacrificial  scenes  :  the  drawing  is  of  the  late 
stage  of  the  good  period.  Signed  by  Polygnotus  (not  to  be  confused 
wTith  the  famous  painter). 

Also  a  stamnos. — Heracles  slaying  the  centaur.  Also  signed  by 
Polygnotus.  This  is  one  of  the  vases  acquired  at  the  sale  of  the 
collection  of  Count  Tyszkiewicz — the  Old  Collector  whose  Memories 
have  recently  been  published  (the  vase  is  figured  at  p.  186  of  that 
book). 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


367 


Case  F. — Athenian  lekythi :  with  polychrome  designs 
on  white  ground,  mostly  made  for  funeral  ceremonies.  The 
vases  in  this  case  form  a  class  by  themselves  and  are  of  great 
interest,  alike  (1)  for  their  technique  and  (2)  for  their  associa- 
tions. (1)  They  are,  it  will  be  seen,  painted  in  many  colours 
on  a  white  ground.  Ordinary  clay  was  used,  and  the  vase  was 
moulded  in  the  usual  way.  The  body  of  it,  and  sometimes 
the  shoulder,  was  then  covered  with  a  white  coating  ;  the  lip, 
neck,  handle,  foot,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  base  were  painted 
black.  The  vase  was  next  fired,  and  the  painting  of  the  design 
followed.  A  preliminary  sketch  was  made  in  outline  with  a 
pencil  of  gray  or  bluish  colour.  Guided  by  it  the  artist  next 
put  in,  with  a  fine  brush  and  in  monochrome  (black,  yellow,  or 
red),  the  silhouette  of  all  the  objects  of  the  design.  Finally, 
with  a  broader  brush  he  filled  in  the  drapery,  etc.,  with  poly- 
chrome work — in  brown,  violet,  blue,  black,  and  green.  This 
technique  gave  exceptional  opportunities  for  purity  of  outline 
drawing ;  and  it  is  from  these  polychrome  vases  on  white 
grounds  that  we  obtain  the  most  vivid  hints  of  what  the  best 
Greek  fresco  painting  must  have  been  like.  For  purity  of 
drawing,  the  Aphrodite  on  the  Swan  in  this  case  (D  2)  is 
famous. 

The  shape  of  the  polychrome  vases  is  an  elongation  of  the 
ordinary  lekythos  which  was  used  for  oil.  The  polychrome 
lekythos  was  very  breakable,  easily  overturned,  the  handle 
inconvenient  to  hold,  the  lip  almost  impossible  to  pour  from, 
the  whole  vase  needlessly  large  for  the  oil  contained.  It  was 
in  fact  fitted,  not  for  daily  use,  but  for  decoration. 

(2)  And  such  was  in  fact  the  case.  The  majority  of  the 
white  Athenian  lekythi  were  made  for  funereal  purposes. 
This  we  know  alike  from  literature  and  from  the  designs  on 
the  vases  themselves.  The  comic  poet  Aristophanes  makes 
a  young  man  call  the  old  woman's  lover  "the  best  of  painters," 
which  he  explains  as  "he  who  paints  lekythi  for  the  dead." 
Elsewhere  he  is  described  as  "  laid  out  for  burial,"  only  "  you 
did  not  crown  me  nor  put  a  lekythos  beside  me."  In  one  of 
the  designs  here  (D  56),  a  tomb  is  shown  with  a  lekythos  and 
other  vases  inside  ;  in  another,  the  vases  are  placed  on  the 
steps  (D  71);  in  others  {e.g.  D  76)  the  mourner  brings  a 
lekythos.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  at  Athens,  though  other 
funereal  vases  were  not  discarded,  the  lekythos  came  specially 
into  favour  for  such  purposes.     The  subjects  of  the  designs  are 


368 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


accordingly  funereal.  With  the  marble  stelae  which  we  have 
already  examined  (Ch.  XIII.),  these  white  vases  are  the  most 
important  and  trustworthy  materials  we  have  for  the  study  of 
Greek  views  of  death  and  practices  of  burial.  In  a  general 
way  the  qualities  which  we  found  in  the  tombstones — the 
reserve,  the  good  taste,  the  sobriety — are  conspicuous  also  on 
the  funereal  vases.  It  should  be  noticed,  by  the  way,  that  the 
shape  of  the  vases  came  to  be  adopted  for  tombstones  ;  several 
of  the  latter  are  marble  lekythi  (see,  e.g.,  No.  68 1  in  Ch.  XIII.). 
Some  of  the  subjects  on  the  vases — e.g.  the  scenes  of  parting 
on  D  5  i  and  5  7 — resemble  those  with  which  we  are  familiar 
on  tombstones.  But  most  of  the  vase-subjects  are  essentially 
pictorial,  and  an  expression  of  emotion  is  sometimes  admitted 
on  the  vases  which  would  be  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  sculpture. 
A  student  might  reach  some  interesting  conclusions  by  noting 
how  Greek  craftsmen  adopted  these  subjects  to  their  mediums 
(see  some  remarks  in  A.  S.  Murray's  introduction  to  AtJioiia?! 
White  Vases).  As  in  the  case  of  the  tombstones,  many  of  the 
vases  were  doubtless  turned  out  by  inferior  craftsmen,  and  the 
artistic  merit  is  very  unequal  : — 

"  They  deserve  nevertheless  to  be  closely  studied  ;  imperfect  as  they 
may  be,  they  still  strikingly  remind  us,  among  other  things,  of  the 
Athenian  type,  naively  rendered,  such  as  the  long  nose,  the  strongly 
marked  chin — all  the  features  that  archaic  masters  copied  with  such 
care,  and  that  disappeared  from  later  sculpture.  At  the  same  time, 
underneath  the  carelessness  of  the  work,  is  distinctly  felt  the  artistic 
tradition,  that  impressed  itself  upon  the  humblest  draughtsman.  In 
the  attitude  of  the  figures,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  draperies,  we  find 
the  marks  of  the  noble  style.  Xo  examples  could  better  show  how 
popular  was  art  in  Athens,  and  how  it  found  a  place  even  in  the 
smallest  creations  of  this  gifted  people  "  (Collignon's  Manual  of  Greek 
Archeology,  p.  320). 

In  a  very  fine  style  is  a  vase  (acquired  in  1897)  on  which 
an  armed  youth  is  seated  on  the  steps  of  a  tomb. 

Coming  now  to  the  designs  on  the  vases  more  in  detail,  we 
may  notice  that  the  vase-subjects  carry  forward  those  of  the 
stelae  to  a  further  stage.  The  stelae,  as  we  have  seen,  always 
stop  short  of  death.  The  vases,  which  were  actually  placed 
within  the  tomb,  give  us  pictures  of  the  death-bed  or  later. 
The  subjects  may  be  arranged  under  various  types  : — 

(1)  The  prothesis,  or  lying -in -state.  D  62  is  a  good 
example  of  this  subject.     On  a  bier,  supported  by  elaborately 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


369 


carved  legs,  lies  the  body  of  a  youth.  In  the  background 
beside  the  body  his  mother  bends  forward,  placing  her  right 
hand  under  the  chin  of  the  corpse  and  raising  her  left  towards 
a  youth  who  stands  at  the  head  of  the  bier  and  strikes  his  fore- 
head with  his  right  palm  in  a  gesture  of  grief.  On  the  left 
a  girl  strikes  her  forehead  similarly  and  extends  her  right  hand 
towards  the  corpse.  In  connection  with  what  we  have  said 
before  about  the  evolution  of  artistic  subjects  (pp.  97-98),  we 
may  note  in  these  vases  the  type  of  the  Pieta  which  became 
so  favourite  a  motive  in  Italian  painting. 

The  presence  of  the  soul  of  the  dead  is  sometimes  indicated 
by  a  curious  detail.  Thus  in  D  54,  on  the  left  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  tombstone  is  a  small  winged  figure  hovering  near 
the  monument  and  pointing  to  it.  We  may  recall  the  beautiful 
epitaph  : — 

I  am  the  image  of  swift  Plato's  spirit, 
Ascending  heaven — Athens  doth  inherit 
His  corpse  below. 

(2)  The  entaphia,  or  offerings  at  the  tomb.  This  is  a  very 
common  type.  The  reader  will  find  it  on  vase  after  vase. 
The  scene  is  ordinarily  conceived  in  a  very  simple  manner. 
On  each  side  of  the  tombstone  persons  approach  holding  in 
their  hands  the  objects  with  which  they  would  do  homage  to 
the  dead — such  as  fillets  with  which  to  decorate  the  stone. 
The  most  interesting  example  of  this  kind  is  D  76,  which 
shows  us  the  use  to  which  these  vases  were  put  ;  in  her  right 
hand  the  mourner  carries  a  vase  of  just  such  a  shape  as  that 
of  the  one  on  which  the  design  is  painted  (for  an  interesting 
note  on  the  inscription,  see  J.H.S.  xv.  192). 

Another  interesting  vase  is  D  56,  which  shows  a  tomb 
conventionally  arranged  as  transparent.  On  the  floor  within 
it  are  vases  of  various  kinds.  Outside  are  fillets.  On  the  left 
is  a  youth  playing  on  a  lyre  ;  on  the  right,  another  youth  rest- 
ing on  his  staff.  Other  examples  of  the  same  subject  are 
numerous  in  this  case.  In  D  53  we  may  see  women  making 
the  funeral  wreaths.  In  D  77  and  78  the  tombstone  is  adorned 
with  fillets,  such  as  the  mourner  in  D  76  is  carrying.  In  D  47 
are  two  women  mourners  preparing  to  pour  a  libation.  Some- 
times one  of  the  persons  is  a  youth  clad  for  war,  or  for  a 
journey,  who  seems  to  have  returned  to  fulfil  the  funeral  rites 
at  the  tomb  of  a  parent.     In  other  vases  the  scene  is  more 

2  B 


37o 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


complex.    A  young  lad,  for  instance,  holding  a  lyre  (as  in 
D  56)  advances  towards  the  tomb. 

(3)  A  variation  on  the  offerings  is  the  scene  of  lamentation. 
Of  this  type  also  the  visitor  will  find  many  examples  in  this 
case.  D  70  and  71  are  specially  expressive  ;  a  woman  sits 
on  the  tomb  and  tears  her  hair  in  grief.  It  may  be  noted 
that  even  at  the  present  day  in  some  districts  of  Greece  the 
custom  of  chanting  lamentations  for  the  dead  is  still  preserved 
(see  Rodd's  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece,  p.  129). 

(4)  The  next  type  of  subject  is  the  actual  burial,  or  deposi- 
tion —  another  classic  type  which  was  revived  by  Christian 
art.  A  very  beautiful  example  of  this  is  D  58,  in  which  we 
see  Thanatos  (Death)  and  Hypnos  (Sleep)  bringing  a  dead 
warrior  to  the  tomb.  The  young  head  is  held  by  Sleep,  who 
places  his  hands  under  the  warrior's  arms  and  rests  the  tired 
head  against  his  breast.  On  D  59  there  is  a  similar  subject :  - 
Boreas  and  Zephyros  bringing  the  body  of  a  young  warrior  to 
his  tomb.  In  these  cases  an  image  of  the  reality  gives  place 
to  an  interpretation  of  the  idea  of  death.  But  the  scene  is 
treated  with  refined  taste,  and  invested  with  an  ideal  character. 
The  scene  recalls  the  lines  in  the  Iliad  (xvi.  672)  on  the  death 
of  Sarpedon  : — 

To  swift  bearers  give  him  then  in  charge, 
To  Sleep  and  Death,  twin  brothers,  in  their  arms 
To  bear  him  safe  to  Lycia's  wide-spread  plains  : 
There  shall  his  brethren  and  his  friends  perform 
His  fun'ral  rites,  and  mound  and  column  raise, 
The  fitting  tribute  to  the  mighty  dead. 

(5)  Charon  and  his  boat.  In  this  subject,  represented  on 
D  61,  we  find  one  of  the  beliefs  of  the  current  mythology. 
Charon,  the  ferryman,  who  rowed  the  dead  across  the  river  of 
Death,  is  standing  in  his  boat  and  extends  his  right  hand  to 
welcome  a  woman  who  advances  from  the  left.  There  is  quiet 
dignity  in  this  representation  of  the  scene.  The  craftsman 
may  have  derived  his  inspiration  from  the  painting  of  the 
subject  by  Polygnotus,  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (x.  28.  2). 
On  a  lekythos  here  from  Attica  a  woman  is  holding  an  obol 
to  pay  Charon's  fee  for  a  youth  who  has  fallen  in  battle.  The 
old  custom  of  placing  between  the  lips  of  the  dead  a  coin 
wherewith  to  pay  Charon's  fee  for  the  ferry  has  survived  till 
the  present  day,  and  in  some  places  the  Christian  Church, 
unable  to  root  out  the  superstition,  has  had  to  give  it  a 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


37 1 


Christian  turn  (see  Newton's  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  the 
Levant), 

(6)  Another  subject,  less  frequently  found,  is  the  scene  of 
the  Farewell,  which  we  have  seen  figured  so  often  upon  the 
tombstones.  The  most  interesting  specimen  of  this  subject  is 
D  51 — an  Attic  lekythos  found  in  a  tomb  in  Cyprus  in  1890 
in  scattered  pieces,  but  now  practically  complete  : — ■ 

"  It  had  suffered  not  only  from  the  wanton  violence  of  the  robbers 
who  had  violated  the  tomb,  but  also  from  the  damp  which  filtered 
through  the  sandy  gravel  bed  and  coated  it  with  a  hard,  white  incrus- 
tation. Much  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  red  colour  has  therefore  been 
sacrificed  to  necessity  of  cleaning.  The  design  is  of  singular  beauty.  A 
soldier  receives  his  helmet  from  his  wife.  His  tall,  rather  slender 
figure,  concealed  by  no  clothing,  and  his  short  crisp  beard  and  hair 
show  him  to  be  in  the  prime  of  life.  The  lady  is  fully  draped,  but,  as 
so  often  in  the  vases  of  this  class,  within  the  drapery  are  drawn  with 
exquisite  grace  the  delicate  outlines  of  her  lovely  form.  Her  head, 
bound  with  a  simple  red  snood,  is  slightly  bowed,  and  her  face  bears 
a  gentle  expression  of  tender  sorrow.  Between  them  is  a  goose  peck- 
ing the  ground — a  token  of  domestic  life,  an  accessory  of  the  house, 
recalling  the  passage  in  the  Odyssey  (xix.  536),  where  Penelope  says  : 
'  Twenty  geese  I  have  in  the  house  that  eat  wheat  out  of  the  water- 
trough,  and  it  gladdens  me  to  look  on  them  '  "  (see  J.  A.  R.  Munro  in 
J.H.S.  xii.  315). 

(7)  Another  kind  of  subject  sometimes  represented  on  the 
vases  is  also  more  frequent  upon  the  tombstones.  This  is 
the  toilet.  A  seated  woman  receives  robes,  or  ornaments,  or 
libations  from  her  attendants.  Did  not  the  tombstone  remind 
us  of  the  funereal  intent  of  the  painting,  we  should  believe 
ourselves  looking  upon  a  scene  in  ordinary  life. 

Examples  of  this  subject  are  D  48-50.  At  first  such 
designs  were  perhaps  painted  as  mere  domestic  scenes.  Then, 
as  in  D  50,  the  funereal  purpose  is  shown  by  the  sashes  and 
wreaths  carried  by  the  maid  being  intended  for  the  tomb. 
"  In  ancient  Athens,  as  in  some  Eastern  countries  to-day,  the 
visits  to  the  dead  and  the  decoration  of  the  grave  were  not 
only  among  the  duties,  but  in  all  likelihood  among  the  chief 
interests  and  pleasures  of  women,  who  otherwise  seldom  went 
abroad'51  {/.U.S.  xvi.  165). 

1  • '  The  tombs  of  the  Romans  and  the  Greeks  were  places  of  gay  resort 
upon  the  public  way  ;  the  urns  within  them  held  a  handful  of  ashes  and  a 
few  pinches  of  dry  dust  ;  flowers  were  trained  upon  the  walls,  and  in  the 
miniature  gardens  were  set  up  three  couches  and  a  table  for  the  feasts 


372 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


In  taking  leave  of  these  funereal  vases,  and  the  associations 
they  call  up  to  us,  let  us  also  say  our  word  of  farewell : — 

You  come  not,  as  aforetime,  to  the  headstone  every  day, 
And  I,  who  died,  I  do  not  chide  because,  my  friend,  you  play  ; 
Only,  in  playing,  think  of  him  who  once  was  kind  and  dear, 
And  if  you  see  a  beauteous  thing,  just  say,  i(  He  is  not  here."  1 

Some  of  the  pictures  on  the  lekythi  have,  however,  nothing 
to  do  with  death.  The  curious  picture  on  D  60  shows  some 
huntsmen  chasing  a  hare,  at  which  a  youth  throws  a  stone. 
In  D  24  is  Victory  holding  a  wreath  over  a  flaming  altar. 
This  can  hardly  be  associated  with  the  idea  of  death,  though 
in  Christian  art  the  design  would  be  appropriate  enough.  In 
D  20  the  woman,  with  her  cap  hung  up  on  the  wall,  may  be 
noticed.  D  1 1  (a  pyxis  found  at  Eretria)  is  interesting,  as  the 
subject — a  marriage  procession  —  is  rare.  The  bridegroom, 
with  long  hair  and  a  purple  fillet  and  holding  a  crutched  staff, 
looks  round  at  the  bride,  whose  wrist  he  holds. 

On  the  top  of  this  case,  in  a  separate  shade,  are  two  beautiful 
and  remarkable  vases.  On  one  side  is  the  "  Pandora 5;  Vase 
(D  4).  This  cup  (found  at  Nola  in  1829  and  bought  at  the 
Bale  sale  in  188 1)  is  of  special  interest,  both  for  its  technique 
and  its  subject.  It  is  one  of  the  rare  polychrome  kylixes 
already  noticed,  and  the  design  is  in  a  fine  broad  style.  "  The 
mastery  of  line  in  the  drawing  of  Hephaestus  commands 
universal  admiration.'5  The  design  is  in  simple  colour,  brown 
and  purple  on  a  white  ground  ;  the  circlets  on  the  heads  of 
the  figures  and  the  hammer  head  are  in  slight  relief,  and  bear 
traces  of  gold.  The  subject — the  Birth  of  Pandora — occurs 
on  only  two  known  vases,  both  of  which  are  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  other  vase  (F  1 13)  is  of  late  coarse  work,  and 
the  subject  is  treated  grotesquely.  On  the  cup  before  us  the 
treatment  is  full  of  grave  dignity. 

The  Birth  of  Pandora  is  part  of  the  story  of  the  Fall,  as  imagined 
by  the  Greeks.    According  to  Hesiod,  Pandora,  the  first  woman,  was 

anniversary  of  death.  Below,  the  road,  the  crowd,  the  chariot  of  the 
rich,  the  cry  of  the  fruit-seller,  the  tramp  of  the  soldier,  the  laughter  of 
boys  and  girls.  There  was  no  peace  there  ;  there  was  only  the  evident 
and  determined  will  to  hide  from  the  living  the  conditions  of  death. 
What  Swinburne  has  called  '  the  lordly  repose  of  the  dead,'  the  peace  of 
the  body  on  earth,  the  departure  of  the  soul  to  a  place  of  refreshment, 
light,  and  peace  in  heaven,  is  a  solely  Christian  conception  "  (Marion  Craw- 
ford, Rulers  of  the  South,  i.  357).  1  Epilogue  to  Ionica. 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


373 


created  out  of  earth  by  Hephaestus,  at  the  command  of  Zeus,  to  be  a 
source  of  sorrow  and  suffering  to  mankind,  because  Prometheus  had 
stolen  fire  to  heaven,  and  conveyed  it  to  men.  Athena  was  to  teach 
Pandora  skill  in  weaving  ;  Aphrodite  poured  upon  her  head  the  charm 
of  beauty,  with  terrible  desire  and  weariful  longing  of  love  ;  and  Hermes 
was  bidden  to  give  her  all  furtive  ways.  And  when  she  had  been  thus 
shaped,  Athena  girded  and  adorned  her ;  the  Graces  and  divine 
Persuasion  hung  golden  chains  about  her  flesh,  and  the  Hours  crowned 
her  with  spring  blossoms — 

And  for  name  of  her  this  was  the  choice, 
Pandora,  because  in  Olympus  the  gods  joined  together  then, 
And  all  of  them  gave  her,  a  gift \  a  sorrow,  to  covetous  men. 

Here  in  the  centre  of  the  composition  we  see  the  newly-born  Pandora 
i — a  stiff  figure,  even  such  as  the  Greeks  themselves  first  created  out  of 
the  clay.  Athena — with  her  aegis  over  her  long  robe — stands  with  her 
arm  about  Pandora,  as  though  she  had  just  finished  arranging  her  dress. 
Hephaestus,  carrying  his  hammer  in  his  left  hand,  touches  the  head  of 
Pandora,  on  which  he  has  just  placed  a  golden  circlet.  "For  mythology 
the  great  interest  of  the  beautiful  design  centres  in  the  inscription  above 
the  head  of  Pandora  ;  it  is  (A)nesidora — she  who  sends  up  gifts  from 
the  soil.  The  name  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  for  it  points  to  a 
meaning  in  the  myth  which  might  otherwise  have  remained  unnoticed. 
.  .  .  For  the  Greeks  there  was  another  Pandora,  called  by  a  new  name, 
Anesidora — the  first  woman,  mother  earth — she  who  gives  all  gifts  to 
men"  (see J.H.S.  xi.  279,  and  Harrison1  and  Verrall,  p.  452). 

Aphrodite  on  the  Swan  (D  2). — This  vase,  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  the  collection,  was  found  in  1864  in  a  tomb 
at  Camirus  in  Rhodes,  but  is  undoubtedly  an  Athenian  work 
of  the  finest  period.  Its  fascination  seems  to  be  due,  says 
Dr.  Murray,  "  partly  to  the  singularly  beautiful  combination  of 
lines  in  the  composition,  partly  to  the  sweetness  of  the  concep- 
tion as  a  whole,  and  partly  to  the  nameless  grace  which  pervades 
the  drawing'5  {White  Athenian  Vases^  p.  9). 

1  'In  its  sedate  beauty,"  says  an  enthusiastic  writer,  "its  austerity, 
its  reserved,  grave  dignity,  it  is  not  only  the  most  lovely,  and  6  ideal ' 
image  of  the  goddess  that  ancient  art  has  left  us,  but  it  is  also  that 

1  "No  myth  is  more  familiar,"  says  Miss  Harrison  elsewhere,  "than 
that  of  Pandora  ;  none  perhaps  has  been  so  completely  misunderstood. 
Pandora  is  the  first  woman,  the  beautiful  mischief ;  she  opens  the  forbidden 
box,  out  comes  every  evil  that  flesh  is  heir  to  ;  hope  only  remains.  The 
box  of  Pandora  is  proverbial,  and  that  is  the  more  remarkable  as  she  never 
had  a  box  at  all. "  Hesiod  and  all  Greek  writers  in  telling  the  myth  speak 
of  a  ttlOos,  a  pitcher  standing  on  and  often  buried  in  the  earth  (see  p.  275). 
Pandora,  it  is  suggested,  symbolises  the  earth  ;  the  fashioning  of  her,  the 
smiting  of  the  earth  to  release  the  earth-spirits  (see  J.H.S.  xx.  99). 


374 


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CHAP. 


which  most  fully  embodies  all  familiar  Greek  characteristics.  It  is  so 
finished  an  achievement  in  its  own  line  that  it  need  not  fear  to  stand 
by  the  side  of  the  perfect  i  Venus  and  the  Mirror '  of  Bellini,  and  this 
is  more  than  can  be  said  of  any  of  the  Venus  types  of  sculpture,  which, 
as  we  well  know  now,  though  they  are  the  echoes  of  bygone  master- 
pieces, all  belong  to  the  decadence  of  Greek  art  "  (Athenaum,  June  5, 
1897). 

Another  critic  sees  in  this  vase  the  furthest  reach  of  natural 
beauty  attained  by  any  of  the  vase-painters:  4 'not  only  the 
placing  of  the  features  is  fine,  but  with  the  same  simplicity  of 
means,  the  forms  of  the  features  are  more  closely  rendered, 
and  the  flow  of  line  in  the  profile  marks  a  high  accomplishment 
in  drawing"  (D.  S.  M.  in  Greek  Vase-Pain tings,  p.  6).  It  will 
be  seen  from  the  sketch-marks  how  the  artist  has  corrected  him- 
self in  the  drawing  of  the  honeysuckle  ;  but  otherwise  his  sure- 
ness  of  hand  and  confidence  of  intention  are  perfect.  Notice 
also  as  a  detail  that  the  finger-nails  are  carefully  drawn  in. 
The  dedication  name  on  the  vase  is  Glaukon,  and  this  brings 
the  work  within  the  circle  of  Euphronius,  but  there  is  no  sure 
ground  for  attributing  it  to  that  painter  himself. 

The  subject  is  Aphrodite  (so  inscribed)  riding  on  a  swan 
through  the  air.  In  her  right  hand  she  holds  a  long  curling 
tendril  with  a  honeysuckle  flower  at  the  end  of  it.  Aphrodite 
is  often  thus  represented  in  Greek  art.  She  is  in  such  repre- 
sentations, Aphrodite  Ourania,  Aphrodite  of  the  Heavens, 
Love  as  Queen  of  the  Heavenly  Host.  The  swan  may  have 
an  astronomical  significance,  as  symbol  of  the  Star  of  Venus. 
In  a  vase  at  Berlin  the  background  behind  her  is  thickly 
studded  with  gold  stars.  The  stars  on  the  robe  of  the  goddess 
here  are  decorative,  but  perhaps  not  without  the  other  refer- 
ence. She  holds  a  sprig  of  blossom,  and  the  leading  idea 
would  thus  seem  to  be  the  Advent  of  Spring — when  a  livelier 
iris  changes  on  the  burnished  dove — the  spring,  in  which  a 
young  man's  fancy  lightly  turns  to  thoughts  of  love  : — 

"  '  And  always,  year  by  year  went  well  with  them  who  began  each 
year  with  thy  worship,  Heavenly  Aphrodite,  for  mortals  who  care  for 
the  immortals  have  themselves  thereby  the  better  fortune.'  Of  such  an 
Aphrodite  we  could  have  no  fairer  image  than  the  Lady  on  the  Swan 
— serious,  lovely,  sedate,  even  in  her  swift  transit  "  (J.  E.  Harrison  in 
Mythology  of  Ancient  Athens,  p.  216.  See  also  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies,  xii.  317). 

In  his  lecture  on  "  The  School  of  Athens  "  {Aratra  Pen- 


XIX 


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37$ 


teUti\  ch.  vi.),  Ruskin  takes  this  drawing  of  Aphrodite  as 
characteristic  of  Greek  art,  and  contrasts  it  with  a  Venus  of 
the  School  of  Florence  : — 

"She  is  flying  in  heaven,  her  power  over  the  waters  symbolised  by 
her  being  borne  on  a  swan,  and  her  power  over  the  earth  by  a  single 
flower  in  her  right  hand.  The  Venus  Urania  of  the  Greeks,  in  her 
relation  to  men,  has  power  only  over  lawful  and  domestic  love  ;  there- 
fore she  is  fully  dressed,  and  not  only  quite  dressed,  but  most  daintily 
and  trimly  ;  her  feet  delicately  sandalled,  her  gown  spotted  with  little 
stars,  her  hair  brushed  exquisitely  smooth  at  the  top  of  her  head, 
trickling  in  minute  waves  down  her  forehead  ;  and  though,  because 
there's  such  a  quantity  of  it,  she  can't  possibly  help  having  a  chignon, 
look  how  tightly  she  has  fastened  it  with  her  broad  fillet.  Of  course  she 
is  married,  so  she  must  wear  a  cap,  with  pretty  minute  pendent  jewels 
at  the  border,  and  a  very  small  necklace,  all  that  her  husband  can 
properly  afford,  just  enough  to  go  closely  round  her  neck,  and  no 
more.  The  breasts  are  broad  and  full,  though  perfectly  severe  in  their 
almost  conical  profile  (you  are  allowed  on  purpose  to  see  the  outline 
of  the  right  breast,  under  the  chiton)  ;  also  the  right  arm  is  left  bare, 
and  you  can  just  see  the  contour  of  the  front  of  the  right  limb  and 
knee  ;  both  arm  and  limb  pure  and  firm,  but  lovely.  The  plant  she 
holds  in  her  hand  is  a  branching  and  flowering  one  ;  the  seed-vessel 
prominent.  These  signs  all  mean  that  her  essential  function  is  child- 
bearing.  She  is  entirely  calm,  and  looks  straight  forward.  Not  one 
feature  of  her  face  is  disturbed,  or  seems  even  to  have  been  subject 
to  emotion.  The  Italian  Aphrodite  looks  up,  her  face  all  quivering 
and  burning  with  passion  and  wasting  anxiety.  The  Greek  one  is 
quiet,  self-possessed,  and  self-satisfied.  .  .  .  The  calmness  of  the 
features  in  the  one  face,  and  their  anxiety  in  the  other,  indicate  first, 
indeed,  the  characteristic  difference  in  every  conception  of  the  schools, 
the  Greek  never  representing  expression,  the  Italian  primarily  seeking 
it ;  but  far  more,  mark  for  us  here  the  utter  change  in  the  conception 
of  love  ;  from  the  tranquil  guide  and  queen  of  a  happy  terrestrial 
domestic  life,  accepting  its  immediate  pleasures  and  natural  duties,  to 
the  agonising  hope  of  an  infinite  good,  and  the  ever  mingled  joy  and 
terror  of  a  love  divine  in  jealousy,  crying,  '  Set  me  as  a  seal  upon 
thine  heart,  as  a  seal  upon  thine  arm  ;  for  love  is  strong  as  death, 
jealousy  is  cruel  as  the  grave.'  " 

Pedestal  V. — The  Amazon  Vase 

"  This  magnificent  vase  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Greek  ceramography  that  has  come  down 
to  us  ;  certainly  among  the  known  specimens  of  the  Attic 
6  free  style ?  it  is  absolutely  unsurpassed  in  its  combination 
of  artistic  merit  and  mythological  interest.''     It  was  found  at 


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CHAP. 


Agrigentum  (Girgenti)  in  1830,  and  is  unbroken,  except  that 
the  neck  has  been  detached  and  is  rejoined.  It  was  formerly 
in  the  possession  of  Samuel  Rogers,  in  whose  collection  it  was 
seen  by  Waagen,  who  noted  "the  beauty  and  variety  of  the 
attitudes,"  and  "  the  spirit  and  delicacy  of  the  execution" 
{Treasures  of  Art  in  Eiiglajid,  ii.  81).  "In  some  of  the 
groups  the  composition  is  strikingly  effective,  and  has  prob- 
ably been  derived  from  a  great  fresco  of  the  early  fifth  century 
B.C.  But  the  drawing  is  in  most  cases  over-refined  and  occa- 
sionally weak,  while  the  proportions  of  the  male  figures  are 
sometimes  quite  incorrect.  Yet  the  effect  of  the  vase  altogether 
is  one  of  singular  charm"  {British  Museum  Return  for  1889, 
p.  67,  and  Forman  Sale  Catalogue,  No.  357.  Mr.  Forman 
paid  ^122  for  it  •  the  price  in  1899  was  ^200). 

The  subject  which  forms  a  frieze  round  the  vase  is  a 
combat  of  Amazons  with  Attic  heroes.  (1)  Andromache  is 
about  to  be  slain  by  Theseus,  who  is  attended  by  Peirithous 
and  Phorbas ;  Hippolyte  and  two  other  mounted  Amazons 
ride  up.  (2)  An  Amazon  thrusts  with  her  spear  at  a  Greek  ; 
behind  him  Acamas  advances,  and  on  the  Other  side  is  an 
Amazon  running.  (3)  Melaneus  falls,  wounded  by  an  Amazon  ; 
on  the  right  is  Sthenelos.  The  composition  of  the  group  of 
mounted  Amazons  is  very  fine,  and  the  delicacy  of  workman- 
ship shown  in  the  representation  of  the  armour  is  astonishing. 

Case  G. — Stamni  in  the  "severe"  style  :  500-480  B.C. — 

Among  the  notable  vases  here  are  the  following  : — 

E  155. — On  one  side  of  this  beautiful  vase  is  the  punishment  of 
Ixion,  King  of  the  Lapiths.  As  a  mortal  he  had  committed  a  grievous 
crime,  that  of  slaying  by  treachery  a  kinsman,  his  father-in-law.  For 
this  crime  he  was  refused  purification  on  earth,  but  was  forgiven  by 
the  gods.  But  Ixion,  presuming  on  their  indulgence,  insulted  Hera, 
and  was  then  condemned  to  be  tied  to  a  wheel  which  for  ever  revolved 
— a  type  of  eternal  punishment.  On  this  vase  we  see  the  culprit  before 
the  throne  of  Hera  ;  his  arms  are  held  fast  by  Ares  and  Hermes  ;  on 
the  right,  Athena  has  prepared  the  winged  wheel.  The  drawing  on 
the  other  side  of  the  vase  has  been  variously  interpreted.  By  some 
it  has  been  identified  as  the  death  of  Laocoon — a  subject  obviously 
suggested  by  the  serpent  ;  but  Mr.  Cecil  Smith  objects  that  the  central 
figure  in  both  drawings  is  the  same,  and  gives  an  ingenious  interpreta- 
tion so  as  to  make  both  designs  belong  to  the  story  of  Ixion.  The 
serpent  he  interprets  as  the  angry  soul  of  the  murdered  person  madden- 
ing the  culprit.  The  figure  on  the  left  is  Thanatos,  and  the  youth 
whom  he  is  taking  away  was  the  victim  of  Ixion's  sword.     Ixion  had 


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THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


377 


taken  refuge  on  the  altar  ;  but  the  priest  rushes  through  the  sacred 
grove  to  drive  away  the  blood-guilty  stranger.  The  painting  would  thus 
depict  three  successive  moments  in  a  scene — the  crime,  the  criminal 
smitten  with  madness,  and  his  attempt  to  obtain  purification.  The 
difficulty  is  that  the  victim  is  here  shown  as  a  youth,  whereas  in  the 
legend  he  was  the  father  of  Ixion's  wife  {Classical  Revieiv,  ix.  277). 

E  296. — Notice  the  figure  of  Eros,  with  a  bird  in  his  hand,  trund- 
ling a  hoop. 

E  73. — This  vase,  found  jn  the  same  excavations  with  the  famous 
Camirus  vase,  is  a  good  deal  broken,  but  is  remarkable  for  beauty  of 
design  and  clearness  of  expression.  In  the  medallion  inside  is  the 
"  Surprise  of  Thetis."  Some  of  her  transformations  are  indicated  by 
the  sea-monster  and  sea-serpent  on  either  side  of  her.  We  have 
already  noticed  this  primitive  symbolism  whereby  successive  stages  in 
a  series  of  events  are  represented  as  contemporaneous  as  characteristic 
of  early  Greek  art  (p.  92).  In  the  border,  the  sisters  of  Thetis  fly  in 
panic  to  tell  Nereus  and  Triton.  The  grouping  of  this  frieze  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  principle  which  has  been  already  explained  in  the 
case  of  the  Parthenon  (p.  177)  ;  Nereus  and  Triton  must  be  imagined 
as  sitting  side  by  side,  and  the  nymphs  as  running  to  them  in  two 
rows.  On  the  outside  are  representations  of  combats  :  —  (a)  The 
famous  combat  of  Diomedes  and  ^Eneas,  as  described  by  Homer 
{Iliady  v.  277).  \b)  On  the  opposite  side  is  the  contest  of  Hercules 
with  Cycnus,  son  of  Ares,  described  in  Hesiod's  "  Shield  of  Heracles." 
(See  Journal  of  Philology,  vii.  pp.  215-226,  where  Prof.  P.  Gardner 
illustrates  in  detail  the  literary  taste  of  the  vase-painter  and  the  close 
correspondence  of  his  design  with  passages  in  the  poets.) 

E  440. — The  subject  of  this  vase,  which  is  in  the  style  of  Brygos, 
is  Homeric  and  very  interesting.  Odysseus  is  returning  home  from 
Troy,  and  passing  the  sirens  between  Sicily  and  Italy.  To  avoid 
being  enticed  by  their  music  to  destruction  on  the  rocks,  Odysseus  had 
been  enjoined  to  fill  his  ears  with  wax  : 

"And  they  bound  me  hand  and  foot,  upright  in  the  mast-head  of  the 
ship,  and  from  the  mast  they  fastened  rope-ends  and  sat  themselves  down 
and  smote  the  grey  sea  water  with  their  oars.  But  when  the  ship  was 
within  sound  of  a  man's  shout  from  the  land,  we  fleeing  swiftly  on  our 
way,  the  sirens  espied  us,  the  swift  ship  speeding  toward  them,  and  they 
raised  their  clear-toned  song." 

There  are  six  rowers  and  a  steersman,  with  twro  steering  oars  which 
work  on  cords  attached  to  the  ship's  side.  The  pilot  has  his  mouth 
open  and  hand  raised,  as  if  exhorting  the  crew.  The  ship  has  a  large 
eye,  where  the  ropes  are  passed  for  the  anchor.  Odysseus,  weathered 
and  bearded,  is  fastened  against  the  bottom  of  the  mast,  with  his  arms 
behind  his  back.  His  head  is  thrown  back  looking  at  the  sirens, 
which  are  represented  as  birds  with  women's  heads.  One  is  perched 
on  each  rock,  a  third  falls  headlong  into  the  ship.  This  third  siren  is 
drawn  with  a  blind  eye  {i.e.  without  the  pupil,  cf.  eye  of  the  Phineus, 


378 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


E  291),  and  it  is  suggested  that  this  may  be  intended  as  a  prophetic 
indication  of  the  fate  of  the  sirens  who  cast  themselves  down  in 
despair  when  their  song  was  unheeded.  On  the  other  side  of  the  vase 
are  three  loves  hovering  over  the  sea  ;  one  holds  a  ribbon,  the  second 
a  flower-spray,  the  third  a  hare  ;  for  the  sirens  lured  men  to  lawless 
love.  In  many  respects  the  vase-painter  follows  the  Homeric  tradition ; 
in  others  he  departs  from  it.  He  employs  previous  art  types  and 
applies  them,  so  far  as  they  will  fit,  to  literary  subjects  (see  an  interest- 
ing discussion  by  Miss  Harrison  on  this  subject  in  Greek  Vase  Paintings, 
p.  30,  and  more  fully  in  her  Myths  of  the  Odyssey,  ch.  v.).  The  vase 
is  of  some  further  interest  as  showing  an  attempt  to  represent  water 
naturally.  The  sea  is  rendered  by  wavy  lines,  drawn  in  black  on  a 
red  ground,  and  something  like  the  effect  of  light  playing  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  is  given  (C.  T.  Newton  in  Ruskin's  Stones  of 
Venice,  vol.  i.  app.  21). 

On  this  vase  there  is  also  a  fragmentary  white  vase  (D  1), 
found  at  Naucratis  and  attributed  to  Euphronius. 

Pedestal  VI.— The  Achilles  Vase  (E  468) 

On  one  side  of  this  vase  (which  is  painted  in  the  style  of 
Duris)  is  the  combat  of  Achilles  and  Hector  in  the  presence  of 
Athena  and  Apollo  ;  on  the  other,  the  combat  of  Achilles  with 
Memnon  in  the  presence  of  Thetis  and  Eos.  These  designs  are 
on  a  band  at  the  top  of  the  vase,  above  which  is  a  decorative 
pattern. 

Case  H. — Amphorae,  in  the  "severe"  style  :  500-480  B.C. 

But  there  are  also  several  exquisite  little  vases  in  this  case  : — 

E  697  (aryballos). — -Aphrodite  with  Eros  on  her  shoulder:  a  very 
pretty  and  dainty  little  picture. 

E  773  and  774  (pyxis).— Toilet  scenes  :  folding  doors  indicate  a 
room.  In  one  a  woman  is  winding  a  ribbon  round  her  hair  ;  in  the 
other  a  woman  is  seated  on  a  stool,  wrapt  in  thought,  while  a  girl  is 
fastening  her  sandal. 

The  beautiful  little  perfume-box  (E  774)  is  particularly  interesting 
as  illustrating  the  use  of  Greek  vases  as  ornamerts.  Several  vases  are 
set  about  the  lady's  boudoir.  On  the  left  is  a  gilt  box  (pyxis)  with  a 
tall  lid,  and  a  tall  oinochoe  :  these  are  placed  on  a  low  table.  On 
the  right  two  tall  vases  (lebes)  stand  on  a  plinth.  Except  the  pyxis,  all 
the  vases  are  decorated  with  painted  figures,  and  contain  flowers  or 
olive-branches.  This  pyxis  (774)  and  the  others  near  it  are  ordinary 
domestic  scenes.  Mythological  names  are  inscribed  over  the  figures, 
but  this  is  only  done  by  the  potters  in  order  to  give  their  glare  pieces 
a  fictitious  interest. 


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379 


Another  charming  casket  is  E  775  :  two  little  loves,  with  gilt  wings 
and  crowns,  are  harnessed  to  the  chariot  of  Aphrodite. 

E  270.^ — A  poet  reciting:  notice  the  way  in  which  words  proceed 
from  his  open  mouth — the  first  words  of  a  metrical  poem. 

Pedestal  VII. — The  Victorious  Citharist  (E  460) 

This  vase  (an  oxybaphon,  or  bell-crater),  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  collection,  celebrates  the  victory  of  a  citharist  in  a 
musical  contest  at  Athens.  The  winner — a  bearded  figure, 
richly  draped  and  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  olive — steps  on  a 
small  dais,  striking  the  chords  of  his  lyre.  On  one  side  sits 
the  judge,  wreathed  with  myrtle.  In  front  of  the  winner  is  a 
figure  of  Victory.  Behind  him  another  Victory  floats  down, 
bearing  a  vase,  the  prize  in  the  contest.  Away  in  the  corner 
sits  Athena,  recognisable  by  her  spear  and  aegis,  looking  on, 
but  not  otherwise  taking  part  in  the  scene.  She  is  often 
thus  conceived  as  the  protectress  of  her  people,  ever  present, 
though  invisible,  at  those  functions  which  were  performed  in 
her  name  or  honour  (C.  H.  Smith  in  /.U.S.  ix.  3). 

The  design  of  this  vase  was  adapted  by  Flaxman  for  a 
vase  by  Wedgwood  representing  the  apotheosis  of  Homer 
(see  a  specimen  in  the  Ceramic  Gallery). 

Case  I.— Vases  in  the  "severe'5  style:  500-480  B.C. 

Here  are  several  interesting  vases  : — 

E  466  (krater)  demands  careful  study  ;  though  the  drawing  is  a 
trifle  forced,  the  design  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  poetical  in 
the  collection.  It  is  a  charming  picture  of  the  sunrise  :  a  naive 
personification  of  a  natural  scene  : — 

"To  the  right  the  sun-god  Helios  is  uprising  in  his  chariot,  with 
four  winged  horses,  just  as  he  rises  in  the  east  pediment  of  the 
Parthenon.  To  the  extreme  left— again  somewhat  as  in  the  Parthenon 
pediment— the  moon  goddess,  veiled  and  tranquil,  rides  silently  away, 
sinking  behind  the  hill.  Helios  is  wholly  human,  but  to  make  the 
meaning  clear,  an  actual  sun  surrounds  his  head,  as  halo.  In  front 
of  the  horses  the  sea  is  represented  by  a  series  of  curved  lines,  some- 
what more  realistic  than  the  conventional  wave-pattern.  Very  curious 
are  the  four  little  naked  boys,  who  plunge  and  swim  below  the  horses' 
hoofs  ;  they  are  stars  in  human  shape.  Familiar  though  the  idea  of  a 
human  sun-god  is  to  us,  it  takes  some  time  to  get  used  to  the  thorough- 
going anthropomorphism  that  sees  in  the  stars  a  troop  of  swimming 
boys.  One  dives  headlong  ;  another — it  may  be  the  morning  star — 
stands  upright  and  steadfast ;  two  more,  already  in  the  water,  strike 
out  to  swim.     For  the  rest,  one  is  already  awake,  alert  behind  the 


38o 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


mountain  top.  The  woodland  scene  is  indicated  by  a  single  tree. 
As  part  of  the  very  being  of  the  sunrise,  Eos  pursues  the  hunter 
Kephalos.  He  is  accompanied  by  his  dog  (who  seems  to  be  baying 
at  the  moon).  In  one  hand  he  holds  his  darts,  in  the  other  a  stone 
which  he  is  about  to  hurl  at  the  on-coming  goddess  "  (Jane  Harrison 
in  the  Magazine  of  Art !,  1894,  p.  63.  See  also  the  same  writer  in 
Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens >  p.  lxvii.). 

E  63  (kylix). — Fragmentary,  but  interesting  as  an  illustration  of 
Greek  athletic  customs.  In  the  interior  is  a  gymnastic-trainer,  hold- 
ing his  forked  switch,  with  two  boxers.  The  exterior  appears  to 
represent  a  parade  of  boxers  before  two  judges.  The  heads  of  these 
are  preserved.  Those  of  the  boxers  have  disappeared  (except  one, 
which  is  bruised).  Each  has  his  right  hand  raised,  and  it  is  suggested 
that  they  are  taking  the  oath  of  fair  play  as  described  by  Pausanias 
(v.  24.  9)  :  "  Before  this  image  of  Zeus  it  is  the  custom  for  the  athletes 
to  swear  that  they  will  be  guilty  of  no  foul  play." 

E  315  (amphora). — This  is  one  of  several  "  Anacreon  "  vases  (cf. 
E  18,  266,  267,  314).  The  type  represented  is  that  of  an  elderly 
reveller,  staggering  along  in  drunken  disorder  and  singing  to  a  lyre. 
A  poet  of  the  Anthology,  in  an  epigram  on  Anacreon,  says  of  him  : — 

O  lover  of  the  lovely  lyre,  who,  as  thy  sweet  will  sped, 

Hast  sailed  through  all  the  seas  of  life  with  passion  and  with  song. 

On  the  vase  E  18  the  name  Anacreon  is  inscribed,  and  the  type 
suggests  comparison  with  the  statue  of  the  poet  described  by  Pausanias 
(i.  25.  1)  :  "  the  attitude  of  the  figure  is  suggestive  of  a  man  singing 
in  his  cups." 

The  numerous  "  Anacreon  vases "  are  probably  reminiscent  of 
some  such  statue,  or  picture,  showing  the  poet  under  the  excitement 
of  wine  striking  his  lyre  and  singing  forth  his  impassioned  songs. 
The  poet  is  often  accompanied  by  his  dog  (e.g.  E  314,  315).  We 
learn  from  a  mediaeval  commentator  (Tzetzes)  that  Anacreon's  dog  was 
famous  for  his  fidelity  to  his  master.  Accompanying  his  master  and  a 
slave  to  market,  the  dog  watched  for  several  days  a  purse  which  the 
slave  had  dropped.  Ruskin,  in  a  characteristic  passage,  refers  to 
the  design  as  "a  piece  of  what  maybe  called  mental  comparative 
anatomy  "  : — 

"One  of  the  most  interesting  Greek  vases  in  the  British  Museum 
is  that  of  which  the  painting  long  went  under  the  title  of  '  Anacreon 
and  his  Dog.'  It  is  a  Greek  lyric  poet,  singing  with  lifted  head,  in 
the  action  given  to  Orpheus  and  Philammon  in  their  moments  of 
highest  inspiration  ;  while,  entirely  unaffected  by,  and  superior  to  the 
music,  there  walks  beside  him  a  sharp-nosed  and  curly-tailed  dog, 
painted  in  what  the  exclusive  admirers  of  Greek  art  would,  I  suppose, 
call  an  ideal  manner  ;  that  is  to  say,  his  tail  is  more  like  a  display  of 
fireworks  than  a  tail ;  but  the  ideal  evidently  founded  on  the  material 
existence  of  a  charming  though  supercilious  animal"  (The  Eagle's 
Nest,  §  157). 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


38i 


The  "  custom  of  putting  either  the  dog  or  some  inferior  animal  to 
be  either  in  contrast  or  modest  companionship  with  the  nobleness  of 
human  form  and  thought "  may  be  traced  in  all  schools  of  painting. 

E  301  (amphora). — In  the  style  of  Duris.  Orpheus  slain  by  the 
Thracian  women.  (The  continual  grief  of  Orpheus  for  his  lost 
Eurydice  so  enraged  the  Thracian  women  that  they  fell  upon  him 
in  one  of  their  orgies  and  tore  him  to  pieces — as  Milton  describes  in 
"Lycidas.")  Notice  that  on  the  front  of  the  neck  of  the  Thracian 
women,  on  the  inside  of  the  right  forearm,  and  on  the  instep  of  each 
foot  is  a  check  pattern  ;  this  is  to  indicate  tattooing. 

A  kylix  from  the  Bourguignon  collection,  acquired  in  1901,  has 
an  interesting  subject,  a  boy  with  a  bird  in  a  cage,  probably  a  fighting 
quail. 

Pedestal  VIII 

This  vase  (E  469),  a  crater  in  the  "  large"  style,  is  much 
damaged.  On  the  body  is  a  combat  between  gods  and 
giants.  On  the  neck,  the  sending  of  Triptolemus  (see 
p.  365). 

Case  K. — Red-figure  lekythi,  chiefly  from  Sicily :  500- 
450  B.C.  The  most  interesting  vase  here  is,  however,  a 
kylix  on  the  top  of  the  case  : — 

E  84  (kylix). — The  exploits  of  Theseus. — This  vase,  which  is  in 
the  finest  red-figure  style,  was  acquired  by  Dr.  Emil  Braun  from  the 
dealer  Basseggio,  and  was  bought  for  the  Museum  in  1850.  It  is  of 
special  interest  for  many  reasons.  From  the  artistic  point  of  view  we 
may  notice  the  admirable  composition.  The  subjects  are  a  series  of 
isolated  incidents,  but  the  design  sweeps  round  the  cup  continuously. 
The  design  in  the  circle  belongs  also  to  the  same  subject  as  that  of  the 
designs  surrounding  it.  In  most  cups  of  the  kind  this  is  not  the  case. 
In  another  respect  the  vase  is  unique.  The  designs  on  the  exterior 
and  interior  are  the  same.  This  device  produces  the  effect,  as  it  were, 
of  transparency  ;  but  this  is  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  originality  in  Greek 
design,  and  the  effect  was,  so  far  as  we  know,  never  repeated. 

The  subject  of  the  designs  is  one  which  we  have  already  frequently 
met  with  in  this  room,  and  which  was  in  special  favour  with  the  red- 
figure  vase-painters.  After  the  Persian  wars,  in  which  Theseus  was 
reported  to  have  appeared  to  aid  the  Athenians  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon,  there  was  a  great  revival  in  the  fame  of  this  national  hero. 
(1)  In  the  centre  is  Theseus  and  the  Minotaur.  He  is  dragging  the 
helpless  monster  out  from  his  palace,  which  is  represented  by  a  fluted 
Doric  column — a  common  piece  of  shorthand  with  the  vase-painters. 
In  most  vases  Theseus  is  shown  actually  slaying  his  enemy.  There 
is  an  unmistakable  though  crude  attempt  to  signalise  the  famous 
labyrinth  by  a  decorative  pattern  of  squares  and  lines  ;  the  same  device 
is  used  to  symbolise  the  labyrinth  on  the  coins  of  Crete.    (2)  At  the 


382 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


top  is  Theseus  engaged  with  the  wrestler  Cercyon.  Theseus,  unlike 
Hercules,  accomplishes  his  task  without  effort.  "  Cercyon,"  says 
Pausanias  (i.  39.  3),  "killed  all  those  who  wrestled  with  him,  except 
only  Theseus ;  but  Theseus  wrestled  with  him  by  skill  and  science, 
and  so  overcame  him  ;  before  the  time  of  Theseus  size  and  strength 
only  were  employed  in  wrestling.''  "  On  our  vase  Theseus  gets  the 
better  of  his  opponent  by  a  manoeuvre  which  every  athlete  would 
appreciate."  The  •  artistic  effect  is  very  much  enhanced  by  the 
elegance  thus  attainable ;  and  this  substitution  of  skill  for  brute 
strength  is  characteristically  Attic.  (3)  Next,  we  see  Theseus  in  a 
fine  dramatic  attitude,  preparing  to  smite  Procrustes  with  his  axe. 
Procrustes,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  two  beds  ;  if  a  long  traveller 
came,  he  placed  him  on  the  short  bed  and  lopped  him  till  he  fitted  it ; 
if  a  short  traveller  came,  he  put  him  on  the  long  bed  and  stretched 
him.  Here  the  bed  is  represented,  with  the  usual  economy  of  the 
vase-painters,  by  a  single  horizontal  bar.  (4)  The  death  of  Sciron. 
Sciron,  according  to  the  legend,  "lived  in  Megara,  a  tyrant  hostile  to 
travellers.  He  was  wont  to  compel  passers-by  to  wash  his  feet,  and 
then,  kicking  them  with  his  foot,  he  sent  them  to  be  food  for  the 
tortoise  (or,  as  we  should  put  it,  food  for  fishes)  ;  but  Theseus,  hurling 
him  over  his  head  and  casting  him  into  the  sea,  caused  him  to  be  eaten 
by  the  tortoise."  Here  Sciron  is  seated  on  his  rock.  Theseus  is 
about  to  hurl  at  him  his  own  washing- vase — a  pleasant  fancy  of  the 
vase-painters  to  make  the  tyrant's  death  the  more  retributive.  Behind 
the  tyrant  is  a  tree  ;  and  on  the  rock,  looking  upward  with  an  air 
of  expectation,  is  the  tortoise.  (5)  Xext  comes  Theseus  taming  the 
Marathonian  bull.  (6)  The  punishment  of  Sinis  Pityokamptes  (the 
pine-bender).  It  was  his  custom  to  make  travellers  bend  down  his 
pine-tree  which,  when  they  could  not  hold  it,  tore  them  up  into  the 
air.  "  It  is  amusing  to  see  that,  owing  to  the  similarity  of  the  types, 
the  artist  has  begun  to  sketch  in  Sciron's  tortoise,  and  then  remem- 
bered, scarcely  in  time,  that  he  was  doing  Sinis."  (7)  The  sow  of 
Krommyon.  Theseus,  sword  in  hand,  and  with  his  cloak  worn  as  a 
shield,  stands  awaiting  the  onward  rush  of  the  sow.  Beside  the  sow 
is  Phaia.  "Some  say,"  writes  Plutarch,  "that  Phaia  was  a  robber- 
woman,  bloody  and  wanton,  who  lived  in  Crommyon,  but  was  called 
a  sow  on  account  of  her  character  and  life."  "The  attitudes  of  sow 
and  woman  are  noticeably  parallel.  Moreover,  every  effort  is  made  to 
give  to  the  woman  a  rude  and  beast-like  appearance  ;  her  hair  is  rough 
and  disordered  ;  her  arms  are  spotted.  Clearly  the  vase-painter  halted 
between  two  opinions,  whether  Phaia  was  sow  or  woman  ;  for  safety 
he  made  her  both  "  (J.  E.  Harrison  in  Mythology  and  Monuments  of 
Ancient  Athens,  p.  cxv.  ;  Cecil  Smith  m  J.H.S.  ii.  p.  57). 

There  are  also  on  this  case  some  finely  modelled  rhytons, 
e.g.  E  786,  a  two-handled  cup  supported  by  heads  of  Silenus 
and  a  woman  back  to  back. 

The  red -figure  lekythi  in  the  case,  mainly  from  Sicily, 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


383 


resemble  the  white  Athenian  lekythi  in  shape,  but  the  execu- 
tion of  them  is  inferior.  The  subjects  are  not  for  the  most 
part  funereal.  On  many  of  the  vases  we  see  women  pouring 
out  wine  for  warriors.  Others  give  various  scenes  of  daily 
life,  and  are  interesting  for  that  reason.  We  may  notice  a 
girl  seated  in  a  chair,  with  head  thrown  back,  about  to  catch 
in  each  hand  a  ball  which  she  has  tossed  in  the  air  (E  606),  a 
boy  riding  (E  589),  a  woman  holding  a  mirror  (E  600),  and  a 
girl  dancing  (E  642). 

We  must  next  examine  the  vases  in  the  Wall-cases  which 
line  the  room.  There  are  many  of  considerable  interest  in  these 
cases,  but  on  the  whole  the  best  vases  are  arranged  in  the  table- 
cases  which  we  have  already  examined,  so  that  our  remaining 
notes  can  be  more  cursory. 

Cases  1-5. — Select  Athenian  vases  of  the  best  period. — 
Here  we  may  notice  : — 

An  interesting  picture  (E  453)  of  the  game  of  cottabos,  much  in 
vogue  at  the  drinking  parties  of  young  men  at  Athens,  and  often  figured 
on  vases.  One  of  the  reclining  figures  twirls  a  drinking-cup  by  one 
handle  in  the  air  ;  another  balances  the  cup  on  his  left  palm.  They 
are  preparing  to  throw  the  wine  at  a  mark  (for  a  description  of  the 
game  see  p.  419).  There  is  a  similar  scene  in  E  495.  In  E  455  and 
456  we  have  sacrifices  in  honour  of  naval  victories.  We  may  also 
notice  here  two  very  pretty  little  hydriae  (E  204,  205).  Both  these 
vases  are  in  the  fine  style  ;  they  are  like  Leighton  pictures. 

Cases  6-10.— Select  Athenian  vases  of  the  best  period. 

— Here  we  may  notice  : — 

A  pelike  (E  389)  in  a  fine  graceful  style,  showing  two  runners  in  a 
torch  race  ;  a  hydria  (E  208)  in  the  finest  minute  style,  with  a  graceful 
toilet  scene  ;  an  amphora  (E  299)  in  the  strong  style  ;  Athena  announces 
a  naval  victory — she  has  a  spear  in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  an 
aphlastron,  the  ornament  for  the  stern  end  of  a  warship.  The  figure 
of  Athena  on  E  324  (amphora)  is  interesting.  "To  represent  the 
peaceful  Athena  later  archaic  art  invented  a  new  motive  ;  the  goddess 
takes  off  her  helmet  and  holds  it  in  her  hand  "  (see  Furtwangler's 
Masterpieces,  p.  14). 

Here  also  is  a  fine  vase  from  the  Tyszkiewicz  collection,  showing  a 
torch  race  from  the  altar  of  Prometheus  to  the  city  of  Athens,  in 
which  the  prize  was  won  by  a  representative  of  the  Antiochus  tribe. 
Another  inscription  gives  the  painter's  name,  Nikias.  In  connection 
with  representations  of  torch-races  on  vases  and  other  antiques,  we  may 
notice  that  there  seem  to  have  been  two  different  kinds  of  these  races, 
which  we  may  call  {a)  collective  and  (b)  individual  respectively,   (a)  The 


3^4 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


former  kind  is  that  referred  to  in  Plato's  famous  phrase  about  "  handing 
on  the  torch  of  life  from  one  generation  to  another.  '5  There  were  lines 
of  runners  posted  at  intervals.  The  first  man  in  each  line,  after  lighting 
his  torch  at  the  altar  or  receiving  it  lighted,  ran  with  it  at  full  speed  to 
the  next  man  in  the  line,  to  whom  he  passed  it  on  ;  the  second  runner 
similarly  transmitted  it  to  the  third  ;  and  so  on  down  the  line,  till  the 
last  man  in  the  line  carried  it  to  the  goal.  If  any  torch  went  out,  that 
line  ]ost.  The  line  of  runners  which  first  succeeded  in  passing  its 
torch  alight  to  the  goal  was  the  winner.  Hence  the  phrase  of  yEschylus 
(Agam.  315)  :  "  The  first  runner  and  the  last  win  alike."  {b)  In  the 
other  kind  of  race  a  number  of  runners,  each  with  a  lighted  torch, 
started  abreast,  and  the  one  who  first  carried  his  torch  alight  to  the 
goal  was  the  winner.  Torch -races  were  held  at  various  Athenian 
festivals— among  others,  at  that  of  Bendis  (see  the  interesting  bas-relief, 
p.  248).  The  origin  of  the  race  is  to  be  found  in  the  custom  of  trans- 
mitting a  new  and  holy  fire  from  a  hearth  or  altar  where  it  had  been 
kindled  to  other  hearths  or  altars  (Frazer's  Paitsa?iiasi  vol.  ii.  p.  392). 
The  starting-point  was  the  altar  of  Prometheus,  the  fire-giver.  The 
course  at  Athens  passed  through  the  Ceramicus,  or  quarter  of  the 
potters,  to  whose  art  fire  is  all-important. 

Cases  11-16. — Kylixes  and  kraters.  —  Here  we  may 
notice  : — ■ 

A  spirited  drawing  of  Dionysus  mounted  on  his  mule  (E  102)  ; 
athletes  at  the  bath  (E  83)  ;  one  is  giving  another  a  souse  from  a 
water-jar  ;  and  a  banquet  of  the  gods  (E  82),  The  palace  of  heaven 
is  indicated  by  a  Doric  column.  At  the  foot  of  the  couch  of  Zeus  sits 
his  consort  Hera  ;  they  are  attended  by  Ganymede,  the  cup-bearer. 
On  another  couch  is  Poseidon,  with  Amphitrite  sitting  at  his  feet.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  handles  are  Ares  and  Aphrodite  and  Dionysus 
(attended  by  satyrs)  with  Ariadne.  Very  different  is  the  scene  on  the 
next  cup  (E  86).  Here  is  an  old  shoemaker  at  work  in  his  shop,  on 
the  walls  of  which  various  shoes  are  hung  up.  With  his  right  hand  he 
cuts  the  leather  with  a  crescent-shaped  knife  such  as  cobblers  still  use. 

In  E  125  note  the  head  of  Silenus.  It  is  "exaggerated  out  of 
proportion,  and  probably  intended  to  suggest  the  masks  of  satyric 
comedy.5' 

On  the  bottom  shelf  of  case  14  is  a  crater  (E  477),  which  is  worth 
noticing  for  its  subject,  the  death  of  Procris.  For  Procris,  being  told 
that  Cephalus  was  unfaithful  to  her,  straightway  believed  the  report,  and 
secretly  followed  him  to  the  woods,  for  he  was  a  great  hunter.  And 
as  she  moved  among  the  leaves  she  made  a  rustling  which  Cephalus 
mistook  for  the  motion  of  some  beast  of  the  forest.  He  let  fly  the 
unerring  dart  which  Procris  once  had  given  him,  and  she  fell,  smitten 
to  the  ground.  Miss  Harrison  contrasts  the  old  vase-painter's  repre- 
sentation of  this  subject  with  the  charming  picture  in  the  National 
Gallery:  "The  drawing,"  says  Miss  Harrison,  "  is  somewhat  coarse, 
and  the  painter  seems  to  be  struggling  with  a  subject  that  is  expressively 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


385 


too  much  for  him.  Procris  sinks  in  death  in  an  odd,  ill-drawn  attitude ; 
her  soul  escapes  in  the  form  of  a  bird.1  Kephalos  smites  his  head  in 
despair,  the  dog  Lailaps  watches  concerned.  Erechtheus,  the  old 
king-father,  is  at  hand  to  sympathise  ;  the  curt  archaic  symbolism  of 
attitude,  the  utterance  of  mere  gesture,  is  at  fault  here.  The  story  was 
pregnant  with  modern  suggestion.  It  had  to  wait,  so  to  speak,  for  the 
delicate  imagination  of  the  Renaissance  painter,  Piero  di  Cosimo,  to 
make  us  feel  the  contrast  between  the  dead  woman,  over -sentient, 
passion-slain,  and  the  shaggy  faun,  kindly  perplexed,  and  the  dumb, 
faithful  dog  ;  between  the  soft  slack  peace  of  the  woodland  and  the 
terrible  tension  of  humanity  "  [Magazine  of  Art,  1894,  p.  61). 

Cases  17-24- — Black  ware  with  gilt  decorations  or 
moulded  patterns:  350-300  B.C. — These  vases,  mostly  from 
Capua,  are  remarkable  for  elegance  of  shape  and  richness  of 
gilt  ornament.  In  some  of  them  the  black  varnish  is  carried 
to  great  perfection,  and  the  gilt  decorations  in  imitation  of 
jewellery  are  well  done.  In  this  class  of  vases  the  influence 
of  vases  in  metal  is  easily  perceptible  both  in  the  shapes  and 
in  the  manner  of  decoration. 

An  interesting  class  of  vases  comprises  those  numbered 
G  1-26.  They  are  of  Athenian  fabric,  with  polychrome  reliefs 
made  separately  and  attached  to  the  vase.  There  is  much 
spirit  in  some  of  these  reliefs  ;  G  23,  representing  the  seizure 
of  Cassandra,  is  full  of  rude  vigour.  G  26  is  curious  :  a  drink- 
ing horn  terminating  in  the  forepart  of  a  rearing  horse. 

Cases  25  and  26. — Polychrome  and  moulded  ware  from 
Athens  :  380-300  B.C. — Here  we  may  notice  : — 

A  beautiful  aryballos  (E  705).  The  drawing  is  very  graceful,  and 
in  the  style  of  the  Meidias  vase.  In  the  centre  a  nude  girl  wearing 
a  belt,  ear-rings,  and  bracelets,  is  about  to  put  on  a  necklace.  On  each 
side  of  her  is  an  Eros,  raising  his  hand  in  admiration.  Very  graceful 
also  is  another  aryballos  here  (E  695),  though  the  detail  is  perhaps 
excessive ;  notice  the  Bactrian  camel  on  which  Dionysus  rides, 
attended  by  an  Eastern  retinue — as  described  in  the  "  Bacchae  "  of 
Euripides  :  "I  have  left  the  fields  of  Lydia,  so  rich  in  gold,  and  the 
lands  of  the  Phrygians  ;  I  have  crossed  the  burning  plains  of  Persia, 
and  the  cities  of  Bactria,  and  the  fearful  land  of  Media,  and  of  Arabia 
the  Blest,  and  all  Asia  washed  by  the  salt  sea,  with  its  strong  and 
populous  cities  where  Greeks  and  barbarians  mingle  together."  In 
E  549  (an  oinochoe)  there  is  a  graceful  drawing  of  a  boy  crawling  to 
a  table  to  take  some  fruit.  The  subject  on  E  721  (an  alabastron  from 
Naucratis)  is  supposed  to  be  the  gathering  of  incense  (a  subject  found 

1  Elsewhere  {Myths  of  the  Odyssey,  p.  159)  Miss  Harrison  interprets  the 
bird  as  a  siren,  symbol  of  love  and  mourning. 

2  C 


386 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


also  on  the  hydria  from  the  Cyrenaica,  E  241).  An  aryballos,  a 
fragment  of  an  Athenian  vase,  shows  a  marriage  scene  ;  the  bride  and 
bridegroom,  Eros,  and  two  figures  with  torches.  This  fragment  is  in 
the  finest  red-figure  style  ;  the  head  of  the  bridegroom  is  very  beautiful. 

Cases  27-30. — Vases  of  all  periods  from  excavations 
in  the  Cyrenaica,  mostly  from  the  collection  of  the  late  Mr. 
G.  Dennis,  H.M.  Vice- Consul  at  Benghazi.  —  Here  we  may 
notice  : — ■ 

An  aryballos  (E  711)  showing  Danae  receiving  in  her  mantle  the 
shower  of  gold  :  gilding  is  used  here  with  appropriate  effect.  On  a 
hydria,  in  very  fine  style  (E  228),  Eros,  a  full-grown  boy  with  short 
wavy  hair  and  a  large  fan,  seems  to  be  fanning  Dionysus.  Behind  a 
beautiful  Maenad  is  Pan  playing  on  the  syrinx.  He  has  human  legs, 
but  the  older  satyr  above  him  has  the  legs  of  a  goat.  It  is  interesting 
to  see  two  stages  of  the  conception  on  the  same  vase.  Above  is  Echo 
completely  muffled  in  a  voluminous  mantle.  Another  hydria  (E  230) 
is  curious  :  Eros  is  "  skinning  "  Aphrodite  (to  use  the  schoolboy  phrase), 
while  Silenus  stands  by  in  astonishment. 

Cases  31-35. — Athenian  red-figure  vases  of  the  fifth 
century,  excavated  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. — In  Case  35, 
which  comprises  the  best  specimens,  we  may  notice  E  363, 
a  pelike,  showing  Thetis  and  a  Nereid  bringing  new  armour 
to  Achilles.  The  representation  of  this  scene  is  an  interesting 
example  of  humour  in  Greek  art : — • 

1  i  Achilles  is  sulking  and  sitting  immovable,  wrapped  closely  in  his 
mantle.  His  mother  Thetis  and  her  attendant  Nereids  arrive  with 
his  new  armour.  She  places  an  arm  round  his  neck,  and  while  she  is 
thus  in  the  act  of  coaxing  him  to  rise  and  gird  himself,  one  of  the 
Nereids  who  stands  behind  looking  on  cannot  control  her  sense  of  the 
ridiculousness  of  the  situation,  and  has  to  push  up  her  hand  over  her 
face  to  hide  the  feeling"  (Murray's  Greek  Sculpture^  i.  17). 

It  must  be  admitted  that  in  the  earlier  vase-paintings,  as  in 
other  forms  of  early  art,  the  humour  is  often  unconscious. 
One  laughs  at  rather  than  with  the  artist.  Look,  for  instance, 
at  the  running  frieze  of  Gorgons  (p.  471);  one  is  not  quite 
sure  whether  this  is  a  case  of  conscious  humour  or  of  un- 
conscious grotesque.  The  vase-paintings  of  Hercules  and  the 
Erymanthian  boar  are,  however,  certainly  conscious  burlesques. 
To  some  cases  of  broad  parody  we  have  already  called  attention. 
Here  we  may  notice  the  school  scenes  (E  171,  172).  The 
pupil  who  faces  the  master  is  all  attention  ;  but  behind  the 
master's  back  another  pupil  plays  with  a  cat.     (The  subject  of 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


387 


"  Humour  in  Greek  Art"  has  been  illustrated  from  vases  in  a 
lecture  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Smith  to  the  Hellenic  Society  :  see  report 
in  the  Times^  Feb.  27,  1902.) 

Among  designs  remarkable  for  their  gracefulness  we  may 
notice  E  188  and  E  189 — a  woman  playing  the  lyre. 

Cases  36-40. — Select  specimens  of  the  best  period : 
440-330  B.C. — Here  also  is  a  humorous  vase  (E  539).  A 
piece  of  caricature  drawn  in  a  free  and  spirited  style  : — 

A  satyr  is  represented  as  Hercules  in  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides 
(a  subject  which  we  shall  see  represented  in  the  Bronze  Room).  The 
tree  is  hung,  not  with  golden  apples,  but  with  wine  flasks.  The  snake 
coiled  round  it  darts  its  tongue  angrily  at  the  satyr's  club.  The  satyr 
strikes  forward  to  attack  in  a  mock-heroic  attitude  ;  he  has  a  wine- 
skin suspended  round  his  neck  as  a  shield.  Caricatures  such  as  this 
were  probably  suggested  by  the  satyric  drama. 

Among  other  pretty  vases  in  these  cases  we  may  call 
attention  to  the  crater  (E  502) ;  the  oinochoe  (E  564),  a 
graceful  drawing  of  the  best  style  ;  the  hydria  (E  193),  show- 
ing a  woman  spinning,  with  the  distaff ;  Europa  and  the  bull 
(E  334)  ;  and  a  boy  riding  on  a  galloping  horse  (E  337). 

Cases  41  and  42. — Athenian  drinking-cups  in  the  shapes 
of  animals'  heads  and  other  vases. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  is  E  799 — a  one-handled  cup  terminat- 
ing in  a  finely-modelled  mule's  head  ;  the  mouth  is  open  and  the  eais 
are  laid  back,  as  if  it  were  braying.  Drinking-cups  were  often  made 
in  the  form  of  an  ass's  head.  There  is  an  archaic  cantharos  (B  378), 
made  in  this  form,  and  decorated  with  a  painting  of  Dionysus  astride 
his  mule.  The  ass,  as  water-carrier  in  the  East,  is  traditionally 
connected  with  water.  Another  interesting  example  is  the  drinking- 
cup  in  the  form  of  a  lion  (E  796) :  "  On  the  back  of  the  lion  is  the 
handle  of  the  rhyton  and  a  spout,  through  which  the  liquid,  perhaps 
oil,  which  it  was  intended  to  contain  was  poured,  the  outlet  of  the 
contents  being  a  smaller  aperture  in  the  open  mouth  of  the  lion.  The 
design  of  this  lion  seems  borrowed  from  that  of  a  bronze  weight,  and  this 
notion  is  confirmed  by  the  archaism  of  the  modelling  generally,  which 
is  especially  seen  in  the  mane.  Both  in  the  pose  and  in  the  treatment 
of  the  mane  this  lion  is  very  similar  to  the  two  in  marble  discovered 
by  Sir  C.  Fellows  at  Xanthus.  It  is  in  admirable  condition,  and 
executed  with  extreme  refinement  and  mastery  over  the  material.  The 
hair  is  represented  by  five  lines  stippled  in  brown  in  the  clay " 
(Newton,  Castellani  Collection,  p.  3). 

Among  the  lekythi  we  may  notice  the  woman  at  the  wash-tub 
(D  29)  ;  the  woman  with  distaff  and  spindle  (D  13)  ;  and  a  priestess 
pouring  a  libation  (D  23)  ;  a  column  denotes  the  interior  of  a  temple  ; 


388 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


the  snake  is  the  sacred  animal  which  was  supposed  to  guard  the 
Acropolis. 

Cases  43-46. — Athenian  vases  of  the  fifth  century. 
Scenes  of  daily  life. — Perhaps  the  most  interesting  vases  here 
are,  however,  not  Athenian,  but  Boeotian. 

These  are  numbered  E  813,  E  814,  and  were  found  at  Tanagra, 
where  the  figurines  come  from  (Ch.  xxvu. ).  They  are  doubtless  of  local 
fabric,  and  are  almost  childish  in  execution.  In  814  Hercules  is  draw- 
ing water  at  a  fountain  ;  in  8 1 3  a  woman  is  playing  some  form  of  the 
game  of  cottabos  (p.  419).  The  object  was  to  throw  the  wine  so  as  to 
sink  the  duck.  Another  interesting  drawing  here  is  the  dancing  lesson 
on  E  185.  The  pyxis  numbered  E  771  is  interesting.  It  comes  from 
Naucratis,  and  when  discovered  still  contained  some  rouge,  thus  show- 
ing the  purpose  to  which  these  toilet  boxes  were  put. 

Cases  47-51. — Vases  of  Athenian  fabric:  500-450  B.C. 
Scenes  chiefly  mythological. — Here  we  may  notice  : — 

In  E  410  (pelike)  we  see  again  the  birth  of  Athena  (see  p.  321). 

E  182  (hydria). — The  birth  of  Erichthonius.  Gaia  (the  earth), 
represented  as  a  woman  of  huge  proportions,  is  seen  from  the  waist 
upwards,  rising  from  the  ground  and  holding  the  infant,  who  has  the 
usual  ornamental  cross-belt  of  Athenian  children.  The  child  tears  away 
from  Gaia,  and  extends  both  hands  eagerly  to  Athena. 

E  181  (hydria). — The  escape  of  Perseus,  after  cutting  off  the  head 
of  Medusa,  which  he  has  placed  in  a  wallet  slung  at  his  back.  Athena, 
who  has  guided  him  to  the  dwelling  of  the  Gorgons,  is  also  escaping. 

E  390  (pelike). — Orpheus  among  the  Thracians.  A  very  graceful 
design.  Orpheus  plays  his  lyre  on  a  flowery  hillside  ;  the  Thracian 
warriors  are  spellbound. 

On  another  vase  (Case  48),  a  red-figured  hydria,  of  fine  archaic  style 
of  the  school  of  Euthymides,  is  represented  a  later  moment  of  the  scene 
depicted  on  the  vase  described  on  p.  340.  Troilus  and  Polyxena  are 
here  in  flight  after  the  discovery  of  Achilles's  ambush.  Troilus  gallops 
away,  urging  on  his  horse  with  a  goad.  Polyxena  has  left  her  pitcher 
broken  on  the  ground  with  the  water  (coloured  purple)  gushing  out  of 
it  {British  Museum  Return  for  1899,  p.  67.  Bought  at  the  Forman 
sale  for  £20,  Sale  Catalogue,  No.  339). 

E  271  (amphora). — Terpsichore,  the  muse  of  choral  dance  and  song, 
is  seated  on  a  chair  playing  a  harp,  which  she  holds  on  her  lap.  In 
front  of  her  stands  Mousaius,  an  early  poet  of  legendary  renown.  On 
the  left  is  Melousa  with  her  flutes.  The  drawing  is  in  the  "large" 
style.  "The  red-figure  style  appears  to  have  owed  much  at  its  com- 
mencement to  the  contemporary  fresco-painters,  and  this  is  particu- 
larly noticeable  in  a  class  of  large  amphorae  where  the  painters  have 
obviously  been  aiming  at  the  largeness  of  manner  which  is  associated 
with  the  frescoes  of  Polygnotus.    Apart  from  largeness  of  manner  the 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


389 


figures  on  these  amphorae  are  actually  much  larger  than  is  usual  on 
Greek  vases.  Not  unfrequently  there  is  an  ungainly  want  of  freedom 
of  movement,  and  a  striking  failure  in  obtaining  the  true  and  accurate 
proportions  of  the  figure.  The  aim  was  to  conceive  a  human  figure 
of  an  ideal  mould,  transcending  the  ordinary  type  with  its  accuracies 
and  its  neatness  :  these  large  simple  figures  were  the  result.  It  was 
soon  perceived,  however,  that  inaccuracy  in  the  proportions  was  not 
at  all  necessary  to  largeness  of  manner.  Pheidias  taught  that  in  his 
sculpture,  and  the  vase-painters  soon  learned  the  lesson  of  accuracy  " 
(Murray's  Archceology,  p.  102).  For  an  example  of  this  later  manner 
we  may  compare  with  this  vase  the  crater  460. 

Another  vase  in  the  same  style  as  the  one  above  discussed  is  E  149, 
a  cotyle  with  a  representation  of  a  dancing  lesson. 

E  180  (hydria). — A  good  example  of  grotesque.  The  Gorgon  has 
two  protruding  tusks  and  the  usual  protruding  tongue. 

E  179. — "  A  masterpiece  of  harmony  and  of  design  and  outline. 
The  single  figure  of  Nike  is  drawn  with  a  swing  and  yet  a  simplicity 
of  lines  which  combine  with  and  assist  the  admirable  purity  and  flow 
of  the  form  itself"  [Catalogue  of  Vases), 

Cases  52-54. — Select  Greek  vases :  amphorae  and  hydriae, 
of  Athenian  fabric,  500-450  B.C. — Here  we  may  notice  : — 

E  382  (pelike).— Telephus  withholding  Orestes  from  his  father, 
Agamemnon.  (Telephus  had  been  wounded  by  Achilles.  Having 
appealed  in  vain  to  Agamemnon,  Telephus  carried  off  Orestes,  whom 
he  refused  to  surrender.)  The  wounded  leg  of  Telephus  is  here  shown 
in  a  bandage.  Orestes  is  shown  as  a  fully  developed  boy  of  very 
diminutive  size. 

E  183  (hydria). — Here  the  design  is  in  the  finest  manner.  The 
subject,  the  starting  of  Triptolemus,  has  been  already  described  (E 
140,  p.  365). 

E  494. — These  fragments  of  a  bell-shaped  crater  are  very  interest- 
ing. The  pieces  of  painted  pottery  were  picked  up  in  the  early  part 
of  the  century  near  Tarentum  by  Mr.  Millingen,  and  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  Museum  in  1846.  They  were  pieced  together,  and 
their  interpretation  has  been  much  disputed.  The  drawing  is  in  the 
finest  style.  The  figure  of  Athena  on  the  right  is  of  the  grand  Phidian 
type — broad-shouldered  and  grandly-featured.  "It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  vase-paintings  after  the  time  of  Phidias  adopt  for  Athena 
the  Parthenos  type: — the  Athena  such  as  Phidias  created  her,  nowise 
inferior  to  the  words  of  Homer :  '  the  fair  maiden,  grey-eyed,  lofty, 
girt  about  with  the  aegis.'  The  details  of  the  helmet  alone  are  enough 
to  show  where  the  vase-painter  got  his  idea  ;  he  has  echoed  the  high 
sphinx,  and  even  the  row  of  animal  busts  on  the  forehead-piece." 
The  scene  perhaps  represents  a  private  sacrifice  to  Athena.  The 
dignified  bearded  man  is  her  priest,  the  boys  are  his  acolytes.  To 
the  olive-tree  are  hung  three  little  square  plates,  each  painted  with  a 


39° 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


design.  Such  tablets  used  to  be  hung  on  trees  in  this  way  as  ex-voto 
dedications  to  a  deity — especially  by  vase-painters.  This,  therefore, 
may  represent  a  thanksgiving  service  of  some  vase-painter  to  Athena. 
Notice  that  there  is  on  the  pillar  behind  the  statue  of  an  archaic  figure, 
such  as  might  be  dedicated  on  such  an  occasion.  One  of  the  frag- 
ments is  signed  with  the  artist's  name,  Philoktetes  (Cecil  Smith  in 
J.H.S.  ix.  p.  I  ;  Harrison  and  Verrall,  p.  461). 

E  169  (hydria). — This  fine  vase  shows  us  an  incident  in  the  story 
of  Andromeda,  the  daughter  of  Cepheus,  king  of  Ethiopia.  Her 
mother  had  boasted  that  the  beauty  of  Andromeda  exceeded  that  of 
the  sea-nymphs,  the  Nereids ;  for  which  impiety  the  country  of 
Cepheus  was  inundated  and  a  sea-monster  sent  upon  the  land.  To 
deliver  his  country  from  this  calamity  the  gods  decreed  that  Cepheus 
must  sacrifice  his  daughter  to  the  monster.  But  when  she  was 
chained  to  a  rock  in  the  sea  Perseus  rescued  her  and  made  her  his 
wife.  On  this  vase  we  see  Perseus  looking  on  at  the  chaining  of 
Andromeda.  A  tall  slim  figure,  she  is  held  by  two  Ethiopian 
youths.  On  the  right  two  others  make  a  hole  for  the  erection  of  posts 
to  which  Andromeda  is  to  be  fastened.  The  Ethiopians  are  all 
represented  with  the  woolly  hair,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips  of  the 
true  Negro  type.  On  the  right  is  Cepheus,  an  old  man,  in  an  attitude 
of  dejection.  Perseus,  who  seems  to  have  arrived  unobserved,  strikes 
his  forehead  in  despair.  On  the  left  of  Andromeda  three  Ethiopians 
stand,  holding  preparations  for  her  toilet.  One  of  the  slaves  carries 
on  his  head  a  stool  with  a  cushion  in  like  manner  to  that  of  one  of  the 
maidens  on  the  Parthenon  frieze.  This  vase  was  found  in  an  Etruscan 
tomb  at  Vulci.  The  subject  of  the  liberation  of  Andromeda  was  often 
selected  for  the  sarcophagi  and  mirrors  of  Etruscan  ladies  on  account 
of  its  relation  to  death  (typified  by  that  of  the  monster)  and  to  the 
liberation  of  youthful  beauty  (S.  Birch  in  Archceologia^  xxxvi.  53-7°> 
where  the  whole  subject  is  fully  discussed). 

Cases  55-60. — Greek  vases:  440-^330  B.C.  —  A  large 
number  of  small  vases  call  for  no  particular  remark ;  but 
we  may  notice  the  following  interesting  specimens  : — 

E  282  (amphora). — A  very  interesting  vase,  characteristic  in  its 
naivete  and  in  its  treatment  of  literary  subject.  Notice  how  clumsily 
the  feet  are  drawn  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  figures.  On  one  side 
are  Andromache  and  her  child,  on  the  other,  Hector.  Though  on 
opposite  sides,  the  figures  are  intended  to  form  one  group.  The 
husband  stands  quiet  and  self-contained  as  befits  a  hero.  The  lady 
raises  her  hand  for  a  farewell  greeting,  the  child  stretches  out  his  arms 
towards  his  father  in  eagerness.  According  to  the  intention  of  the 
painter  both  lady  and  child  are  greeting  the  warrior,  who,  being  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  amphora,  may  equally  well  be  considered  to  be  on 
the  right  or  on  the  left  of  the  pair.  This  device  is  very  naive,  for  it 
gives  the  appearance  of  the  wife  turning  away.  Is  it  an  ordinary  scene 
of  parting,  or  the  parting  of  Hector  and  Andromache?    The  whole 


XIX 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM 


39i 


language  of  Greek  vases,  says  Professor  Percy  Gardner,  depends  on  the 
answer.  The  truth  probably  lies  between  the  two  alternatives.  As 
an  illustration  of  the  Iliad  (vi.  467,  etc.) — one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  famous  passages  in  literature  —  the  painting  is  altogether  in- 
adequate ;  the  characteristic  points  are  not  caught.  But  the  vase- 
painters  seldom  set  themselves  to  illustrate  poems.  The  design  was 
there  before  the  meaning,  and  the  literary  allusion  was  an  adaptation. 
We  may  say,  therefore,  that  this  is  an  ordinary  scene,  but  that  the 
painter  had  the  Iliad  in  his  mind  (see  an  interesting  article  in  J.H.S.) 
ix.  p.  11  ;  on  the  general  subject  see  p.  378). 

E  159  (hydria). — This  vase  is  interesting  both  for  treatment  and 
subject.  The  drawing  is  good.  Notice,  for  instance,  how  carefully 
the  artist  has  drawn  the  hands  and  feet,  the  nails  being  faithfully 
rendered.  These  are  points  about  which  many  of  the  painters  were 
frankly  decorative  or  conventional.  The  brown  inner  markings  on 
this  vase  are  very  elaborate.  The  subject  seems  to  be  a  variation  on 
that  of  maidens  carrying  pitchers,  of  which  we  have  seen  so  many 
examples  among  the  black-figure  vases.  Three  athletes  are  carrying 
water  from  the  fountain  in  vases  like  the  one  before  us.  The  water 
runs  from  a  lion's  head  of  admirable  execution.  The  next  scene 
would  doubtless  be  the  bathing,  as  shown  on  the  kylix  E  83,  p.  384. 
The  dedication  name  on  the  vase — Megacles — is  interesting  in  con- 
nection with  the  dating  of  vases  (p.  360).  A  Megacles  is  known 
to  have  been  ostracised  in  487  B.C.  (the  actual  record  remains),  and 
on  a  vase  at  Athens  the  name  Megacles  has  been  erased  in  consequence 
and  another  substituted  {J.H.S.  xii.  366). 

E  316  (amphora). — The  drawing  here  is  fine,  and  the  attitude 
of  Athena  is  interesting.  The  goddess  of  wisdom  is  shown  in  a 
reflective  mood  :  her  elbow  resting  on  her  knee,  and  her  chin  on  the 
bent  fingers  of  her  hand. 

E  307  (amphora). — A  curious  little  Athenian  interior,  finely  drawn. 
A  woman  is  looking  at  a  monkey,  who  squats  facing  her  on  a  high 
cube  or  box — possibly  his  crib — and  tied  by  a  cord. 

Lastly,  a  red-figure  kekythos  from  Eretria  (acquired  in  1899)  is  of 
special  interest  in  connection  with  its  "/c<x\6s"  inscription.  A  young 
woman  is  hurrying  out  of  an  open  door.  "  There  is  no  indication  on 
the  vase  of  what  or  of  whom  she  is  in  pursuit,  but  the  outstretched 
hands  would  seem  to  imply  that  the  desired  object  is  not  far  distant. 
In  front  of  her,  and  almost  as  if  issuing  from  her  lips,  is  the  name 
Alcmseon,  and  below  this  the  word  /caXos.  She  is  probably  calling- 
out  £  Alcmseon,'  and  thus  the  vase  is  one  of  those  very  rare  instances 
where  the  subject  appears  to  have  a  direct  connection  with  the  name 
inscribed."  Possibly  the  picture  is  intended  to  show  us  a  girl  hurrying 
to  write  upon  the  wall  of  the  Ceramicus  the  name  of  a  lover  :  see  above, 
P-  359  (see  an  article  by  Isabella  A.  Dickson  in  J.H.S.  xix.  202). 
The  name  of  Alcmseon  has  historical  interest  as  that  of  the  son  of 
Megacles  (see  E  1 59  above) ;  the  family  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
at  Athens  (Herod,  vi.  125). 


392 


THE  THIRD  VASE  ROOM  chap,  xix 


Index  to  Vases  referred  to  in  this  Chapter 


No. 

Page 

No. 

Page 

No. 

Page 

D  I  . 

•  378 

73 

■  377 

424  • 

361 

2  . 

•  373 

82 

•  384 

437  • 

354 

4  • 

•  372 

83 

•  384 

440  ■ 

377 

5  • 

•  358 

84 

•  381 

453  • 

383 

6  . 

•  359 

86 

•  384 

455,  456  . 

383 

7  • 

•  358 

102 

•  384 

460  . 

379 

1 1  . 

•  372 

125 

•  384 

466  . 

379 

13  • 

•  387 

140 

•  365 

468  . 

378 

20  . 

•  372 

149 

•  389 

469  . 

381 

23  • 

•  387 

155 

•  376 

477  • 

384 

24  . 

•  372 

159 

39i 

494  • 

389 

29  . 

•  387 

169 

•  39o 

539  • 

387 

47  • 

•  369 

171, 

172 

.  386 

549  • 

38s 

48-50 

•  37i 

179 

•  389 

57i  • 

356 

5i  • 

•  37i 

180 

•  389 

589  ■ 

383 

53  • 

•  369 

i8i, 

182 

•  388 

600  . 

383 

54  • 

•  369 

183 

■  389 

606  . 

383 

56  • 

•  369 

185 

•  388 

642  . 

383 

58,  59 

•  37o 

188, 

189 

•  387 

695  • 

385 

60  . 

•  372 

204, 

205 

•  383 

697  • 

378 

61  . 

•  37o 

208 

•  383 

705  . 

38s 

62  . 

.  368 

228 

•  386 

711  . 

386 

70  . 

.  37o 

230 

.  386 

721    .  . 

38s 

7i  • 

•  367 

268 

•  360 

768  . 

364 

76  . 

•  369 

270 

•  379 

77i  • 

388 

77,  78 

•  369 

271 

.  388 

773  • 

378 

E  2  . 

•  353 

282 

•  390 

774  • 

378 

3  • 

•  353 

284 

•  366 

775  • 

378 

4  • 

•  353 

289 

•  356 

786  . 

382 

9  • 

•  354 

290 

•  356 

788  . 

357 

1 1 

•  354 

293 

■  356 

796  . 

387 

12  . 

•  354 

296 

•  377 

799  • 

387 

38  • 

■  356 

299 

•  383 

804  . 

355 

41  . 

■  363 

301 

•  381 

813,814  . 

388 

44  • 

•  363 

307 

•  39i 

G23  . 

385 

46  . 

•  359 

3i5 

•  380 

26  . 

385 

49  • 

•  363 

316 

•  39i 

61  . 

•  365 

324 

•  383 

Also  vases  unnum- 

63 • 

•  380 

382 

•  389 

bered  at  pp.  366,  368, 

65  • 

•  365 

389 

•  383 

37o,  375,  38i, 

383, 

68  . 

•  365 

39o 

■  388 

386,  388,  391. 

70  ; 

365 

410 

■  388 

CHAPTER  XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 
(Vases  of  the  Decadence :  ^tk-^rd  cent.  B.C.) 

' '  The  multitude  of  figures  introduced,  the  complexity  of  the  composition, 
the  inferiority  and  carelessness  of  the  design,  the  flourish  and  lavish- 
ment  of  decoration — in  a  word,  the  absence  of  that  chasteness  and 
purity  which  gave  the  perfect  style  its  chief  charm,  indicate  these 
vases  to  belong,  if  not  always  to  the  period  of  decadence,  at  least 
to  the  verge  of  it." — Westropp. 

In  this  room  are  arranged  the  later  examples  of  Greek  vases 
in  the  red-figure  style.  Perhaps  the  best  way  to  form  a  clear 
idea  of  the  difference  between  the  later  and  the  earlier  red-figure 
vases  is  to  compare  a  conspicuous  specimen  of  each  period. 
Let  us  look,  for  instance,  in  the  Third  Room  at  the  "  Meidias 
Vase  "  on  Pedestal  IV.  This  is  itself,  as  we  have  seen,  a  some- 
what florid  example  of  the  best  period.  But  the  visitor  will  feel 
at  once  how  greatly  it  differs  from  such  a  vase  as  that  on 
Pedestal  XII.  in  this  room  (F  278).  At  a  first  glance  the  vase 
here  may  seem  the  more  effective  ;  but  if  we  examine  the  two 
vases  more  closely,  we  shall  speedily  observe  that  the  work  on 
the  earlier  one  is  far  more  delicate  and  refined.  This,  then, 
is  the  first  characteristic  of  the  later  vases.  The  chief  thing 
now  aimed  at.  by  the  potters  and  painters  was  splendour  and 
general  effect,  rather  than  intrinsic  beauty.  First,  therefore, 
the  later  vases  are  larger.  Payne  Knight,  one  of  the  con- 
noisseurs to  whose  taste  the  British  Museum  owes  many  of  its 
best  antiques,  had  a  theory  that  beauty  and  magnitude  could 
not  exist  together  in  works  of  art.  That  is  an  exaggeration, 
but  it  is,  as  Ruskin  says,  one  of  the  primal  merits  and  decencies 
of  Greek  work,  in  all  the  arts,  that  it  was  on  the  whole  singularly 
small  in  scale.  The  vase-painters  of  the  decadence  increased 
the  size  of  the  vases,  but  sacrificed,  as  we  shall  see,  much  beauty 

393 


394 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


in  doing  so.  Secondly,  in  order  to  increase  the  general  effect 
colouring  was  much  more  freely  introduced.  We  have  seen  in 
the  last  room  how  beautifully,  and  yet  sparingly,  white  and  gold 
were  used  (Pedestal  III.,  E  424).  In  the  vases  of  the  later 
period  large  masses  of  white  are  introduced,  and  yellow  is 
copiously  used  for  enhancing  details.  Simplicity  and  refinement 
give  way  to  exaggeration  and  showiness.  Next,  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  whole  vase  is  covered  either  with  figures  or  ornaments. 
The  neck  and  the  handles  are  decorated,  and  floral  ornaments 
fill  all  the  unoccupied  spaces.  This  is  very  characteristic  of 
the  later  vases.  We  have  seen  how  in  the  archaic  vases  (Ch. 
xvii.),  as  indeed  in  most  early  expressions  of  art,  there  was  a 
horror  of  vacant  spaces.  Rosettes  and  other  floral  ornaments 
were  scattered  about,  always  in  an  unmeaning,  and  often  in  an 
incongruous  fashion.  Then  the  painters  learnt  the  secret  of 
selecting  appropriate  subjects,  and  of  so  designing  them  as, 
with  suitable  ornamentation,  to  cover  adequately  the  surface  of 
the  vase.  Now  we  find  the  old  fashion  returning,  and  ornaments 
strewn  about  for  the  mere  sake  of  filling  space.  In  the  case  of 
the  best  vases  of  the  late  period,  such  as  the  one  before  us 
(F  278),  the  general  effect  is  undeniably  fine.  The  vase  is  a 
blaze  of  decoration  from  head  to  foot,  and  there  is  some  grace 
in  the  forms.  But  even  on  the  best  of  these  vases  the  drawing 
is  very  inferior  in  refinement  and  delicacy  to  the  earlier  work. 

In  some  respects,  however,  it  should  be  noted  that  there  is  an 
advance  in  technical  skill.  The  figures  are  drawn  in  front  or 
three-quarters,  instead  of  only  in  profile;  effects  of  perspective  are 
sometimes  introduced  (F  352,  p.  41 2)  ;  and  there  are  attempts  at 
shading  (F  542,  p.  415).  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  old 
' <  shorthand  "  conventions  are  continued.  Landscape  is  repre- 
sented by  rocks  or  trees.  A  woman's  apartment  is  indicated  by 
a  door-sash,  a  gymnasium  by  a  pair  of  dumb-bells.  On  some 
of  the  vases  the  influence  of  painting  is  clearly  marked  ;  in 
some,  as  we  shall  see,  the  decorator  seems  to  have  imitated 
well-known  pictures  of  the  time  (e.g.  F  479,  p.  417).  Even, 
however,  in  the  better  vases  of  the  late  period  the  drawing 
is  careless.  In  the  poorer  specimens  it  is  coarse  in  the 
extreme,  and  the  latest  of  the  painted  vases  are  devoid  of  any 
artistic  merit  whatever.  "  The  extreme  degradation  to  which 
vase-painting  of  this  period  fell,  seems  to  be  due,  not  so  much 
to  the  general  decay  of  the  arts  among  the  Greeks,  as  to  the 
fact  that  the  vases  were  no  longer  made  by  able  artists,  but 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


395 


were  turned  out  in  large  quantities  from  the  hands  of  an  un- 
educated class  of  artisans.  This  was  probably  partly  owing  to 
increasing  wealth  and  love  of  display,  which  created  a  demand 
for  gold  and  silver  plate,  rather  than  for  the  cheaper  but  more 
artistic  beauty  of  painted  clay." 

To  these  remarks  on  the  artistic  characteristics  of  the  vases  of 
the  decadence,  a  few  notes  may  be  added  on  their  history  and, 
incidentally,  on  the  subjects  represented  upon  them.  It  will 
be  observed  that  nearly  all  the  vases  in  this  room  came  from 
South  Italy.  During  the  period  when  they  were  produced 
(400-200  B.C.),  the  political  power  of  Athens  was  at  an  end, 
but  Greek  culture  had  spread  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
Greece.  Vase-painting  seems  to  have  more  particularly  found 
a  home  in  the  Greek  colonies  in  Italy.  Some  of  these  cities, 
such  as  Tarentum — the  "  gay  Tarentum  "  of  Macaulay's  Lay 
■ — surpassed  the  Greek  cities  themselves  in  luxury  and  splen- 
dour. Many  of  the  vases  here  collected  were  produced  for 
purposes  of  display  in  funeral  rites,  and  the  splendour  of  such 
funeral  appurtenances  may  give  us  an  idea  of  the  magnificence 
and  luxury  in  which  the  people  lived.  It  is  this  gay  and  luxurious 
life  which  is  for  the  most  part  reflected  on  the  vases.  The 
myths  of  Olympus  and  the  legends  of  the  Greek  heroes  have 
to  a  great  extent  disappeared.  The  more  distinctively  Attic 
subjects,  such  as  the  birth  of  Athena  and  the  exploits  of 
Theseus,  which  meet  us  at  every  turn  in  the  second  and  third 
vase  rooms,  will  not  be  found  in  this  Italian  room.  Toilet 
scenes  and  genre  motives  are  now  the  prevailing  subjects,  and 
over  all  is  the  presence  of  Eros,  the  god  of  love.  Sometimes 
scenes  of  courtship  may  be  intended,  but  more  often  the 
drawings  are  mere  fancy  pictures,  like  the  Dresden  shep- 
herdesses of  a  later  age.  On  another  large  class  of  vases  the 
subjects  are  directly  connected  with  funeral  rites.  Where  myths 
are  used  as  the  subject  for  decoration,  they  are  frequently 
taken  from  plays  of  Euripides  ;  subjects  demanding  violent 
and  emotional  scenes  are  specially  in  favour.  Some  of  the 
vases  have  subjects  taken  from  the  comic  stage.  The  farces 
— scenes  from  which  appear  on  some  of  the  vases  here — were 
very  popular  in  South  Italy.  It  was  during  the  performance 
of  one  of  them  in  Tarentum  that  the  Greeks  saw  the  Roman 
fleet  entering  the  harbour,  302  B.C. 

The  classification  of  the  vases  in  this  room  is  explained  on 
the  printed  labels  to  the  various  cases.     Five  main  divisions 


396 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


may  be  noted  :  (i)  Athenian  vases,  numbered  F  1-148.  These 
mark  the  transition  from  the  Greek  to  the  Italian  style.  (2) 
Lucanian,  F  157-187.  These  come  from  the  southernmost 
province  of  Italy,  now  the  Basilicata.  These  are  less  florid 
than  some  others,  and  accessory  colours  are  rare.  The  designs 
are  severe,  and  the  heads  are  often  very  ugly,  with  great 
staring  eyes.  (3)  Campanian,  F  188-268,  from  Capua,  Nola, 
etc.  These  vases  are  generally  smaller  than  those  in  the  next 
class,  which  they  otherwise  resemble.  (4)  Apulian,  F  269- 
477.  This,  the  largest  class,  includes  the  larger  and  more 
gaudy  specimens  already  discussed.  (5)  Etruscan,  F  478-505, 
very  rude.  A  distinct  class  of  vases  are  the  Panathenaic 
amphorae  ;  this  class  is  discussed  lower  down  (p.  398). 


We  now  proceed  to  examine  the  vases  in  detail.  Although 
as  a  whole  the  vases  of  the  decadence  are  less  attractive  than 
those  in  the  Third  Vase  Room,  yet  the  collection  here  includes 
some  works  of  rare  beauty,  and  many,  as  we  shall  find,  which 
are  of  great  interest  from  various  points  of  view. 

Case  A. — Greek  vases  from  South  Italy:  chiefly  of 
Athenian  fabric,  fourth  century. — Of  these  late  Athenian 
vases  F  1  is  a  characteristic  specimen  ;  on  one  side  Dionysus 
and  Ariadne  :  on  the  other,  fair  revellers.  This  case  also 
includes  an  interesting  vase  (acquired  in  1900),  a  crater  of  the 
best  Greek  period  (end  of  fifth  century  B.C.).  On  one  side  is 
a  representation  of  a  boxing-match,  with  a  judge  interrupting 
with  his  rod — a  necessary  intervention  sometimes,  for  prize- 
fights in  the  ancient  world  were  often  as  merciless  as  those 
of  later  days.  A  figure  of  Victory  stands  by  with  a  wreath  ; 
on  a  pillar  are  placed  an  oil-flask  and  cushion. 

Pedestal  I. — Panathenaic  Vase  (B  608) 

This  vase  (found  at  Cervetri)  is  one  of  the  series  of  dated 
Panathenaic  amphorae  already  referred  to  (p.  331).  On  these 
later  vases  the  figure  of  Athena,  on  one  side,  was  always 
treated  in  the  old  conventional  style — the  artist  finding  scope 
for  his  free  drawing  in  the  contest  represented  on  the  other 
side.  Athena  here  stands  between  two  columns.  On  the 
column  behind  the  goddess  is  a  little  figure  of  Triptolemus  in 
his  winged  car  (p.  365).    This  column  is  inscribed  in  Greek, 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


397 


"  One  of  the  prizes  from  Athens."  Down  the  other  column  is 
inscribed  the  name  of  Pythodelos,  the  archon.  This  fixes  the 
date  of  the  prize  vase  as  336  B.C.  On  the  other  side  is  a  foot- 
race of  armed  warriors. 

Pedestal  II. — Panathenaic  Vase  (B  607) 

This  vase  was  found  with  the  preceding  at  Cervetri,  and  is 
similarly  described.  The  contest  shown  on  the  reverse  is 
different,  being  a  boxing  match.  In  the  same  case  is  a  frag- 
ment of  a  similar  vase.  This  was  found  at  Paphos  in  Cyprus, 
1888. 

Pedestal  III. — The  Pandora  Vase  (E  467) 

On  this  fine  crater — belonging  to  a  late  period  of  the  art — 
the  principal  design  represents  the  Creation  of  Pandora,  a 
subject  we  have  already  discussed  (see  p.  372).  Below  this 
design  is  a  chorus  of  comic  actors  dancing  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  a  flute-player.  The  actors  are  dressed  in  the  char- 
acteristic make-up  of  satyrs.  On  the  other  side  of  the  vase 
there  is  a  graceful  pantomimic  dance  of  six  girls,  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  a  flute-player  and  in  the  presence  of  a  conductor. 
This  design  recalls  the  dancing  girls  on  the  "  Knucklebone 
Vase"  (p.  355):  note  especially  the  girl  on  the  extreme  left 
here,  who  raises  both  arms  with  the  action  of  flying.  Below 
is  a  very  curious  scene — a  game  of  satyrs.  Two  are  riding 
on  the  shoulders  of  two  others.  A  mermaid  and  a  boy-satyr, 
who  has  been  trundling  his  hoop,  are  watching  the  games. 
An  older  satyr  holds  out  a  ball,  and  the  mounted  satyrs  appear 
to  be  holding  out  hands  to  catch  it.  There  is  a  representation 
of  a  similar  game  on  a  black-figure  vase,  which  we  have 
already  noticed  (B  182,  p.  327).  A  player  who  failed  to  catch 
the  ball  was  obliged  to  carry  one  who  succeeded.  (For  a 
picture  of  this  mounted  game  of  ball  as  played  by  Egyptian 
women,  see  Wilkinson's  Egyptians,  ii.  65  ;  see  also  J.H.S. 
xi.  278.) 

Pedestal  IV. — The  Iphigenia  Vase  (F  159) 

This  crater  is  a  fine  example  of  the  Lucanian  style,  and  is 
celebrated  as  one  of  the  vases  in  which,  some  reminiscence 


398 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM  chap. 


of  a  celebrated  picture  may  be  detected.  The  sacrifice  of 
Iphigenia  here  depicted  was  the  subject  of  a  picture  by 
Timanthes,  which  was  much  admired  by  ancient  writers  for  its 
masterly  gradations  in  the  expression  of  sorrow  up  to  Agamem- 
non, whose  overmastering  grief  of  a  father  was  expressed  by 
his  covering  his  face  and  turning  it  away  from  the  spectator. 
Subtleties  of  expression  are  not  to  be  looked  for  in  vase- 
paintings,  but  in  other  respects  the  design  here  may  be  a 
reminiscence  of  the  picture  by  Timanthes. 

Agamemnon,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  made  a  vow,  in  the  year 
in  which  Iphigenia  was  born  to  him,  that  he  would  sacrifice  to  the 
gods  the  most  beautiful  being  that  year  might  produce,  if  they  would 
send  a  favourable  wind  for  the  Grecian  fleet.  The  wind  was  sent,  and 
afterwards,  when  Iphigenia  was  grown  to  womanhood,  her  father  was 
reminded  by  the  priest  Calchas  of  his  vow.  But  as  Iphigenia  was  led 
to  the  altar,  the  goddess  Artemis  substituted  a  hind  and  carried  off 
the  maiden  in  a  cloud. 

This  story  is  here  very  poetically  conceived.  Iphigenia  is 
standing  at  the  altar  ready  for  the  sacrifice,  but  at  her  farther 
side  is  a  deer  on  its  hind  legs,  so  as  to  be  almost  concealed 
from  our  view  by  the  figure  of  Iphigenia.  She  in  fact  is 
represented  as  coalescing  with  the  deer,  her  form  about  to 
vanish  into  its  form  (Murray's  Archceology,  p.  390).  Behind 
her  on  a  higher  level  is  Artemis.  On  the  reverse  of  the  vase 
is  a  group  of  young  men  and  girls.  It  is  characteristic  of  the 
vases  of  this  period  that  one  side  is  more  elaborately  decorated 
than  the  other.  Another  peculiarity  is  the  medallion  handles, 
terminating  in  swans'  heads  below,  and  in  heads  of  the  Gorgon 
above. 

Case  B. — On  the  top  of  this  case  are  three  more  Panathenaic 
Vases.  Two  of  them  are  among  the  find  made  by  Mr.  Dennis 
at  Teucheira  in  the  Cyrenaica  ;  others  from  the  same  find  are 
on  Pedestal  6  and  Case  E.  Mr.  Dennis  had  carried  out  some 
excavations  in  1866  which  had  yielded  little  result,  as  most  of 
the  tombs  had  been  rifled  in  previous  ages.  On  leaving  the 
spot  he  encouraged  the  Arabs  to  dig  on  their  own  account : — 

"Shortly  after  my  return  to  Benghazi  they  sent  me  word  that  they 
had  found  some  vases  of  large  size,  and  requested  me  to  come  back 
and  purchase  them.  I  started  at  daybreak  on  Christmas  Eve,  and 
toiling  all  day  through  heavy  sands  or  heavier  swamps,  and  under 
weeping  skies,  reached  Teucheira  at  midnight,  when,  wet,  weary,  and 
supperless,  I  threw  myself  on  the  rocky  floor  of  a  cavern  by  the  side 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


399 


of  my  mare.  On  waking  the  next  morning  a  curious  sight  met  my 
eyes.  The  ground  in  front  of  my  cave  was  strewed  with  Greek  pottery, 
chiefly  plain,  black  ware,  among  which  stood  conspicuous  several  tall 
painted  amphoras,  with  smaller  figured  vases  of  other  forms  around 
them  ;  while  the  Arabs  who  had  discovered  them  were  squatting 
amid  their  treasures,  waiting  patiently  for  me  to  show  myself"  {Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  of  Liter ature,  2nd  series,  ix.  157). 

These  Panathenaic  vases  were  found  just  outside  the  wall 
of  the  ancient  city,  in  a  spot  sacred  to  the  illustrious  dead  who 
had  won  honour  for  their  native  place  at  the  games — a  kind  of 
Heroes'  Corner.  The  vases,  as  already  explained,  are  pseudo- 
archaic.  The  black  figures  and  affected  quaintness  imitate  the 
art  of  two  centuries  earlier,  which  appears  to  have  been 
retained  conventionally  in  the  case  of  Panathenaic  vases,  just 
as  the  archaic  head  of  Athena  was  preserved  on  coins  till  a 
very  late  period.  But  the  groups  on  the  reverse  side  of  the 
vases,  and  sometimes  the  decoration  of  the  columns  between 
which  the  goddess  stands,  show  the  freedom  of  the  period  to 
which  the  vase  really  belongs. 

Many  of  the  Panathenaic  vases  in  European  museums 
come,  like  those  here  shown,  from  the  Cyrenaica.  This  is 
natural,  for  Cyrene  is  celebrated  by  Pindar  as  a  city  "  both 
excellent  in  beauty  and  glorious  in  the  games."  It  was 
especially  famous  for  its  horses  and  chariots,  for  which  most  of 
the  prizes  were  won.  it  was  from  the  Libyans  that  the  Greeks 
derived  the  use  of  the  four-horsed  chariot  (Herod,  iv.  189), 
and  a  quadriga  was  a  favourite  device  on  coins  of  Cyrene — as 
on  one  obtained  by  Mr.  Dennis  for  the  Museum  (iii.  c.  43). 
The  Panathenaic  vases  immediately  before  us  are  : — 

B  611. — "One  of  the  Athenian  prizes,"  in  the  archonship  of 
Euthycritos  (328  B.C.),  given  for  a  victory  in  afoot-race;  the  runners 
have  their  left  hands  extended  in  front,  their  right  hands  behind.  The 
figure  of  Athena  is  somewhat  more  elegant  and  correctly  drawn  than  is 
usual.  Instead  of  the  concealment  of  the  form,  which  in  other  instances 
is  probably  a  mode  of  expressing  archaism,  there  appears  to  be  an 
effort  to  display  the  limbs.  The  present  vase,  when  found  by  Mr. 
Dennis  in  a  tomb,  was  crushed  into  120  fragments,  but  has  been  skilfully 
restored  to  its  present  condition. 

B  603. — This  is  another  of  the  vases  found  by  Mr.  Dennis,  and  is 
the  earliest  of  those  that  are  dated.  It  was  an  Athenian  prize  in  the 
archonship  of  Polyzelos  (B.C.  367)  ;  the  contest  is  here  wrestling.  On 
the  other  side  the  goddess  advances  as  usual  to  strike  her  foes  with 
uplifted  lance.     The  eye,  to  be  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  general 


400 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


archaism  affected  in  the  figure,  should  be  shown  in  full  face  ;  yet  it  is 
here  drawn  correctly  in  profile.  On  the  columns  between  which  the 
goddess  stands  is  Triptolemus  in  his  winged  car. 

B  609. — This  vase  was  found  at  Benghazi  in  1856,  on  the  coast  of 
the  Cyrenaica.  It  is  an  Athenian  prize  for  a  foot-race,  in  the  archon- 
ship  of  Nikokrates  (333  B.C.).  On  the  columns,  as  in  B  611,  are 
figures  of  the  goddess  herself.  The  shape  of  this  vase  is  peculiar.  It 
is  less  full  in  the  body,  and  must  have  been,  therefore,  a  less  valuable 
prize,  as  holding  less  oil. 

Below  these  Panathenaic  vases  is  a  collection  of  rhytons,  or  drink- 
ing-cups,  moulded  in  the  shape  of  animals'  heads,  made  in  Apulia, 
3rd  century.  Among  the  animals  are  the  ram  (427),  the  wolf  (418), 
the  cow  (424),  the  bull  (422),  the  bear  (419),  the  dog  (432),  the  sheep 
(428),  the  lion  (435),  the  boar  (430),  the  horse  (421),  the  gazelle 
(420),  the  pigeon  (G  175),  and  the  mythical  gryphon  (433,  434). 
Among  other  quaint  fancies  are  a  seated  Silenus  (G  176),  and  a 
Persian  squatting  (G  174). 

On  the  painted  vases  among  this  collection  the  favourite 
design  is  an  Eros,  or  cupid.  It  is  noticeable  in  the  vases 
of  the  decadence  as  a  whole  how  universally  the  god  of  love 
appears.  No  subject,  whether  it  be  mythological,  Dionysiac, 
or  genre,  is  complete  without  him.  In  the  small  vases  here 
collected  he  is  the  sole  subject ;  the  type  is  androgynous.  He 
is  a  boy,  but  he  wears  his  hair  in  a  bunch,  ear-rings,  necklace, 
bracelets,  and  beads  {e.g.  427)  ;  and  he  carries  a  fan  (e.g. 
426,  434).  Lastly,  we  may  notice  in  this  case  a  tiny  vase, 
made  in  imitation  of  a  Panathenaic  amphora  ;  this  was  found 
in  Eretria. 

Pedestal  V. — Panathenaic  Vase  (B  610) 

This  vase,  found  at  Capua,  is  another  Athenian  prize,  in 
the  archonship  of  Niketes  (332  B.C.).  The  prows  of  ships  on 
which  the  figure  of  Victory  stands  (on  the  columns)  may  refer 
to  some  naval  victory  in  that  year.  The  drawing  here  is  in  a 
free  style  with  few  archaisms.  The  subject  on  the  reverse  is 
the  pancration  (wrestling  and  boxing). 

Pedestal  VI. — Panathenaic  Vase  (B  612) 

One  of  Mr.  Dennis's  finds  :  not  dated.  On  the  columns 
are  rams — emblems,  perhaps,  of  the  obstinate  pugnacity 
requisite  to  ensure  success  in  the  sports.    The  contest  here 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


401 


is  boxing.  Each  combatant  holds  the  left  hand  open,  crossing 
his  arm  with  that  of  his  opponent ;  the  right  hand,  which  is 
kept  by  his  side,  has  the  fist  closed  : — 

' '  The  attitudes  are  bold  and  defiant.  The  design  shows  consider^ 
able  mastery ;  the  anatomical  details  are  scratched  in  with  a  free  hand. 
The  black  in  these  figures  and  elsewhere  on  the  vase  is  brown,  more 
or  less  verging  to  red.  The  field  of  the  vase  being  unusually  red,  as 
though  it  had  been  subjected  to  great  heat,  it  is  probable  that  the 
brownness  arises  from  the  deficiency  of  colouring  matter,  and  that  the 
potter  endeavoured  to  remedy  the  paleness  by  baking  the  vase  longer 
than  usual"  (Dennis,  as  quoted  above,  p.  169). 


Pedestal  VII.— The  Europa  Vase  (F  184) 

On  this  fine  amphora,  in  the  Lucanian  style,  is  a  subject 
which  has  attracted  artists  in  all  ages — the  rape  of  Europa ; — 

Zeus — so  the  story  ran-^enamoured  of  Europa,  a.  Phoenician 
princess,  transformed  himself  into  a  white  bull,  and  mingled  with  her 
father's  herd,  whilst  she  was  gathering  flowers  in  the  meadows.  Struck 
by  the  beauty  and  gentleness  of  the  beast,  she  caressed  him  and 
mounted  on  his  back.  Thus  did  Zeus  cross  the  sea  and  carry  her  in 
safety  to  Crete  to  be  his  bride. 

Here  we  see  Europa  riding  the  bull  across  the  sea.  Her 
mantle,  as  Tennyson  describes,  is  afrom  off  her  shoulder 
backwards  borne,"  while  one  hand  grasps  "the  mild  bull's 
golden  horn."  The  god  of  love  hovers  above.  To  the  left, 
on  the  sea-shore,  is  Zeus  himself,  who  there  appears  alike  as 
spectator  and  in  his  transformation  as  actor  (so  described  in 
Duruy's  Histoire  des  Grecs,  i.  218,  where  the  vase  is  figured  ; 
but  see  the  passage  next  quoted).  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the 
variety  of  expedients  whereby  the  sea  is  represented.  "  First, 
the  swimming  action  of  the  bull  suggests  the  idea  of  the  liquid 
medium  through  which  he  moves.  Behind  him  stands  Nereus, 
his  staff  held  perpendicularly  in  his  hand  ;  the  top  of  his  staff 
comes  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  bull's  back,  and  is  probably 
meant  as  the  measure  of  the  whole  depth  of  the  sea.  Towards 
the  surface  line  thus  indicated  a  dolphin  is  rising  ;  in  the 
middle  depth  is  another  dolphin  ;  below  a  shrimp  (?  lobster) 
and  a  cuttle-fish,  and  the  bottom  is  indicated  by  a  jagged  line 
of  rocks  on  which  are  two  echini  "  (Newton  in  Stones  of  Venice^ 
vol.  i.  app.  21). 

2  D 


402 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Pedestal  VIII. — The  Persephone  Vase  (F  277) 

Here  we  have  an  earlier  episode  in  the  beautiful  myth  of 
Persephone,  of  which  the  later  stages  came  before  us  in  the 
rooms  of  Greek  sculpture.  Pluto  is  driving  his  chariot  at  full 
speed  ;  he  turns  to  look  at  Persephone,  who  is  at  his  side,  and 
draws  her  mantle  over  her  face  as  a  veil.  Hermes,  the  divine 
messenger,  runs  beside  the  chariot.  '  In  front  is  Hecate,  holding 
out  a  flaming  torch.  White  dots  indicate  the  ground.  On  the 
neck  of  the  vase  is  a  head  of  Aura,  the  nymph  of  the  breeze, 
resting  on  the  calyx  of  a  flower  from  which  luxuriant  tendrils 
and  blossoms  branch  out  on  either  side.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  vase  is  a  combat  with  centaurs.  This  crater  in  the  Apulian 
style  comes  from  Naples. 

Case  C. — Vases  of  Etruscan  make,  painted  in  imitation 
of  Greek  vases  :  third  century. — The  coarse  style  of  these 
Etruscan  imitations  is  unmistakable.  The  black  glaze  is  im- 
perfect ;  the  clay,  a  dull  yellow  ;  the  style,  dry  and  lifeless  ; 
and  the  drawing,  helpless.  The  whole  has  the  repulsive 
and  disagreeable  effect  which  is  often  conveyed  by  Etruscan 
art  {Catalogue  of  Vases,  vol.  iv.).  The  first  vase  (F  480)  is 
typical.  The  subject  is  the  suicide  of  Ajax  ;  it  is  treated  with 
ludicrous  thoroughness.  The  hero  has  fallen  on  his  sword, 
which  comes  out  through  his  body.  It  is  the  sort  of  suicide 
one  sees  in  a  pantomime.  The  vase  at  the  other  end  of  the 
case  (F  490)  is  comically  childish  in  the  drawing  ;  perhaps  it 
was  the  work  of  a  barbarian  potter. 

Case  D. — Vases  made  in  Lucania  and  Campania  in  imi- 
tation of  Greek  vases  of  the  best  period :  fourth  century. 

—The  vases  on  the  upper  shelf,  from  Campania,  with  twisted 
handles,  are  copies  of  Nolan  amphorae.  Those  below  are 
Lucanian.  Notice  in  F  179  the  mask  hanging  from  the  vine. 
This  was  a  custom  of  rural  life,  as  we  know  from  Virgil. 
Some  of  the  masks  used  for  this  purpose  are  exhibited  in  the 
Graeco-Roman  basement  (p.  81). 

Pedestal  IX.— A  Funeral  Vase  (F  284) 

This  large  crater,  with  medallion  handles,  is  in  the  gaudy 
Apulian  style,  and,  like  so  many  of  the  Apulian  vases,  is  of  a 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


403 


sepulchral  character.  The  type  is  frequently  found  —  the 
subject  being  a  Hereon,  or  shrine  devoted  to  the  worship 
of  an  ancestor  or  a  family.  In  the  entrance  a  young  man 
stands  by  the  side  of  his  horse  which  paws  the  ground.  The 
shrine  is  painted  white  to  represent  marble,  and  the  young 
man  with  the  horse  is  white  also — an  intimation  that  the 
painter  intends  to  represent  a  statue.  A  horse  is  often  intro- 
duced, as  we  have  seen,  on  sepulchral  reliefs,  to  mark  the 
pursuits  or  standing  of  the  deceased.  On  either  side  of  the 
shrine  are  figures  with  offerings  and  libations.  Presumably, 
therefore,  designs  such  as  the  one  before  us  represent  the 
worship  of  the  dead.  On  the  reverse  of  this  vase  are  offerings 
at  a  tomb. 

Pedestal  X.— The  Hippolytus  Vase  (F  279) 

This  vase  is  of  interest  as  the  only  painting  which  has  come 
down  to  us  of  the  story  of  Hippolytus — a  story  which  is  familiar 
to  every  one,  if  not  from  the  Hippolytus  of  Euripides,  at  least 
from  the  Phedre  of  Racine,  and  of  which  (says  Pausanias) 
"  even  a  barbarian  has  heard  if  he  knows  Greek  "  : — 

Hippolytus,  son  of  Theseus  by  Hippolyte  the  Amazon  queen,  was 
devoted  to  the  chaste  service  of  the  huntress  Artemis  : — 

My  hands  are  holy  ;  therefore,  O  my  Queen, 
Accept  this  chaplet  for  thy  golden  hair. 
Thou  my  companion  art  ;  I  talk  with  thee 
And  hear  thy  voice,  though  seeing  not  thy  face. 

Hippolytus,  in  his  icy  purity,  worshipped  not  at  the  shrine  of  Aphrodite, 
but  Phaedra,  wife  of  Theseus,  conceived  a  passion  for  her  step-son. 
When  her  offers  were  rejected  she  falsely  accused  him  of  unlawful 
passion  for  her.  Unable  to  convince  his  father  of  his  innocence 
Hippolytus  was  banished  from  Athens.  As  he  passed  in  his  chariot 
along  the  sea-coast,  a  huge  bull  sent  out  of  the  sea  by  Poseidon  so 
terrified  the  horses  that  they  overturned  the  chariot  and  Hippolytus 
was  killed. 

Here  we  see  Hippolytus  driving  at  full  speed  two  white  and 
two  yellow  horses.  They  have  not  yet  entirely  broken  from 
control,  but  the  bull  is  already  rising  from  the  sea,  while  at  the 
horses5  heads  a  Fury  with  flaming  torch  goads  them  to  madness. 
The  aged  tutor  stretches  out  his  arm  to  warn  Hippolytus  of  the 
impending  calamity.  Above  are  ranged  a  group  of  the  deities 
to  whom  Euripides  makes  Hippolytus  appeal  when  compelled 
to  leave  his  father's  city — Pan,  Apollo,  Athena,  Aphrodite  (with 


404 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Eros),  and  Poseidon.  But  the  gods  are  neither  pleased  nor 
moved  ;  they  are  "  careless  of  mankind.'5  It  is  possible  that 
this  design  may  be  a  reminiscence  of  a  picture  by  Antiphilus, 
which  is  described  by  Pliny  {Nat.  Hist.  xxxv.  114).  On  the 
reverse  of  the  vase,  offerings  at  a  shrine.  On  the  neck  a 
female  head  on  a  large  purple  flower,  which  spreads  out  into 
tendrils  and  blossoms  on  either  side.  This  form  of  decoration 
is  characteristic  of  the  Apulian  vases.  The  vase  rests  on  a 
bronze  stand. 


Pedestal  XI. — The  Lycurgus  Vase  (F  271) 

The  principal  subject  on  this  Apulian  crater  is  the  madness 
of  Lycurgus  : — 

Lycurgus  was  a  king  of  Thrace  who  persecuted  the  worshippers  of 
Dionysus  ;  for  which  impiety  the  king  was  stricken  with  madness, 
and  when  he  would  have  cut  down  a  vine-tree,  he  slew  his  own  wife 
and  sons. 

Here  Lycurgus,  represented  with  shaggy  hair  and  beard, 
brandishes  a  double-edged  axe  to  slay  his  wife.  To  the  left  a 
young  man  and  the  old  tutor  are  in  attitudes  of  remonstrance 
and  despair.  To  the  right  a  man  and  a  woman  in  Thracian 
costume  are  bearing  off  one  of  the  mad  king's  sons  ;  his  head 
has  fallen  back,  his  arm  hangs  down,  and  blood  flows  from  a 
wound  in  his  breast.  Above  is  an  altar  on  which  a  sacrifice 
is  burning,  and  various  gods  are  looking  on.  To  the  left  one 
of  the  Furies,  with  snakes  coiled  round  her  arms,  is  flying 
downwards.  Though  the  theme  is  tragic,  there  is  an  element, 
conscious  or  otherwise,  of  comedy.  The  aspect  of  Lycurgus 
and  several  other  of  the  characters  is  decidedly  quaint.  Dr. 
Murray  sees  in  Italian  vases  of  this  kind  the  influence  of  the 
stage  of  the  time  (there  was  a  play  on  the  subject  of  Lycurgus)  : 
they  "  reflect  an  honest  and  infatuated  effort  to  revive  the  old 
tragedies"  (/.U.S.  xi.  228).  On  the  reverse  of  this  vase  is 
the  story  of  Pelops  and  Myrtilus.  This  subject  is  described 
later  on  (p.  416). 

Case  E. — On  the  top  of  this  case  are  three  more  of  the 
Panathenaic  Vases,  brought  by  Mr.  Dennis  from  the 
Cyrenaica  : — 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


B  605. — This  vase  is  of  special  interest  for  the  blazon  on  the  shield 
of  Athena,  representing  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.  The  two  patriots 
are  shown  with  drawn  weapons  rushing  to  attack  the  tyrant  Hipparchus. 
The  conspirators  chose  the  Panathenaic  festival  for  their  daring  deed  ; 
so  this  device  is  particularly  appropriate  on  a  Panathenaic  vase.  The 
design  is  one  of  several  known  copies  of  the  famous  sculptured  group 
at  Athens,  by  Critius  and  Nesiotes.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
drawing  is  free  and  spirited — as  also  is  that  of  the  two  athletes  on  the 
other  side  of  the  vase.  But  the  figure  of  Athena  is  as  usual  quaint  and 
archaic.  The  head  is  most  disproportionately  small,  and  the  skirt  is 
unbroken  by  a  single  fold :  it  stands  out  in  straight  lines  as  little 
influenced  by  the  form  beneath  as  a  modern  crinoline.  But  by  an 
anachronism  the  painter  has  represented  the  cloak  as  hanging  over  the 
skirt  in  easy  folds.  The  cocks  which  surmount  the  columns  are  also 
archaic  :  they  often  figure  on  vases  of  this  kind, — as  symbols,  perhaps, 
of  hard  contests  and  loud  victories  (Dennis,  as  quoted  above,  p.  172). 

B  604. — On  each  column  here  is  Triptolemus.  His  attitude  is  very 
graceful  as  he  sits,  half-draped,  holding  out  some  ears  of  corn  in  one 
hand,  while  he  rests  his  other  elbow  on  his  car,  the  upraised  wings 
of  which  form  an  elegant  background  to  the  picture.  Beside  one 
column  is  the  inscription,  "  One  of  the  prizes  from  Athens"  ;  beside 
the  other,  the  painter's  signature,  Kittos.  On  the  reverse  of  the 
vase  the  pancration.  One  athlete  has  succeeded  in  getting  the  other's 
head  under  his  arm,  while  the  latter  revenges  himself  by  seizing  his  foe 
by  the  hair. 

B  606. — The  figure  of  Athena  here  resembles  that  on  B  605  ;  notice 
on  the  bottom  of  the  skirt  two  rows  of  mseander  pattern,  between 
which  is  a  curious  row  of  little  figures  dancing.  This  vase  was  a  prize 
in  a  chariot  race.  A  chariot,  on  the  reverse,  is  being  driven  at  full 
speed  :  the  foremost  horse  has  one  foot  advanced  beyond  a  white 
column,  which  represents  the  goal.  "  The  charioteer,  bareheaded,  holds 
the  reins  in  his  left  hand  and  a  long  goad  in  his  right.  His  attitude 
and  expression  are  indicative  of  his  eagerness,  as  well  as  of  the  rapid 
pace,  for  his  hair  and  beard  are  blown  back  by  the  breeze,  and  he 
crouches  down  in  the  car,  kneeling  against  the  splash-board,  as  if  to 
present  as  little  resistance  as  possible  to  the  wind.  The  horses  are 
well  formed,  with  erect  crests,  heads  finely  shaped  and  well  set  on,  and 
eyes  and  nostrils  full  of  fire — apt  illustrations  of  the  iptavx^es  iiriroi 
(the  horses  with  high-arching  necks)  of  Homer.  They  may  be  deficient 
in  variety  of  action,  yet  among  similar  groups,  often  depicted  on 
ancient  Greek  vases,  I  do  not  remember  to  have  seen  one  more  correctly 
drawn,  and  more  full  of  life  and  spirit.  They  wear  collars  and  head- 
stalls studded  with  white  "  (Dennis,  as  quoted  above,  p.  175). 

In  the  table-case  below  is  a  collection  of  vases  and  frag- 
ments of  black  glazed  ware  with  moulded  designs  and 
figures  in  relief;  of  Greek  and  Italian  manufacture,  fourth  to 
third  century.    The  vases  are  of  three  kinds  :  (1)  South  Italian 


406  THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM  chap. 


vases,  mostly  of  the  askos  shape  (numbered  G  27-86).  The 
body  of  these  vases  is  in  the  shape  of  a  lamp,  but  they  have 
spouts,  and  were  probably  used  as  lamp-feeders.  On  the  top 
is  a  moulded  relief — generally  only  a  mask  of  Dionysus  or  a 
Gorgon's  head.    A  few  other  subjects  may  be  noticed  :— 

G  42  (reproduced  at  p.  108  of  the  Catalogue  of  Greek  Sctilpture, 
vol.  i.). — Dionysus  seated  on  a  rock  ;  a  figure  which  slightly  resembles 
the  attitude  of  "  Theseus  "  on  the  Parthenon. 

G  48. — Orestes  at  Delphi.  He  defends  himself  with  a  sword  against 
a  snake  which  darts  out  upon  him,  perhaps  indicating  the  presence  of 
an  Erinnys.  His  left  arm  is  placed  round  the  omphalos,  which  is 
covered  with  fillets  (Cat.  of  Vases,  iv.  245). 

G  51. — Eos  in  a  chariot  rushing  out  of  the  waves. 

(2)  A  more  interesting  class  of  vases,  here  represented  by  a 
few  perfect  specimens  and  many  fragments,  is  represented  by 
the  numbers  G  96-117.  These  are  bowls  called  Megarian, 
because  they  have  mostly  been  found  at  Megara,  thus  showing 
that  in  Greece,  as  in  South  Italy,  the  tendency  of  the  time  was 
to  supplant  painted  vases  by  moulded.  "A  red  clay  is  em- 
ployed in  their  production,  which,  by  means  of  firing  at  an 
excessive  heat  or  the  application  of  black  varnish,  often  assumes 
a  black  quasi-metallic  appearance."  Reliefs  are  stamped  or 
moulded  round  the  outside,  the  subjects  being  mostly  scenes 
in  the  Trojan  war,  from  the  dramas  of  Euripides  and  other 
sources.  In  this  connection  reference  has  been  made  to  the 
story  told  of  Nero  by  Suetonius.  On  the  day  preceding  his 
murder  and  in  surprise  at  the  news  of  the  revolt  of  the  army, 
which  had  been  brought  to  him  at  dinner,  he  upset  a  table 
with  two  favourite  bowls,  which  he  called  Homeric  because  of 
the  subjects  embossed  upon  them.  It  is  suggested  that  they 
must  have  been  of  this  kind  ;  hence  the  "  Megarian  "  bowls 
are  sometimes  called  "  Homeric."  The  most  interesting  of 
the  bowls  here  are  G  103  (Hercules  with  Auge  on  his  knee, 
see  Pausanias,  viii.  4.  6),  and  G  104  and  105.  Both  of  these 
latter  are,  curiously  enough,  illustrations  of  the  same  play  by 
Euripides — the  Phcenissce.  For  the  interpretation  of  G  105 
see  Classical  Review,  ii.  327.  The  scenes  depicted  on  G  104 
illustrate  Euripides'  version  of  the  Theban  story  as  told  in  the 
Ph&nissce,  and  the  vase  itself  is  said  to  have  come  from  Thebes. 
The  scholar  will  find  it  interesting  to  make  out  the  passages 
from  the  play  illustrated  on  the  vase  ;  they  are  set  forth  in  the 
Classical  Review,  viii.  325.      But  the  general  visitor  will 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


407 


probably  be  content  to  take  the  statement  on  trust,  especially 
as  the  artistic  merit  of  the  vase  is  very  small.  The  treatment 
of  the  drapery  is  of  the  rudest  kind,  and  the  modelling  is  con- 
fused. Antigone,  for  instance,  "  might  but  for  the  inscription 
well  be  taken  for  a  bearded  man  55  {CI.  Rev.).  Another  vase 
of  the  same  kind  has  been  found  which  illustrates  the  Iphu 
genia  in  Aulis.  The  number  of  vases  of  the  later  time,  which 
refer  to  plays  by  Euripides  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  popu- 
larity which  that  dramatist  enjoyed  throughout  the  Greek  world 
in  the  third  century. 

(3)  A  third  group  of  specimens  (G  1 18-150)  are  dishes 
called  Calenian,  because  mostly  found  at  Cales.  They  are 
like  the  Megarian  bowls,  but  are  shallower  ;  and  the  reliefs, 
instead  of  being  round  the  outside,  are  medallions  in  the 
centre  or  friezes  round  the  interior.  The  subjects  on  the 
fragments  are  often  repeated,  showing  that  the  same  moulds 
were  used  many  times  over.  The  most  interesting  specimens 
in  the  Museum  are  G  118  and  119.  These  are  duplicates 
from  the  same  mould  (G  1 19  being  the  less  sharply  executed). 
In  the  collection  of  ancient  silver,  there  are  two  silver  dishes, 
embossed  with  almost  identical  patterns  (see  p.  596).  The 
subject  is  the  apotheosis  of  Hercules  in  four  groups,  each 
with  a  Victory  driving  a  chariot  (for  a  further  description,  see 
Murray's  Archeology,  p.  108).  The  close  resemblance  of  the 
silver  dishes  confirms  the  general  belief  that  the  black  ware 
before  us  had  been  a  substitute  among  poorer  people  for  the 
vases  of  silver  which  only  wealthy  men  could  possess.  In  this 
connection  the  saucers  numbered  G  121,  122  are  very  in- 
teresting. They  are  ornamented  with  medallions  which  are 
impressions  of  famous  Syracusan  coins,  the  decadrachms 
with  the  head  of  Persephone.  It  is  suggested  that  these 
saucers  were  imitations  of  silver  ones,  in  which  an  actual  silver 
coin  was  inset.  On  some  of  the  pieces  in  this  case  there  are 
the  names  of  Roman  potters  or  Roman  owners  (e.g.  G  127  is 
inscribed  C.  Atilius  and  G  132  C.  Gabinius)  ;  and  on  one 
fragment  (G  125)  there  is  a  representation  of  the  wolf  suckling 
Romulus  and  Remus. 

These  vases,  therefore,  probably  date  from  about  200  B.C., 
and  were  continued  in  use  down  to  imperial  times,  when  they 
were  superseded  by  the  red  moulded  ware  known  as  Samian 
(see  Ch.  xxviil). 


408 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Pedestal  XII.— A  Trojan  Vase  (F  278) 

This  crater,  from  Apulia,  is  the  largest  in  the  collection  ;  in 
that  respect  as  in  others  it  is  characteristic  of  the  vases  of  the 
decadence.  It  is  richly  coloured.  It  is  covered  with  decora- 
tion of  one  kind  or  another  from  head  to  foot ;  notice  that  even 
below  the  Gorgons  on  the  handles  there  are  decorative  figures. 
It  is  also  essentially  theatrical  in  effect.  The  architectural 
arrangement,  with  a  statue  in  the  centre  ;  the  elaborately  em- 
broidered draperies,  the  gorgeous  tiaras,  the  dramatic  action  : 
all  these  things  reflect  the  influence  of  the  theatrical  repre- 
sentations of  the  time.  The  body  of  the  vase  is  divided  by  a 
rich  band.  The  principal  subjects  both  above  and  below  are 
taken  from  the  tale  of  Troy.  Above  there  are  two  groups  : 
on  the  left  Ajax  and  Cassandra,  the  daughter  of  King  Priam  ; 
she  has  fallen  at  the  feet  of  the  statue  of  Athena,  to  whom  she 
appeals  with  outstretched  arms.  On  the  right  King  Menelaus 
of  Sparta  encounters  his  wife,  the  beautiful  Helen,  whose  elope- 
ment with  Paris  had  caused  the  war.  Helen  escapes  his  wrath, 
and  grasps  the  statue  of  Aphrodite.  Below  there  are  again  two 
groups.  On  the  left  the  aged  queen,  Hecuba,  wards  off  a 
blow  aimed  at  her  by  a  Greek.  On  the  right  the  death  of 
King  Priam.  He  kneels  at  a  statue  of  Zeus,  and  endeavours 
to  thrust  off  Neoptolemus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  who  is  thus 
avenging  his  father's  death.  The  gods  on  Mount  Olympus 
are  seated  above. 

Pedestal  XIII.— A  Trojan  Vase  (F  160) 

This  crater,  in  the  Lucanian  style,  also  has  scenes  from 
the  capture  of  Troy.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  grace  and  even 
of  expression  in  the  drawing.  In  the  centre  is  the  altar  of 
Athena.  Ajax  is  about  to  seize  Cassandra ;  the  vase  from 
which  she  has  vainly  poured  a  libation  to  the  goddess  lies 
fallen  beneath  the  altar.  To  the  left  is  her  sister  Polyxena, 
who  has  fallen  at  the  feet  of  the  statue.  Odysseus  stretches 
out  his  hand  towards  her.  Queen  Hecuba  retreats  in  terror. 
Above  her,  a  line  of  dots  indicates  a  distant  eminence,  ana 
here  we  see  the  aged  Anchises  escaping  with  his  grandson, 
Ascanius,  the  son  of  ^Eneas,  and  the  supposed  ancestor  of 
the  Roman  people  ;  the  child  looks  up  wonderingly  at  his 
grandfather  who,  with  tottering  steps  and  leaning  on  his  staff, 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


409 


leads  him  away.  A  tree  laden  with  fruit  divides  the  group 
from  the  rest  of  the  subject.  Beyond  the  tree  is  a  beautiful 
representation  of  Athena  seated.  The  protectress  of  the 
Greeks,  she  appears  unmoved  by  the  sufferings  of  the  Trojans, 
and  rests  triumphant  at  the  conclusion  of  the  war.  A  column 
behind  her  representing  the  temple  is  decorated  with  beads. 

On  the  reverse  of  the  vase  is  the  departure  of  a  warrior  ; 
this  group  also  contains  some  very  graceful  figures. 

Pedestal  XIV.— The  Phaedra  Vase  (F  272) 

On  this  Apulian  crater  there  is  a  double  row  of  scenes  on 
each  side.  On  the  upper  scene  of  the  side  fronting  us,  the 
subject  is  supposed  to  be  the  love-sickness  of  Phaedra,  as 
described  by  Euripides  in  the  Hippolytus  (cf.  the  mirror-case 
in  the  Bronze  Room,  No.  289,  p.  445).  Phaedra  sits  on  a 
stool  to  the  right,  and  leans  forward,  with  head  drooped  to 
one  side,  clasping  her  right  knee  thrown  over  the  other.  A 
servant,  with  troubled  air,  stands  behind.  An  Eros,  with 
immense  wings,  flies  towards  her.  The  other  figures  are 
presumably  also  attendants.  (For  a  discussion  of  this  vase  in 
relation  to  Euripides,  see  J.  H.  Huddilston's  Greek  Tragedy  in 
the  Light  of  Vase-Paintings  ^  pp.  102- 107.)  The  subject  below 
is  the  familiar  rape  of  the  brides  by  the  Centaurs  at  the 
wedding-feast  of  Perithous,  king  of  the  Lapithae.  Rich  colours 
and  ornaments  are  employed  to  enhance  the  scene.  Notice 
the  wine  pail  which  has  fallen  on  the  ground  during  the 
disturbance.  On  the  reverse  is  a  Dionysiac  group  in  two 
rows. 

Case  F. — Kraters  (mixing  bowls),  chiefly  of  Athenian 
fabric,  from  South  Italy :  fourth  century. — The  following 
designs  are  noticeable  : — 

F  69. — On  one  side  Thetis  and  the  Nereids  conveying  the  armour 
of  Achilles  across  the  sea,  indicated  by  an  irregular  line  of  wave 
pattern,  above  which  are  four  prickly  white  fish,  swimming,  and  white 
strokes  representing  spray. 

F  59. — A  torch -race  :  see  the  Tyszkiewicz  vase,  p.  383. 

F  66. — Victory  leads  a  bull  to  the  altar,  placing  a  wreath  on  its 
head.  The  priest  raises  his  knife  to  slay  the  victim.  Behind  stands 
a  maiden  carrying  vessels,  resembling  those  which  are  carried  before 
the  victims  in  the  Parthenon  frieze  (see  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture , 
ii.  23).  The  drawing  and  composition  on  this  vase  are  worthy  of 
notice. 


4io 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


F  492. — A  curious  design.  Twelve  female  heads  in  profile  ;  below, 
nine  more  heads.  Perhaps  a  group  of  family  portraits.  The  design 
recalls  a  picture  of  a  similar  subject  in  the  National  Gallery  :  No. 
779,  by  Ambrogio  Borgognone. 

We  now  proceed  to  examine  the  wall-cases,  beginning  on 
the  north  side  of  the  door  from  the  Third  Vase  Room. 

Cases  1-5. — Greek  vases  made  at  Athens  or  in  South 
Italy  (420-350  B.C.),  including  several  moulded  in  the  form 
of  human  figures  or  divinities.  Among  this  latter  class  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  minor  antiquities  in  the 
Museum : — 

E  716. — Cup  moulded  in  the  form  of  the  head  of  Athena.  This 
vase  is  distinguished  by  that  grand  style  which  we  see  not  only  on 
statues  and  bas-reliefs  but  on  some  of  the  mirror-cases,  terra-cottas,  and 
coins.  Mr.  Cecil  Smith,  from  whose  description  I  quote  below,  sees 
in  it  a  free  rendering  of  a  Phidian  original,  made  at  Athens  about 
430  B.C.  It  offers  in  its  colouring  an  interesting  and  beautiful  illus- 
tration in  miniature  of  the  general  effect  produced  by  statues  in  ivory 
and  gold  : — 

' 1  The  vase  is  modelled  entirely  in  the  round,  and  the  modelling 
is  fresh  and  crisp.  The  treatment  of  the  hair  is  highly  plastic  and 
original.  Starting  from  each  side  of  a  central  parting,  this  falls  around 
the  face  in  a  series  of  wavy  twisted  ringlets,  each  one  of  which  is 
separately  modelled  and  terminates  in  a  projecting  point  worked 
almost  entirely  in  the  round  ;  these  locks  entirely  obscure  the  ears, 
and  hang  on  each  side  of  the  neck  down  to  the  shoulders.  The  whole 
effect  is  that  of  a  mass  of  twisting  snakes,  of  which  the  flow  and 
movement  serve  as  a  striking  foil  to  the  dignified  and  almost  dreamy 
repose  of  the  goddess's  features.  The  general  aspect,  before  the 
colours  had  faded,  of  this  calm  ivory  face  against  the  background  of 
rebellious  locks  bordered  by  the  shell-like  vermilion  edge  of  the  hood, 
must  have  produced  a  charming  combination  of  effect.  .  .  .  The 
characteristic  snaky  treatment  of  the  hair,  which  in  male  heads  may 
be  compared  with  the  portrait  bust  of  Pericles,  is  rarely  found  on 
female  heads  :  the  nearest  analogy  is  perhaps  the  beautiful  series  of 
Syracusan  coins,  especially  the  tetradrachm  (see  III.  C.  31,  p.  522)  by 
Eukleides"  (J.H.S.  xv.  184).  These  coins  were,  as  Furtwangler  has 
shown  (Masterpieces,  p.  107),  of  Attic-Phidian  origin.  On  coins, 
vases,  terra-cottas,  and  bronzes  alike,  the  Phidian  ideal  may  be  seen. 
"The  great  creations  of  the  brilliant  Attic  period  are  like  suns,  each 
the  centre  of  a  multitude  of  smaller  stars,  on  which  they  pour  light  and 
life.  The  art  of  Athens  in  the  fifth  century  was  as  far-reaching  and 
widespread  as  her  empire."  A  photogravure  of  this  vase  forms  the 
frontispiece  to  Mr.  Lang's  translation  of  the  Homeric  Hymns. 

G  I. — This  choice  and  bizarre  wine-jug  was  found  in  one  of  the 
tombs  of  Vulci.     It  has  a  double  handle,  the  lower  one  for  pouring, 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


411 


the  upper  for  carrying.  Notice  the  elaborate  ear-rings  on  the  head  of 
Athena  ;  they  are  in  the  form  of  winged  female  figures  surmounted  by 
rosettes  ;  the  necklace  is  formed  of  pendants  ;  the  whole  has  been 
coloured,  and  the  ear-rings  gilded.  "The  design  of  this  graceful 
freak  is  bold  and  original,  the  modelling  excellent,  and  much  taste  is 
shown  in  the  application  of  the  ornaments.  It  is  further  interesting 
from  the  correspondence  in  form  of  the  jewels  with  those  found  in 
Etruscan  tombs"  (Dennis,  Cities  of  Etrnria,  i.  465). 

F  107  (lekythos). — The  subject  here  is  an  unusual  one — the  infant 
Hercules  suckled  by  Hera  (Paus.  ix.  25,  2).  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  act  of  suckling — the  commonest  of  all  motives  in  Christian 
art — was  avoided  by  the  Greek  artists,  and  is  very  rare  in  ancient  art. 

In  the  Cases  3-5  there  are  some  curious  fancies.  F  417  is  a 
rhyton,  in  which  the  cup  is  supported  by  a  moulded  group  repre- 
senting a  negro  struggling  with  a  crocodile.  On  F  10 1  there  is  a 
drawing  of  a  girl  playing  with  a  tortoise  which  she  holds  out,  by  a 
string  tied  to  its  hind  leg,  to  a  spaniel.  In  G  178  the  upper  part 
which  formed  the  drinking-cup  is  broken  away.  The  lower  part  is  in 
the  form  of  a  pigmy  with  grotesque  features  ;  he  carries  a  dead  crane 
on  his  left  shoulder.     G  19  and  7  are  pretty. 

F  108  is  a  characteristic  example  of  the  love  scenes  which  were  so 
popular  in  the  vases  of  the  decadence.  Aphrodite  is  on  the  lap  of 
Adonis.  There  is  a  female  figure  with  a  fan  such  as  we  see  on  the 
Tanagra  figurines,  and  behind  the  chair  is  Eros  pouring  ointment 
from  a  vase  over  Adonis. 

Cases  6,  7.— Greek  vases  about  400  B.C.,  chiefly  made 
at  Athens  and  imported  to  Italy. — A  good  many  of  the 
vases  here  collected  are  very  roughly  painted.  A  better  style 
is  seen  on  F  156  (hydria),  which  is  in  the  style  of  Assteas,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Paestum,  and  whose  work  some- 
what resembled  that  of  Meidias. 

Cases  8-13. — Greek  vases  about  400  B.C.,  made  at 
Athens  or  in  South  Italy  under  Athenian  influence. — The 

influence  of  the  best  Greek  vase -painters  is  still  in  some 
degree  visible.  The  following  are  among  the  more  interesting 
subjects  represented : — 

F  185  (hydria),  Perseus  and  Andromeda  (cf.  390). — Cepheus,  the 
king,  is  seated  on  an  embroidered  cushion  above  the  level  of  the 
ground,  as  if  in  mid-air,  his  feet  resting  on  a  stool.  Perseus  stands 
before  him.  Andromeda  is  between  two  columns,  to  each  of  which 
one  of  her  arms  is  fastened. 

E  485. — Very  quaint  ;  a  riding  lesson. 

F  56  (crater). — This  is  one  of  the  vases  in  which  the  influence 
referred  to  above  is  conspicuous.  The  figure  of  the  youthful  Dionysus 
shows  considerable  grace. 


412 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


F  155  (hydria). — In  the  style  of  Assteas  ;  wanting  in  refinement, 
but  vigorous.  The  subject  is  supposed  to  be  taken  from  the  Oineus, 
a  lost  play  by  Euripides.  Agrios  (so  inscribed)  has  been  placed  for 
execution  on  an  altar,  beneath  which  rises  the  Erinnys,  or  Avenging 
Fury,  a  black  figure  with  white  wings  and  snakes  coiled  about  her. 
King  Oineus,  prepared  to  inflict  punishment,  stretches  out  his  hand  to 
the  culprit. 

Cases  14-18. — Greek  vases  made  for  funereal  purposes 
in  South  Italy. — The  most  usual  subject  is  offerings  at  a 
tomb — of  the  type  which  we  have  already  discussed  (Pedestal 
9).  A  good  example  among  those  in  these  cases  is  F  352, 
which  in  subject  and  drawing  seems  to  have  been  influenced 
by  Attic  sepulchral  reliefs  of  the  fourth  century.  The  central 
group  here  somewhat  resembles  that  on  the  Glykylla  relief 
(p.  240).  The  beams  of  the  ceiling  and  the  metopes  are 
indicated  in  rude  perspective.  The  surrounding  figures  and 
accessories  are  scattered  about  the  vase  with  considerable 
decorative  effect. 

Cases  19-23. — The  vases  here  collected  are  mostly  of  the 
same  kind  as  in  the  preceding  cases.  There  is,  however,  one 
very  celebrated  vase  of  a  different  kind  : — 

F  147  (crater). — This  vase,  in  the  style  of  Assteas,  is  the  only 
known  work  of  Python,  by  whom  it  is  signed.  The  principal  sub- 
ject is  probably  taken  from  the  lost  drama  of  Alcmena  by  Euripides, 
and  represents  her  salvation  by  Zeus.  Alcmena,  wife  of  Amphitryon, 
was  mother  of  Hercules.  When  Amphitryon  returned  from  the  wars 
she  claimed  Zeus  as  the  father  of  the  child,  for  which  infidelity  Amphi- 
tryon revenged  himself  by  placing  Alcmena  on  a  funeral  pyre  to  be 
burnt.  But  Zeus  sent  down  rain  from  heaven  to  quench  the  flames, 
and  Alcmena  was  saved.  Here  we  see  Alcmena  seated  on  the  pyre, 
to  which  Amphitryon  and  his  friend  Antenor  set  fire  by  means  of  torches. 
Alcmena  appeals  with  outstretched  arms  to  Zeus,  who  has  hurled  down 
two  thunderbolts,  and  is  now  sending  a  tempest  of  rain.  This  is 
indicated  by  a  rainbow  banded  in  different  colour,  enclosing  a  black 
space  thickly  dotted  by  drops  of  rain  and  by  two  rain-nymphs  or 
Hyades  pouring  down  streams  of  water  from  vases.  Facing  Zeus  is 
Eos,  whose  presence  denotes  that  the  scene  occurs  in  the  morning. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  garments  of  the  Hyades,  which  are  distinctly 
crimson,  are  spotted  in  white  lines  of  dots,  which  again  indicate  drops 
of  rain.  The  artist  shows  us,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  vase-paintings, 
a  sequence  of  events.  Thus  (1)  Alcmena  takes  sanctuary  and  implores 
divine  protection,  while  (2)  her  husband,  calmly  setting  light  to  a  pyre 
which  will  consume  her,  is  not  yet  alarmed  by  (3)  the  thunder,  which 
— as  if  a  moment  later — suspends  the  action  of  his  abettor  Antenor, 
and  preludes  (4)  a  downfall  from  the  drenching  clouds  which  assures 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


413 


the  rescue.  "  We  may  recognise  a  sequence  of  feelings  even  in  Alcmena. 
Her  arm  is  extended,  and  her  fingers  stretch  in  excited  supplication  ; 
but  her  countenance  is  rather  expressive  of  recognition  of  the  presence 
and  interposition  of  Zeus."  This  vase,  long  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
treasures  of  the  Carlisle  collection  at  Castle  Howard,  was  acquired  for 
the  Museum  in  1890.  It  had  been  broken  in  ancient  times  and 
mended  with  lead  (Murray's  Archeology,  pp.  72,  105  ;  and  in  J.H.S. 
xi.  225  ;  W.  Watkiss  Lloyd  in  Classical  Review,  v.  242).  The  hydria 
(F  193),  which  stands  on  the  same  shelf,  is  another  version  of  the 
same  subject,  but  by  an  inferior  artist. 

F  194  (amphora). — Dionysus,  in  the  form  of  a  bull,  bringing  back 
his  mother  Semele  from  Hell.  Above  is  a  window  at  which  is  seen  a 
female  form  painted  white,  muffled  in  drapery.  Such  figures  occur  on 
Greek  sepulchral  reliefs  and  are  suggestive  of  the  under-world.  The 
resurrection  of  Semele  is  one  of  the  beautiful  nature-myths  of  the 
Greeks  which,  in  a  secondary  sense,  became  invested  for  them  with 
spiritual  significance.  "The  power  of  Semele  and  Dionysus  is  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  Ceres  and  Triptolemus,  as  the  fruitful  sun  and 
rain  on  the  rocks,  giving  the  miracle  of  juice  in  the  vine,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  nourishing  strength  of  the  dark  soil  ploughed  for 
corn."  Dionysus  is  thus  a  god  of  vegetation  and  is  identified  with  one 
aspect  of  the  spring,  which  season  he  brings  with  them.  He  is  thus 
conceived  of  as  rising  again,  or  as  bringing  his  mother  with  him  from 
the  under-world.  The  bull  (in  which  the  spirit  of  corn  was  personified) 
is  associated  with  him  ;  in  rending  and  devouring  a  live  bull  at  his 
festival,  worshippers  believed  that  they  were  eating  his  flesh  and  drink- 
ing his  blood.  In  myths  such  as  this  the  Greeks  came  to  find  the 
consolations  of  the  belief  in  immortality.  Plutarch,  writing  to  console 
his  wife  on  the  death  of  their  infant  daughter,  comforts  her  with  the 
thought  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  as  revealed  in  the  myth  of 
Dionysus  (Ruskin's  Catalogue  of  the  Standard  Series,  p.  25  ;  Frazer's 
Golden  Bough  (1890),  i.  325  ;  ii.  38,  43). 

Cases  24,  2  5. — Vases  of  the  fourth  to  third  century,  made 
in  Campania. — These  are  mostly  of  somewhat  coarse  workman- 
ship ;  contrast,  for  instance,  the  "  Aphrodite  on  a  Swan  "  here 
(F  240),  with  the  same  subject  as  treated  by  the  vase-painters 
of  the  best  time  (p.  373).  One  or  two  interesting  subjects 
should  not  escape  attention  : — 

F  223  (hydria). — A  giil  seated  on  a  rock  ;  Eros  holds  a  magic 
wheel  in  both  hands  by  a  string.  The  wheel  is  often  mentioned  in 
classical  literature  as  an  instrument  of  magic.  Simretha  in  the  second 
idyl  of  Theocritus  endeavours  by  such  means  to  regain  the  lost  affec- 
tions of  her  lover,  and  explains  the  significance  of  the  wheel  : — 

And  swiftly  as  this  brazen  wheel  whirls  round, 

May  Aphrodite  whirl  him  to  my  door. 

Turn,  magic  wheel,  draw  homeward  him  I  love. 


414 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


F  500  (hydria). — A  quaint  illustration  of  the  popular  subject,  the 
flight  of  Perseus,  after  beheading  the  Gorgon  Medusa.  He  holds  the 
head  by  the  hair,  with  eyes  closed  ;  on  the  right  is  the  decapitated 
body,  sitting. 

F  218  (hydria). — A  representation  of  Scylla  ;  very  interesting  as  an 
example  of  the  way  in  which  Greek  artists  toned  down  any  literary 
legend  that  was  too  horrid  for  presentation.  Homer  described  Scylla 
and  Charybdis  in  terms  of  hideous  grotesque.  But  in  the  design 
before  us,  all  repulsive  details  are  omitted.  4 '  Scylla  is  woman-shaped 
to  the  waist  ;  she  ends  in  a  finely-curved  fish's  tail.  Below  her  waist 
projects  the  head  of  a  fish  ;  this  fish  has  a  long  snout,  with  teeth 
jutting  out,  and  horns.  Scylla  herself  holds  in  one  hand  an  oar,  in 
the  other  a  cuttle-fish.  We  remember  that  it  was  her  wont  to  *  fish, 
groping  round  the  rocks  for  dolphins  or  sea-dogs,  or  whatso  greater 
beast  she  may  anywhere  take.'  We  see  at  once  that  there  is  no 
attempt  to  copy  the  Homeric  picture  ;  if  the  artist  remembered  at  all 
the  horrid  details  of  the  poet,  he  at  once  rejects  such  as  are  unfit  for 
his  purpose.  That  purpose  was  to  paint  on  a  vase  a  beautiful  design  " 
(Harrison's  Myths  of  the  Odyssey,  p.  186). 

Cases  26,  27. — Fish  plates. — These  plates  from  Campania 
have  a  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  are  painted  with  fish  of 
various  kinds — e.g.  perch  (266),  mullet  (263),  bream  (260). 
It  is  supposed  that  they  were  used  for  eating  fish,  the  centre 
serving  for  sauce.  Or  they  may  have  been  hung  up  as  votive 
offerings  by  fishermen  in  temples  of  Poseidon,  at  seaport  towns. 

Cases  28,  29. — More  Campanian  vases. — Curious  subjects 
here  are  : — 

F  220  (hydria). — A  girl  has  a  pair  of  scales  in  which  she  is  weigh- 
ing rival  loves.  A  youth  leaning  on  a  staff  watches  the  result  of  the 
trial. 

F  232. — A  female  tumbler  turning  a  somersault.  In  Xenophon's 
Banquet  (ii.  7)  a  female  acrobat  is  introduced,  and  among  other 
performances  she  threw  somersaults  backwards  and  forwards  several 
times  in  the  midst  of  swords. 

Cases  32-36. — Vases  of  black  glazed  ware,  with 
subjects  painted  in  opaque  colours,  or  moulded  in  relief ; 
proloably  made  at  Tarentum.  The  subjects  are  mostly  decora- 
tive, and  are  of  little  interest.  Some  of  the  vases  resemble 
metal  (e.g.  G  95).  G  34  and  35  might  be  mistaken  for  black 
teapots. 

Cases  37-41. — Vases  of  black  glazed  ware. — Those  here 
collected  represent  the  latest  stages  of  vase-painting,  and  are 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


415 


for  the  most  part  very  poor  and  rough  in  workmanship.  One 
interesting  subject  occurs  : — 

F  579  (lekythos). — A  winged  Eros  with  female  headgear  and 
bracelet  is  arranging  a  cottabos-stand.  (For  a  description  of  the  game, 
see  p.  419.) 

Cases  44,  45.—  Vases  with  designs  painted  in  opaque 
red  on  black  ground. — These  recall  the  vases  which  we  have 
already  noticed  (in  Room  II.)  as  transitional  between  the 
black-  and  red-figure  styles  (p.  315).  The  figures,  instead  of 
being  left  in  the  red  of  the  clay,  are  painted  in  opaque 
red  on  an  engobe  or  slip  (of  pipe-clay)  applied  to  the  black 
glaze  with  which  the  whole  vase  is  covered,  while  the  details 
are  rendered,  as  on  black-figure  vases,  with  incised  lines.  The 
following  vase  is  specially  noteworthy  : — 

F  542  (phiale). — In  a  medallion  '  with  an  arabesque  border, 
Ganymede,  or  a  young  huntsman,  is  seated,  with  two  spears,  and  a  dog. 
The  figure  is  finely  modelled,  and  the  drawing  is  remarkable  from  the 
attempt  to  show  the  roundness  of  the  limbs  by  means  of  shading  by 
hatched  lines,  and  by  the  use  of  white  colour  to  indicate  the  high 
lights.    The  style  is  that  of  the  frescoes  at  Pompeii. 

The  following  vase,  like  a  few  others,  is  of  a  different 
kind  : — 

F  508. — Archaistic.  The  technique,  though  not  the  decoration,  is 
an  imitation  of  early  Greek  vases  (see  Room  I.)  of  800-600  B.C. 
The  vase  has  two  upright  mouths,  one  forming  a  strainer,  with  handle 
between. 

Cases  46-49. — Lucanian   and  Apulian  vases.  —  The 

costumes  are  frequently  characteristic  of  the  native  races,  but 
the  style  of  decoration  and  the  subjects  are  Greek.  We  may 
notice  : — 

F  173. — Achilles  slaying  Lycaon  [Iliad,  xxi.  1-1 18).  "  The  figures 
are  somewhat  youthful  and  effeminate  in  appearance,  as  is  not  in- 
frequent on  Lucanian  vases." 

F  174. — "  A  very  graceful  figure  of  a  female  pouring  wine  into  a 
cup  held  by  a  young  warrior  who  stands  beside  his  horse.  Another 
young  warrior  with  long  hair  holds  his  spear  and  rests  one  hand  on  his 
shield,  which  has  the  device  of  a  star.  The  composition  and  drawing 
are  simple  and  very  beautiful.  The  costumes  are  characteristic,  of 
Lucania"  (Horner's  Greek  Vases,  p.  114). 

Cases  50-59. — Vases  in  the  florid  style,  exhibiting  a 
great  variety  of  shapes  and  a  limited  choice  of  subjects,  repre- 


416 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


senting  the  later  stage  of  Apulian  work  :  third  century.  The 
subjects  are  mainly  love  scenes  and  toilet  scenes.  No.  308 
(Case  53)  may  be  taken  as  a  type,  with  its  scenes  of  love- 
making,  toilet,  and  miscellaneous  pets,  and  other  animals 
(including  a  duck  and  a  cat).  In  Case  54  there  are  two  larger 
and  more  important  vases  : — 

F  331  (amphora). — The  principal  subject  on  this  fine  vase  is  the 
wooing  of  Hippodameia.  CEnomaus,  king  of  Elis,  was  informed  by 
the  oracle  that  his  death  would  be  caused  by  the  man  who  should  wed 
his  daughter  Hippodameia.  Wherefore  the  king,  being  a  mighty  man 
in  his  chariot,  refused  to  marry  his  daughter  to  any  suitor  who  should 
not  first  outstrip  him  in  a  chariot  race  from  Elis  to  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth.  Many  suitors  had  been  vanquished  and  put  to  death  by 
CEnomaus,  when  Pelops,  son  of  Tantalus,  presented  himself.  Pelops 
bribed  the  charioteer  of  the  king,  Myrtilus,  who  gave  to  his  master  an 
old  chariot.  The  axle-tree  broke  on  the  course ;  CEnomaus  was 
killed  ;  Pelops  married  Hippodameia  and  succeeded  to  the  kingdom. 
Here  we  see  Pelops  and  CEnomaus  meeting.  On  the  left  is  Sterope, 
wife  of  the  king  ;  she  holds  a  palm  fan,  and  looks  back  at  her  daughter 
Hippodameia,  whom  she  leads  forward.  The  king's  daughter  is  richly 
attired,  wearing  a  tiara,  necklace,  and  bracelets.  On  the  other  side  is 
Myrtilus,  moving  stealthily  away  ;  he  has  the  victor's  crown  in  his 
hand.  Beyond  him  is  Aphrodite  ;  in  her  left  hand  she  holds  a  string 
attached  to  a  magic  wheel  (see  above,  p.  413).  She  holds  up  two 
fingers,  as  if  conversing  with  Eros,  who  hovers  above.  The  scene 
apparently  takes  place  before  the  palace  of  CEnomaus,  represented  by 
the  sword  hanging  up,  and  by  the  two  heads,  which  are  those  of  former 
suitors  slain  by  the  king. 

F  332  (amphora). — A  scene  in  Hades  :  probably  Hermes  about  to 
conduct  Persephone  back  to  the  upper  world.  Pluto,  king  of  the 
infernal  regions,  is  seated  on  a  throne.  Persephone  stands  before  him. 
On  the  right  is  Hermes,  who  extends  a  finger  to  Pluto,  as  if  addressing 
him.  On  the  left  is  Aphrodite  with  a  parasol.  The  vase-painter  is 
little  concerned  to  give  local  colour  ;  a  sunshade  is  carried  even  in  the 
shades. 

An  Apulian  amphora,  recently  acquired  (see  British  Museum 
Return  for  1900,  p.  66),  has  a  Euripidean  subject — the  vengeance  of 
Hecuba,  the  outcast  queen  of  Troy,  for  the  murder  of  her  son,  Poly- 
dorus,  by  his  false  Thracian  host,  King  Polymestor.  The  scene 
(which  is  doubtless  borrowed  from  the  stage  and  corresponds  to  the 
Hecuba  of  Euripides,  1035  ff.),  represents  the  re-appearance  of 
Polymestor,  after  he  had  been  blinded  by  Hecuba.  "  In  the 
middle  stands  the  helpless  king,  his  arms  extended  in  a  dis- 
tressed manner.  He  is  dressed  in  a  short,  embroidered  chiton  and 
a  mantle,  and  wears  a  tall  headgear  that  indicates  his  barbarian 
nationality.     Agamemnon  is  on  the  left  with  his  sceptre.    On  the 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


417 


right  are  Hecuba  and  an  attendant.  The  latter  places  her  arm  over 
Hecuba's  shoulder  and  seems  to  be  comforting  her,  as  she  shrinks 
away  from  the  figure  in  the  centre.  Her  walking-stick  is  suggestive 
of  the  queen's  age  and  of  the  wandering  life  which  she  is  entering  " 
(J.  H.  Huddilston,  Greek  Tragedy  in  the  Light  of  Vase- Paintings, 
P-  99). 

Cases  60-65. — Vases  from  South  Italy;  subjects  from 
daily  life  or  Dionysiac  legends  :  fourth  century.— We  may 

note  as  curious  : — 

F  123. — A  girl  in  a  swing  which  is  propelled  by  a  Cupid. 

He. — The  gold  is  swung,  the  silver  is  swung,  and  swung,  too,  is  my 
love  with  the  golden  hair. 

She. — Who  is  it  that  swings  me?  that  I  may  gild  him  with  my  favour, 
that  I  may  work  him  a  fez  all  covered  with  pearls.  (From  a  modern  Greek 
swing-festival:  Bent's  Cyclades,  p.  5.) 

F  274  (crater). — Artemis  mounted  on  a  deer  rides  quickly,  her 
train  floating  in  the  wind. 

Cases  66,  67. — Vases  from  South  Italy;  subjects  from 
Greek  mythology :  about  300  B.C. — Here  there  are  some 
interesting  vases  : — 

F  479. — "A  very  fine  crater  from  Civita  Castellana,  the  ancient 
Falerii.  This  vase  appears  to  be  an  imitation  of  an  Athenian  fabric. 
The  design  is  drawn  with  a  fine  brush  or  pencil  in  thick  dark  colour, 
the  inner  parts  being  largely  painted  white.  Below  the  designs  is  a 
band  of  palmettes,  of  a  type  which  occurs  nowhere  else."  The  subject 
— the  infant  Hercules  strangling  the  snakes — is  also  of  special  interest. 
"  In  the  centre  on  the  ground  are  two  little  nude  figures  ;  these  are 
Hercules  and  his  brother  Iphicles  as  children.  Two  serpents  had 
entered  the  chamber  where  they  were  sleeping,  and?  Hercules  gave 
promise  of  his  future  prowess  by  strangling  them.  Iphicles  meanwhile 
is  terrified,  and  his  old  nurse  stoops  down  to  rescue  him.  On  the  right 
is  Athena  with  a'  dove — the  usual  offering  for  purification  after  child- 
birth. Other  gods  are  present.  Above  Athena  is  Dionysus,  and 
facing  the  nurse  Apollo  Ismenius  (to  indicate  the  locality,  Thebes). 
On  the  left  are  Hermes  and  Artemis.  Enthroned  above  is  Zeus,  and 
beside  him,  Alcmena,  the  mother  of  Hercules.  She  throws  her  arm 
round  his  neck  and  points  vigorously  with  her  right  hand  down  to  the 
infants.  But  Zeus  merely  turns  his  head  and  looks  into  her  face. 
This  composition  is  of  special  interest  because  it  agrees  very  well  with 
the  description  given  by  Pliny  (N. H.  xxxv.  63)  of  a  picture  by  the 
famous  Greek  painter,  Zeuxis. "  Magnificus  est  et  Jupiter  in  throno 
adstantibus  diis  et  Hercules  infans  dracones  strangulans  Alcmena 
matre  coram  pavente  et  Amphitryone.  (He  also  painted  a  superb  Zeus, 
enthroned  amid  the  assembled  gods,  with  the  infant  Hercules  strangling 

2  E 


4i8 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM  chap. 


the  snakes  in  the  presence  of  his  trembling  mother,  Alcmena,  and 
of  Amphitryon.)1  Zeuxis  was  for  a  time  resident  in  the  south  of  Italy 
and  presented  a  picture  called  Alcmena  to  the  town  of  Agrigentum. 
The  painter  of  this  South  Italian  vase  may,  therefore,  have  himself 
seen  the  picture  or  some  copy  from  it  (Murray's  Archceology,  p.  376, 
and  in  Classical  Review,  ii.  327). 

F  270  (crater). — The  subject  here  is  supposed  to  be  Orpheus 
initiating  a  youth  into  the  Samothracian  mysteries  (a  form  of  Cabiric 
worship,  see  p.  335).  The  youth  is  accompanied  by  his  tutor.  Orpheus, 
leaning  on  his  staff,  holds  back  Cerberus  by  a  chain.  The  three- 
headed  guardian  of  Hades  is  painted  white  with  purple  collars. 
Behind  Orpheus  is  his  wife  Eurydice,  as  if  waiting  to  be  conducted 
back  to  the  upper  world.  Above  are  Pan,  Hermes,  Eros,  and 
Aphrodite,  answering  to  the  four  Cabiric  dieties  (see  /.U.S.  xiii. 

85). 

F  157. — Dolon,  a  Trojan,  famous  for  his  swiftness,  being  sent  by 
Hector  to  spy  out  the  Grecian  camp,  was  seized  by  Odysseus  and 
Diomedes  {Iliad,  x.  314).  His  capture  by  them  is  the  subject  on  this 
vase ;  the  element  of  grotesque  is  here  again  strongly  marked. 

Cases  68-72. — The  last  cases  in  this  room  are  of  special 
interest,  as  they  contain  several  vases  with  subjects  taken 
from  the  comic  stage.  These  throw  much  interesting  light 
on  the  Greek  drama.  Greek  comedy  arose,  as  is  well  known, 
from  the  phallic  rites  which  were  performed  at  the  festivals  of 
Dionysus  ;  and  even  on  the  Attic  stage  a  good  deal  of  coarse- 
ness and  indecency  survived.  In  the  comic  performances 
among  the  Italian  Greeks,  and  especially  the  <£Ava/<€s  or 
farces,  these  elements  were  yet  more  marked.  The  make-up 
of  the  comic  actors  included  not  only  ridiculous  masks,  but,  as 
will  be  seen  on  several  of  these  vases,  grotesque  paddings  of 
the  body  in  front  and  behind.  Types  of  the  comic  actor  with 
these  protuberances,  and  with  protruding  lips  and  snub  nose, 
may  be  seen  on  the  vases  numbered  124,  289,  233.  The 
actor  on  F  99  is  made  up  as  Hercules  (see  the  Frogs,  549). 
As  examples  of  burlesques  upon  old  legends,  we  may  notice 
the  following  vases  : — 

F  269  (crater). — Contest  of  Ares  and  Hephaestus  in  the  presence  of 
Hera.  Ares  is  fighting  to  free  his  mother,  but  in  vain.  Hera  is  not 
caricatured  at  all,  but  both  the  gods  wear  the  breeches  and  tunic  of  a 
stage  buffoon,  retaining,  however,  their  proper  headgear  :  Ares,  the 
helmet ;  Hephaestus,  the  smith's  shaggy  cap.     It  will  be  noticed  that 

1  There  is  no  Amphitryon  here,  nor  is  it  easy  to  see  where  the  husband 
of  Alcmena  would  have  come  in.  Another  vase  has  now  been  found  with 
the  same  subject.     It  is  in  the  Etruscan  Museum  at  Florence. 


XX 


FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


419 


the  scene  takes  place  on  a  stage,  in  front  of  which  hang  two  wreaths, 
and  which  is  approached  by  six  steps.  There  are  similar  stages  shown 
on  other  vases  {e.g.  189,  151).  These  vases  have  therefore  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  revolutionary  hypothesis  recently  started  by 
Dr.  Dorpfeld,  that  in  the  Greek  theatre  there  was  no  raised  stage  and 
that  the  performance  took  place  on  the  level  of  the  orchestra  (see  the 
discussion  in  Haigh's  Attic  Theatre). 

F  151  (crater). — A  parody  of  the  myth  of  Chiron,  the  centaur, 
cured  of  blindness  by  Apollo.  The  stage  is  approached  by  four  steps, 
on  one  of  which  stands  the  slave  Xanthias,  who  has  preceded  Chiron 
and  now  helps  his  master  up.  The  hinder  part  of  Chiron  is  formed 
by  a  slave  pushing  from  behind.  His  eyes  are  closed  to  indicate 
blindness.  Behind  him  is  a  youth,  perhaps  Achilles,  the  centaur's 
pupil.  On  the  right,  in  a  cave  above,  are  two  hideous  nymphs  seated 
in  conversation  (the  reference  may  be  to  Pausanias,  v.  5.  10). 

F  366. — Burlesque  of  the  stealing  of  the  Palladion  from  the  Temple 
of  Athena  at  Troy.  The  figure  of  the  goddess,  painted  white  to 
represent  a  statue,  is  being  carried  off  by  Ulysses,  who  is  accompanied 
by  Diomed. 

We  may  next  notice  scenes  from  ordinary  comedies- 
comedies  of  a  somewhat  broad  and  boisterous  character,  it 
would  seem  : — 

F  188  (crater). — Dionysus  holds  out  some  fruit  to  a  comic  actor 
who  is  dancing  before  him  as  if  intoxicated.  On  his  head  he  balances 
a  large  basket.  Dionysus  raises  his  right  hand  as  if  to  prevent  the 
basket  from  falling.  The  representation  of  drunkenness  has  in  all  ages 
been  a  favourite  motive  on  the  comic  stage. 

F  189  (crater). — Scene  from  a  farce  :  perhaps  a  father  dragging  a 
drunken  youth  home  from  a  debauch. 

F  1 50  (crater).  — An  old  man  visits  a  lady  at  night.  He  presents 
her  with  fruit  as  an  offering  (as  in  Theocritus,  iii.  10),  while  a  com- 
panion stands  by  with  a  torch  to  light  him.  The  lady  is  bedecked 
with  jewellery  and  embroidery  to  receive  her  visitor,  and  even  the  wall 
is  adorned  with  wreaths  in  his  honour  (see  Wright's  History  of 
Caricature). 

Lastly,  we  may  notice  some  vases  which  are  collected  in 
the  last  case  to  illustrate  the  game  of  cottabos — a  game 
which  was  imported  from  Sicily  and  became  a  favourite 
diversion  at  drinking-parties  in  Athens  and  other  Greek  cities. 
We  have  seen  several  illustrations  of  the  game  already  {e.g. 
E  453,  p.  383  ;  F  579,  p.  415),  and  some  general  remarks  on 
the  subject  may  now  be  of  interest : — 

The  cottabos-player  had  to  throw  with  force  and  dexterity  a  small 
quantity  of  wine,  either  the  dregs  of  his  cup  or  wine  specially  poured 
in  for  the  purpose,  in  such  a  way  that  the  bulk  of  it  struck  full  and 


420 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM  chap. 


with  an  audible  clash  or  clatter  against  a  mark.  For  a  successful 
stroke,  it  was  essential  both  to  hit  the  mark  and  to  produce  a  loud 
clashing  noise.  The  prizes  at  the  ordinary  game  consisted  of  eggs, 
sweetmeats,  etc.  Often,  however,  the  game  was  erotic.  The  player 
called  out  the  name  of  his  mistress,  and  the  sound  produced  by  his 
throw  was  considered  an  oracle  of  love  ;  a  good  hit  indicating  reciprocal 
affection  and  a  feeble  sound  the  contrary.  Thus  in  F  579  Love 
is  himself  represented  as  arranging  the  cottabos  apparatus.  The 
game  was  played  in  various  ways,  which  we  may  roughly  summarise 
as  (a)  without  special  apparatus,  and  (b)  with.  (a)  In  the  former 
case,  the  wine  was  either  thrown  into  a  metal  basin,  so  as  to  produce  a 
clashing  noise,  or  a  large  bowl  was  filled  with  water  in  which  saucers 
were  made  to  float,  and  the  object  was  to  hit  the  saucer,  (b)  The 
nature  of  the  special  apparatus  employed  in  cottabos-playing  has  been 
made  clear  by  discoveries  in  recent  years.  A  cottabos-stand  was  found 
in  a  tomb  below  the  public  promenade  at  Perugia,  and  this  discovery 
caused  other  bronze  stands,  which  had  been  previously  taken  for 
candelabra,  to  be  similarly  identified.  One  of  these  stands,  found  at 
Naucratis,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum  (Bronze  Room,  Case  8,  No. 
2 559)-  A  disk  of  bronze  was  delicately  balanced  on  the  pointed  top  of 
a  bronze  rod  rising  from  a  supporting  tripod.  Some  distance  lower 
down  on  the  same  rod  there  rested  a  much  larger  disk.  The  part  to  be 
aimed  at  was  the  upper  disk,  which,  when  hit  at  the  proper  point,  fell 
down  on  to  the  larger  disk  below,  and  thus  caused  a  clashing  noise : — 

' '  The  game  of  kottabos,  as  I  have  sketched  it,  will  probably  be  considered 
to  be  a  very  dull  and  childish  one,  unworthy  of  the  subtle  wits  and  refined 
taste  of  the  Athenians  at  a  time  when  the  greatest  masterpieces  in  art  and 
literature  were  produced.  Originating,  as  it  appears  to  have  done,  in  a 
primitive  drinking  custom,  which  required  the  guests  to  throw  away  the 
dregs  of  their  cups  at  or  beyond  a  distant  line  traced  on  the  ground,  or, 
as  Mr.  Murray  has  suggested  to  me,  in  a  drunken  game  of  trying  to  put 
out  the  light  on  a  tall  lampstand,  it  had  probably  attained  to  great  refine- 
ments of  play  in  its  later  developments,  requiring  much  skill  of  hand  and 
sureness  of  aim.  .  .  .  The  senseless  expenditure  of  wine  at  kottabos  would 
be  thought  a  monstrous  extravagance  according  to  modern  notions,  but  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  wine  was  a  very  cheap  commodity  in  Greece, 
and  that  the  Greeks  drank  it  very  largely  diluted  in  water  "  (Alfred  Higgins 
in  Archceologia,  li.  p.  383). 

With  regard  to  the  representation  of  the  game  on  vases,  it  should 
be  noticed  that  some  of  the  cottabos  -  vases  have  funereal  scenes  on  the 
reverse.  In  a  tomb  at  Perugia,  adjoining  the  one  in  which  a  cottabos- 
stand  was  found,  a  warrior  was  buried  with  his  dice.  The  idea,  there- 
fore, may  have  been  that  the  game  of  cottabos  would  enliven  the 
shadowy  realm  of  Hades.  In  later  vases  it  is  the  gods,  not  mortals, 
who  are  represented  as  "  cottabising."  It  was  a  game,  thought  the 
Athenians,  worthy  of  the  banquets  of  the  gods. 

Thus  in  the  vases  immediately  before  us,  F  275  shows 


XX 


THE  FOURTH  VASE  ROOM 


421 


the  youthful  Dionysus  on  a  couch  holding  out  a  small  white 
kylix  by  one  finger  inserted  in  the  handle,  as  if  about  to  throw 
the  cottabos.  On  F  273  Ariadne  is  similarly  employed  ;  by 
the  side  of  her  couch  is  a  twisted  cottabos-stand.  On  F  37 
is  another  banquet  scene  with  a  similar  stand. 


Index  of  Vases  referred  to  in  this  Chapter 


No. 

Page 

No. 

Page 

No. 

Page 

B  603  . 

•  399 

F  159  • 

•  397 

F  352  . 

412 

604  . 

•  405 

160  . 

.  408 

366  . 

419 

605  . 

.  405 

173 

•  415 

417  . 

411 

606  . 

406 

174  . 

•  4i5 

479  • 

417 

607  , 

•  397 

179 

.  402 

480  . 

402 

608  . 

•  396 

184  . 

401 

490  . 

402 

609  . 

400 

185  ■ 

.  411 

492  . 

410 

610  . 

400 

188  . 

•  419 

500  . 

414 

611  . 

•  399 

189  , 

•  4i9 

508  . 

415 

612  . 

400 

194  , 

•  413 

542  • 

415 

E467  . 

•  397 

218  . 

•  4i4 

579  ■ 

415 

485  . 

.  411 

220 

•  4i4 

G     1  . 

410 

716  . 

410 

223  . 

•  413 

42  . 

406 

F      1  . 

.  396 

232  . 

•  414 

48  ■ 

406 

37  • 

.  421 

240  . 

•  4i3 

51  • 

406 

56  . 

.  411 

269  . 

.  418 

103  . 

406 

59  • 

•  409 

270 

.  418 

104 

406 

66  : 

•  409 

271  . 

•  404 

105  . 

406 

69  ■ 

.  409 

272  . 

•  409 

118  . 

407 

101  , 

.  411 

273  • 

.  421 

119    .   ;  "\ 

407 

107  , 

•  411 

274  • 

•  4i7 

121  . 

407 

108  . 

.  411 

275  • 

.  420 

122  . 

407 

123  . 

•  4i7 

277  ■ 

.  .  402 

125  ; 

407 

147  . 

412 

278  . 

; '  408 

127 

407 

150 

•  4i9 

279  ■ 

■  403 

132  . 

407 

151  . 

•  4i9 

284  . 

402 

178  . 

411 

155  < 

.  412 

308  . 

416 

Also  a  vase  un- 

156 * 

.  41.1 

33i  • 

.  416 

numbered  at 

p.  416 

157  • 

.  418 

332  . 

.  416 

CHAPTER  XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 

"  Excudent  alii  spirantia  mollius  aera  (others  may  beat  out  more  ten- 
derly the  breathing  brass)." — Virgil,  of  the  Greeks. 

The  stone  that  breathes  and  struggles, 

The  brass  that  seems  to  speak, 
Such  cunning  they  who  dwell  on  high 

Have  given  unto  the  Greek. 

Macau  lay. 

In  this  room  is  a  large  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman 
articles  made  of  bronze — most  of  them,  objects  of  art ;  some, 
only  of  utility.  It  will  be  convenient  to  examine  the  bronzes 
in  various  categories: — (i)  statues,  (2)  statuettes,  (3)  reliefs, 
mirrors,  etc.,  (4)  lamps,  candelabra  and  vases,  (5)  instruments, 
implements,  utensils,  etc.,  (6)  armour,  (7)  inscriptions.1 

BRONZE  STATUES 

The  early  Greek  sculptors  appear  to  have  executed  their 
work  in  bronze  and  other  metals  by  hammering  out  plates  in 
relief,  and  then  fastening  them  on  to  a  wooden  model. 
Pausanias  describes  a  certain  image  of  Supreme  Zeus  as  "  the 
oldest  bronze  image  in  existence.  For  it  is  not  made  in  one 
piece,  but  the  parts  have  been  hammered  separately,  then 
fitted  to  each  other,  and  fastened  with  nails  to  keep  them 
together.  They  say  that  the  image  was  made  by  Clearchus 
of  Rhegium,  and  some  say  that  Clearchus  was  a  pupil  of 

1  The  Catalogue  of  the  Bronzes,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Etruscan,  by 
H.  B.  Walters,  issued  by  the  Trustees  (30s.),  may  be  borrowed  from  the 
attendant.  An  attractive  companion  to  study  in  the  Bronze  Room  is  Dr. 
A.  S.  Murray's  work  on  Greek  Bronzes,  illustrated  from  specimens  in  the 
Museum  [Portfolio  Monograph,  5s. ). 


422 


CHAP.  XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


423 


Daedalus  himself"  (iii.  17.  6).  An  example  of  the  method  thus 
described  by  Pausanias  is  the  bronze  bust,  from  the  Polledrara 
tomb,  now  in  our  Etruscan  collection  (p.  476).  The  invention 
of  hollow  casting,  in  which  the  metal  is  kept  to  a  given  thick- 
ness by  an  inner  core  of  sand,  though  practised  at  an  earlier 
period  in  Egypt,  is  attributed  by  Greek  writers  to  the  Samian 
artists,  Rhoecus  and  Theodorus ;  for  they,  says  Pausanias 
(viii.  14.  8  ;  x.  38.  6),  "  were  the  first  who  discovered  the  art  of 
founding  bronze  to  perfection  and  the  first  who  cast  it  in  a 
mould."  In  the  earlier  days,  he  adds,  men  "  did  not  know 
how  to  make  bronze  images  in  a  single  piece  as  they  might 
weave  a  garment."  The  date  of  these  Samian  artists  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  about  580-540  B.C.  Great  artistic  advance 
became  possible  when  images,  woven  (as  it  were)  in  a  single 
piece,  could  be  reproduced  from  the  sculptor's  work  in  clay. 
As  the  art  was  perfected,  the  thickness  of  the  metal  in  the 
cast  was  reduced  to  the  minimum  consistent  with  strength  and 
durability.  By  tooling  and  chasing  of  the  cast  the  artistic 
effect  was  enhanced,  and  the  images  were  sometimes  inlaid 
with  silver,  while  various  precious  stones,  or  vitreous  pastes, 
were  employed  to  give  lustre  to  the  eyes.  All  the  great  artists 
worked  in  bronze  ;  for  colossal  statues  in  particular  bronze 
had  no  rival,  and  some  sculptors — Lysippus,  for  instance — 
used  no  other  material.  The  bronze  consisted  of  about  75 
per  cent  of  copper  with  an  alloy  of  zinc,  tin,  lead,  or  silver. 
Vast  numbers  of  bronze  statues  by  ancient  sculptors  are  known 
to  us  from  literary  records,  but  very  few  have  survived.  The 
reason  for  this  is  obvious : — 

"  Bronze  decays  under  influences  which  do  not  affeot  marble,  and  the 
intrinsic  value  of  this  metal  has  caused  thousands  of  statues  to  be 
melted  down,  which,  had  they  been  in  marble,  might  have  been  dis- 
interred, and  even  reconstructed  out  of  many  fragments,  like  the 
statue  of  Mausolus.  Thus  the  great  works  in  bronze  of  Pheidias  and 
Scopas,  fused  in  the  mints  of  barbaric  conquerors,  must  have  furnished 
the  coin  by  which  their  mercenaries  were  paid,  and,  for  aught  we 
know,  may  still  be  circulating  in  the  copper  currencies  of  the  Eastern 
world.  The  disappearance  of  the  Greek  masterpieces  in  bronze  is 
almost  as  much  to  be  deplored  as  the  loss  of  their  paintings.  Neither 
the  bronzes  of  Herculaneum  nor  the  Roman  copies  in  marble  of  bronze 
chefs-d'oeuvre  which  may  here  and  there  be  detected  in  sculpture 
galleries,  give  us  more  than  a  feeble  and  inadequate  idea  of .  .  .  what 
the  style  of  bronze  statuary  in  the  great  age  was  like"  (Newton's 
Essays,  p.  402). 


424 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


The  only  complete  statue  here  (on  Pedestal  6)  is  the 
Apollo  (828)  from  Zifteh,  in  the  Egyptian  Delta.  This  is  a 
late  work  (about  100  B.C.)  —  an  imitation,  according  to 
Furtwangler  {Masterpieces,  p.  353),  of  an  original  work  by 
Euphranor.  "The  eyes  gaze  straight  in  front  of  them,  the 
hair  is  very  individual."  The  loose  curls  are  made  separately 
and  put  on.    The  legs  are  restored. 

In  a  finer  style  is  the  right  leg  of  a  statue  (No.  265  on 
Pedestal  5),  wearing  a  greave  on  which  is  a  Gorgon's  head  in 
relief.  With  it  were  found  fragments  of  inlaid  drapery  now 
exhibited  beside  it.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
the  attitude  of  the  statue  to  which  the  leg  belonged.  Was  it 
an  armed  soldier  running,  or  a  hero  mounting  a  chariot,  or  a 
Mars  ?  The  leg  itself — with  the  muscles  carefully  marked, 
even  a  vein  being  shown — has  been  much  praised.  It  is, 
says  Sir  Edward  Poynter,  P.R.A.,  M  a  unique  specimen  of 
the  acme  of  Greek  art "  :— 

"  To  the  artist  the  interest  of  this  magnificent  fragment  lies  in  its 
being  of  unsurpassed  workmanship,  and  of  that  culminating  period  of 
art  when,  having  freed  itself  from  the  archaism  which  hampered  ex- 
pression, it  still  retains  that  severity  of  style  which  shows  that  the  idea 
to  be  expressed  is  still  the  dominant  one  in  the  mind  of  the  artist,  and 
that  the  study  of  beauty  and  the  utmost  skill  of  workmanship  were 
still  to  him  the  means  to  an  end  :  the  means,  that  is  to  say,  of  glorify- 
ing to  the  highest  point  the  subject  on  which  he  was  engaged.  .  .  . 
Vigour  and  elegance  of  line,  firmness  of  form,  complete  expression  of 
all  the  subtleties  of  life  and  movement,  yet  with  no  insistence  on 
trivialities  of  detail,  perfect  symmetry  of  proportion,  and,  as  I  have 
said,  workmanship  of  unsurpassed  beauty,  are  all  combined  in  this 
superb  fragment,  which  seems  to  me  second  to  nothing  which  the 
Museum  already  possesses.  The  finish  is  that  of  a  gem  or  a  coin, 
while  the  largeness  of  treatment  is  such  that  it  might  have  been 
hewn  with  an  axe,  and  the  play  of  the  muscles  is  as  full  of  spring  and 
elasticity  as  life  itself — the  heel  alone  seems  to  me  a  masterpiece. 
The  surface,  moreover,  of  this  bronze  is  in  the  most  perfect  condition  ; 
I  should  like  to  think  that  it  never  had  more  polish  than  we  now  see 
on  it  ;  the  texture  is  wonderfully  like  that  of  the  living  epidermis  " 
{/.U.S.  vii.  pp.  189-193). 

This  leg  was  found  in  Southern  Italy,  and  was  purchased 
from  a  shoemaker.  "  An  examination  of  the  surface  reveals," 
says  Dr.  Murray,  "  a  large  number  of  spots  where  the  sculptor 
has  removed  flaws  from  the  bronze,  replacing  them  by  very 
thin  oblong  pieces  of  bronze,  reminding  us  of  the  very  careful 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


425 


finishing  of  bronze  statues  suggested  by  the  picture  on  a  Greek 
vase  in  Berlin,  where  we  see  the  sculptors  at  work.  It  would 
appear  as  if  the  ancient  sculptors  had  left  much  more  to  be 
done  at  that  stage  than  is  the  custom  in  modern  times  "  {Hand- 
book of  Greek  Archceology,  p.  279). 

A  magnificent  fragment  of  a  bronze  statue  is  the  head  of 
Aphrodite  (266)  in  the  centre  of  the  room  (Pedestal  1). 
This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  majestic  of  Greek 
works  in  bronze  which  have  come  down  to  us.1  With  it 
was  found  a  hand  holding  an  end  of  drapery  (in  Case  45). 
The  head  evidently  belonged  to  a  statue,  and  some  have 
sought  to  connect  it  with  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles. 
Others  see  in  it  an  example  in  bronze  of  the  same  majestic 
style  that  distinguishes  the  period  of  Phidias  : — 

"  The  lips,  slightly  parted,  seem  to  breathe.  The  nose,  like 
that  of  some  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  types,  is  rather  wide  between 
the  eyes  ;  the  forehead  is  low,  but  not  wanting  in  majesty ;  the  hair 
flows  in  deeply-channeled  curves.  Those  who  have  studied  Greek 
art  feel  at  once  that  we  have  here  one  of  those  finely-balanced 
ideal  types  in  which  the  ancient  sculptor  sought  to  blend  superhuman 
majesty  with  a  beauty  so  real  and  lifelike  that  the  whole  conception  of 
the  work  is  kept,  as  it  were,  within  the  pale  of  human  sympathy,  and 
the  religious  impression,  which  was  the  main  purpose  of  Greek  art  [in 
the  best  time],  is  enhanced,  not  impaired,  by  the  sensuous  charm. 
The  first  impression,  in  short,  produced  by  this  bronze  head  is  that  of 
majestic,  godlike  beauty,  simple,  but  not  too  severe,  with  just  enough 
of  expression  to  give  the  face  a  human  interest,  and  make  us  feel  that 
the  conception  is  a  product  of  a  human  imagination  inspired  by  a 
divine  theme,  of  a  mortal  striving  to  body  forth  his  idea  of  the 
immortal.  ...  It  comes  nearer  to  our  conception  of  the  work  of 
a  great  master  than  any  bronze  yet  discovered  ;  we  learn  from  it  more 
than  from  any  other  extant  bronze  what  perfect  mastery  the  ancient 
sculptor  attained  over  this  material,  how  in  his  plastic  hands  it  became 
as  clay  in  the  hands  of  the  potter,  so  that  in  gazing  at  the  form  we 
forget  the  material  and  the  absence  of  colour,  and  think  only  of  the 
life  which  a  master  spirit  has  evoked  out  of  the  ductile  metal "  (Newton, 
Castellani  Collection,  pi.  i.,  and  Essays,  p.  400). 

The  late  Sir  Frederic  Burton  also  wrote  an  enthusiastic 
appreciation  of  this  bronze.  Among  other  elements  of  beauty 
in  the  work,  Burton  calls  attention  to  the  absence  of  strict 
symmetry  as  assisting  the  impression  of  life  : — 


1  The  recently  recovered  "  Hermes  of  Cythera  "  will  perhaps  bear  away 
the  palm,  but  it  is  a  work  of  a  later  school. 


426 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


"  The  horizontal  lines  of  the  features  are  not  always  at  right  angles 
with  the  vertical  line,  nor  precisely  parallel  with  each  other.  The 
right  brow  is  rather  lower  than  the  left,  the  right  nostril  rather  higher 
than  its  companion.  The  sculptor  had  to  deal  with  the  rigid  stone  and 
metal ;  to  inspire  these  with  the  sense  of  vitality  and  mobility,  which 
in  real  organised  bodies  is  reached  by  means  beyond  his  power.  In 
the  body  and  limbs  the  difficulty  was  conquerable  to  him  by  the 
slightest  variation  in  the  action  of  the  opposing  members.  But  to 
the  godlike  countenance,  the  epitome  of  the  outward  expression  of 
humanity,  he  had  to  give  life  and  intelligence  by  the  suggestion  or  play 
of  the  features  which,  within  due  limits,  is  not  inconsistent  with  the 
most  sublime  serenity,  and  is,  moreover,  in  harmony  with  those  laws 
by  which  nature  acts  upon  our  perceptions  and  emotions.  Nature 
herself  undoubtedly  seems  to  aim  at  symmetry  in  all  organised  forms  as 
well  in  plants  as  in  animated  beings  ;  but  happily  for  our  sense  of 
beauty  she  never  quite  reaches  her  goal.  In  those  human  countenances 
which  approach  most  nearly  to  absolute  regularity  there  is  a  limit  which, 
if  once  surpassed,  leaves  us  wearied  with  a  sense  of  '  statuesqueness ' 
such  as  nobody  can  long  endure.  We  are  not,  indeed,  without 
statuesque  statues,  but  they  are  not  to  be  sought  amongst  the  noblest 
Greek  works  which  time  has  left  us.  .  .  .  It  is  instructive  to  compare 
this  head  with  the  Hypnos  (p.  433),  the  Homer  (p.  433),  and  the 
splendid  portrait  bust  from  Cyrene  (p.  432),  and  all  three  consummate 
works  in  their  kind.  The  mode  of  using  the  bronze  in  these  several 
works  for  the  expression  of  character  and  texture  shows  the  capabilities 
of  that  material  in  hands  which  know  how  to  master  it.  The  diversity 
of  treatment  is  chiefly  observable  in  the  hair  :  in  the  lank  thin  locks  of 
the  aged  poet ;  in  the  crisp  close  curls  of  the  Cyrenean  ;  in  the  silky 
flaccidity  of  the  hair  of  the  sleep-god,  which  seems  one  with  the 
downy  noiseless  owl's  wing  springing  from  his  temple  ;  finally,  in  the 
living,  elastic  waves,  which  are  kept  in  check  by  the  diadem  that 
encircles  the  brow  of  our  goddess"  {Portfolio,  1873,  pp.  130- 
132). 

This  beautiful  fragment  was  found  at  Satala,  near  Erzingan, 
in  Armenia,  by  a  Turkish  Bey,  who  forwarded  it  to  a  friend  of 
his,  a  police  official  at  Constantinople.  He  sold  it  to  a  Greek 
vendor  of  antiquities,  from  whose  possession  it  passed  into 
that  of  a  Levantine  attached  to  the  British  Consulate.  From 
him  Castellani  obtained  it,  and  at  last,  after  these  wanderings, 
it  found  a  home  in  our  Museum,  being  purchased  with  other 
antiquities  from  Castellani  in  1873.  Erzingan  was  in  ancient 
times  the  site  of  a  famous  shrine  of  Anahit,  the  Armenian 
Aphrodite  : — 

There,  in  a  gilded  carven  place, 

Queen  Venus'  semblance  stood,  more  fair 

Than  women  who  that  day  did  bear, 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


427 


And  yet  a  marvel  for  the  life 
Wherewith  its  brazen  limbs  were  rife. 
Not  in  that  country  was  she  wrought, 
Or  in  those  days  ;  she  had  been  brought 
From  a  fair  city  far  away, 
Ruined  e'en  then  for  many  a  day. 

Oh,  cold  and  brazen  goodlihead, 

How  lookest  thou  on  those  that  live  ? 

Thou  who,  tales  say,  was  wont  to  strive 

On  earth,  in  heaven,  and  'neath  the  earth, 

To  map  all  in  thy  net  of  mirth, 

And  drag  them  down  to  misery.  .  .  . 

(William  Morris's  Earthly  Paradise j  "  The  Ring  given  to 
Venus,"  quoted  by  Mrs.  Wherry  in  her  Greek  Sculpture  with 
Story  and  Song,  p.  268.)  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
Greeks  filled  the  eyes  of  their  bronze  heads  with  glass-paste  or 
ivory  or  precious  stones.  In  the  loss  of  these  the  eyes  are 
represented  to  us  not  positively  by  lustre  but  negatively  by  deep 
shadow.  "When  the  eyes  are  blank,"  says  yEschylus,  "  all 
the  love  is  gone  "  (Agam.  409). 

Another  general  remark  may  be  made.  Most  of  the 
bronzes  which  have  come  down  to  us  have,  from  lying  so 
long  in  the  earth,  acquired  a  covering  of  what  is  technically 
called  a  patina,  which  is  generally  some  shade  of  green, 
though  sometimes  also  nearly  blue,  and  at  other  times  drab. 
Differences  of  soil  and  of  the  alloy  account  for  the  differences 
of  colour.  This  patina  antiqua  has  been  greatly  admired  by 
connoisseurs  ;  so  true  is  it,  as  Millais  used  to  say,  that  "  time 
is  one  of  the  greatest  of  old  masters."  1  But  in  imagining 
how  Greek  bronzes  looked  in  their  original  state  we  must 
remove  the  discolorations  of  time.     In  the  clear  atmosphere 

1  Modern  chemistry  has,  however,  invented  various  processes  for 
producing  this  effect  of  time  upon  bronze,  and  connoisseurs  should  be 
on  the  alert  accordingly.  Not  even  the  most  learned,  says  the  late 
Count  Tyszkiewicz,  are  safe.  ' '  Formerly  the  false  patina  was  applied ', 
if  one  may  use  the  word,  to  the  bronze,  and  only  a  beginner  could  fall 
into  the  snare.  But  now  a  patina  can  be  produced  identical  to  that 
of  the  action  of  time.  The  High  Priest  of  this  species  of  swindling  is  a 
Roman  well  known  to  all  collectors  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  Belonging 
by  birth  to  a  family  of  chemists,  and  a  clever  chemist  himself,  he  has 
invented  a  method  of  imparting  to  bronze  every  kind  of  known  patina, 
from  the  beautiful  smooth  and  brilliant  sort  that  is  blue  or  green  to  the 
rough  patina  that  is  produced  by  the  soil  of  Rome  or  the  bed  of  the  river" 


428 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


of.  Greece  bronze  statues  would  have  had  a  resplendence  of 
which  those  familiar  to  us  in  murky  London  give  no  idea. 


BRONZE  STATUETTES 

Though  ancient  bronze  statues  have  for  the  most  part  dis- 
appeared from  the  world,  the  excavation  of  tombs,  temples,  and 
buried  cities  has  yielded  a  very  large  number  of  statuettes. 
The  output  of  statuettes  must  have  been  enormous.  Some 
were  probably  executed  from  the  models  of  great  artists  ; 
others  by  minor  craftsmen.  They  seem  to  have  had  various 
uses.  They  served  as  images  for  worship,  as  votive  offerings, 
as  charms,  or  were  designed  simply  for  the  ornamentation 
of  dwellings.  They  "  stood  as  ornaments  on  the  tops  of 
candelabra,  were  affixed  to  vases,  formed  stands  of  mirrors, 
and  possibly  also  were  often  kept  apart  in  small  shrines,  such 
as  the  Sacrarium  represented  at  Pompeii  ;  serving,  in  fact,  as 
household  gods."  It  is  related  of  Alexander  the  Great  that 
he  carried  about  with  him  on  his  campaigns  a  bronze  statuette 
of  Hercules  by  his  favourite  sculptor,  Lysippus  ;  and  similar 
stories  are  told  of  Sulla,  Nero,  and  Hadrian.  The  variety  of 
subjects  in  the  statuettes  which  have  come  down  to  us  is 
infinite — as  may  be  seen  by  anybody  who  takes  a  general 
glance  round  this  room— ranging  from  the  gods  of  Olympus 
to  incidents  of  daily  life  and  the  humblest  animals.  Statuettes 
were  often  buried  in  tombs  together  with  other  objects  which 
were  used  in  the  funeral  ceremonies  or  which  the  dead  man 
valued  in  life,  and  to  this  fact  the  preservation  of  so  many  of 
them  is  due.  There  are  several  hundreds  of  statuettes  in  this 
room.  We  can  notice  only  a  few  of  the  more  beautiful  or 
interesting  : — 

On  the  farthest  pedestal  (No.  2),  on  the  east  or  right  side  of 
the  room,  are  select  Greek  statuettes,  mostly  of  the  archaic 

period  (sixth  century). .  Especially  noteworthy  here  is  a  beauti- 
ful statuette  of  a  female  figure  (192) — sometimes  called  Minerva 
(see  p.  444) — standing  on  its  ancient  pedestal  : — 

(Memories  of  an  Old  Collector,  ch.  xiii.,  where  will  be  found  some  further 
particulars  of  this  ingenious  industry,  together  with  some  hints  on  the 
detection  of  such  forgeries).  There  is,  however,  reason  for  thinking  that 
the  ancient  sculptors  sometimes  produced  a  patina  themselves  by  artificial 
means  (see  Mr.  H.  B.  Walters's  Catalogue  0/  Bronzes,  p.  xxxv. ). 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


429 


This  is  remarkable  in  two  respects.  First,  the  drapery  is  orna- 
mented down  the  front  with  a  mseander  border  inlaid  with  silver — an 
equivalent,  in  the  case  of  a  bronze,  to  the  bright  colours  with  which 
the  border  of  draperies  were  often  painted  in  statues.  Secondly,  in 
the  pupil  of  each  eye  is  seta  small  diamond.  Looked  at  in  the  proper 
light,  the  eyes  are  thus  seen  to  flash  and  sparkle.  This  use  of  diamonds 
is  probably  unique  in  Hellenic  art.  In  ancient  times  it  was  considered 
impossible  to  cut  or  polish  the  true  diamond  on  account  of  its  excessive 
hardness.  Here  minute  crystals  of  diamonds  are  fixed  in  the  pupil  of 
the  eye,  giving  a  wonderful  look  of  life  and  spirit.  The  crystals  are 
so  minute,  that  without  a  close  inspection  they  might  easily  pass  un- 
noticed. Though  there  is  a  certain  archaic  stiffness  and  formality  in 
the  pose,  the  face  has  animation  and  even  beauty.  With  her  left  hand 
she  draws  up  her  skirt  by  the  embroidered  border.  Her  right  hand, 
now  wanting,  probably  held  a  flower.  "  There  was  much  exquisiteness 
among  the  Greek  women  of  those  days.  Satisfied  with  their  own 
beauty  and  the  perfection  of  their  dress,  they  liked  to  dally  with  a 
flower  in  the  hand,  as  if  a  flower  were  obviously  the  one  thing  best 
suited  to  them."  This  beautiful  statuette,  which  belongs  to  the  sixth 
century  B.C.,  was  found  at  Verona  (Newton's  Castellani  Collection, 
pi.  ii.  ;  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture,  i.  169,  and  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  28  ; 
Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  p.  131). 

Another  statuette  here,  though  in  itself  very  stiff  and  un- 
gainly, has  some  historical  interest.    This  is  the  Apollo  of 

Miletus  (219) : — 

We  are  told  that  Darius,  when  he  sacked  the  town  of  Miletus  in 
494  B.C.,  carried  off  from  a  neighbouring  temple  a  bronze  statue  of 
Apollo,  the  work  of  a  Greek  sculptor,  Canachus.  After  a  lapse  of 
nearly  two  centuries,  when  Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Macedonians, 
the  statue  was  returned  to  Miletus,  and  thereafter  appears  on  the 
coinage  of  that  town,  where  it  is  represented  as  an  archaic  statue  of 
Apollo  holding  out  a  fawn  in  his  right  hand.  As  Pliny  also  describes 
the  Apollo  of  Canachus  as  holding  a  stag,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
this  statuette  was  copied  from  that  work.  In  some  respects  the  copy 
is  probably  incorrect.  The  shortness  and  slightness  of  the  thighs,  for 
instance,  in  comparison  with  the  lower  part  of  the  legs,'  which  adds 
greatly  to  the  ungainliness  of  the  figure,  is  a  glaring  fault  which  need 
not  be  attributed  to  Canachus.  In  other  respects  it  enables  us  to 
form  some  idea  of  that  sculptor's  style,  of  which  Cicero  said,  "  Who 
of  us  does  not  know  that  the  statues  of  Canachus  are  too  rigid  to  be 
true  to  nature?"  The  statuette  should  be  compared  with  the  early 
Apollo  statues  which  we  have  already  seen  (p.  115),  and  also  with  a  gem, 
No.  720  (Case  13,  Row  c).  The  god  holds  out  a  fawn  as  a  symbol,  for 
he  was  among  other  things  a  god  of  the  chase.  A  fillet  binds  his  hair, 
which  in  front  is  arranged  in  two  rows  of  curls,  while  long  locks  fall 
on  both  his  shoulders.     He  is  so  described  in  the  Homeric  Hymn  : 


430 


THE  BROXZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


"  The  god  was  like  unto  a  man  full  of  sap  and  vigour  in  all  the 
brilliancy  of  young  manhood  ;  and  over  his  broad  shoulders  streamed 
his  loosed  locks."  The  same  manner  of  dressing  the  hair  is  shown  in 
the  marble  statue  No.  S  in  Archaic  Room.  (Elaborate  discussions  of  this 
statuette  will  be  found  in  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes,  pp.  10-15  :  and 
Frazer's  Pansa;i?'as,  iv.  pp.  429-431.) 

Another  statuette  which  well  shows  the  archaic  manner  is 
the  Hercules  with  outstretched  arm  (212) — characterised  by 
an  expression  of  physical  energy  side  by  side  with  spareness 
and  sinewiness  of  form. 

In  the  later  style  of  Phidias  are  the  Athena  Parthenos 
( 1  o  5  1 )  and  the  Athena  Promachos  (191).  The  former  should 
be  compared  with  the  marble  statuettes  already  discussed 
(p.  18S).  The  latter,  which  comes  from  Athens,  and  is  a 
production  of  the  best  period  of  art.  is  of  special  interest 
as  being  in  all  probability  derived  from  the  original  by 
Phidias.  His  Athena  Promachos  (or  the  "  Champion ") 
was  a  colossal  bronze  statue  erected  as  a  monument  of  the 
victory  of  Marathon.  It  stood  on  the  Acropolis  (see  plan  in 
the  Elgin  Room"),  and  Pausanias  tells  us  that  the  point  of 
the  goddess's  spear  and  the  crest  of  her  helmet  could  be  seen 
from  ships  approaching  Athens  from  Cape  Sunium.  The 
general  effect  of  the  statuette  before  us  is  appropriate  to 
the  conception  of  the  goddess  as  a  fighter  in  the  vanguard. 
She  wears  a  less  elaborate  helmet  than  in  the  Parthenon 
statuettes.  On  the  aegis  on  her  breast  is  the  Gorgon's 
head. 

A  rare  type  is  that  of  Athena  as  the  goddess  of  health 

(1055  ).  in  which  capacity  she  was  worshipped  from  early  times 
on  the  Acropolis  (see  Frazer's  Pausa?rias,  ii.  281):  the  base 
of  a  statue  dedicated  to  her  is  still  in  situ  in  front  of  the 
Propylaea  (figured  in  Harrison  and  Verrall,  p.  3 8 9).  The 
statue  was,  according  to  Plutarch,  closely  connected  with  the 
building.  " ;  While  it  was  in  process,'' he  says,  "one  of  the 
most  skilful  and  hard-working  of  the  masons  lost  his  footing 
and  fell  down.  He  lay  dangerously  ill,  and  the  doctors  gave 
him  up.  Pericles  was  in  despair,  when  the  goddess  appeared 
to  him  in  a  dream,  and  prescribed  a  remedy,  by  using  which 
he  easily  cured  the  mason,  and  in  consequence  of  this  he  set 
up  a  statue  of  Athena  Hygieia  on  the  Acropolis  near  to  the 
altar  which,  as  they  say,  was  there  before.''  Our  statuette  may 
give  us  the  type.    The  goddess  holds  in  her  right  hand  a  serpent, 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


43 1 


at  which  she  looks  down.  With  regard  to  the  technique  of 
this  bronze,  Mr.  Walters  writes  as  follows  : — 

"  At  first  sight  the  figure  appears  to  belong  to  a  good  period  of  art 
and  to  be  a  piece  of  genuine  Greek  workmanship.  This  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  treatment  of  the  drapery,  which  is  no  doubt  a  reminiscence  of 
the  Phidian  period.  But  the  face  is  far  inferior,  and  has  no  preten- 
sions to  merit  or  beauty,  except  for  the  quaintly  pensive  air  which 
characterises  it.  Again,  the  helmet  is  not  Greek,  but  Roman  in  type. 
It  is  distinguished  from  all  Greek  varieties  of  helmet  by  the  projecting 
beam  which  goes  all  round  it,  and  the  low  crest 'which,  instead  of  fall- 
ing clear  behind,  tails  off  into  the  helmet  just  above  the  brim  "  {J.H.S. 
1899,  p.  165). 

The  serpent  was  connected  in  popular  belief  with  the  heal- 
ing art,  and  as  such  appears  coiled  round  a  staff  as  the  regular 
symbol  of  v^sculapius.  Among  all  nations  serpents  are 
believed  to  be  gifted  with  a  knowledge  of  the  plants  that  can 
revive  the  dead.  We  have  already  noticed  a  Greek  vase  on 
which  Polyeidus  the  seer,  having  killed  a  serpent,  observed 
another  approach  the  dead  one  and  restore  it  to  life  by  means 
of  a  certain  herb  (D  5,  p.  358).  Mr.  Frazer  collects 
similar  tales  and  beliefs  from  all  parts  of  the  world  (see  his 
Pausam'as,  iii.  66).  The  ancients  explained  the  connection 
of  the  serpent  with  ^Esculapius  by  saying  that  it  is  the  natural 
symbol  of  the  healing  art,  since  it  periodically  renews  itself  by 
sloughing  off  the  old  skin  (as  represented  on  a  terra-cotta  bas- 
relief,  see  p.  555). 

In  the  same  case  we  may  notice  a  statuette  of  a  nude  male 
figure  (213),  a  figure  to  which  Dr.  Murray  desires  to  give 
prominence,  because  "  among  the  vast  number  of  statuettes  in 
the  Museum  it  is  almost  unique  in  the  closeness  with  which  it 
approaches  the  youths  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  in  its  propor- 
tions and  in  the  inclination  of  the  head  and  rendering  of 
bodily  forms  "  {Greek  Sculpture,  i.  316  ;  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  49). 

In  the  same  case  are  two  notable  mirrors.  No.  242,  found 
in  a  tomb  at  Sunium,  is  supported  by  Aphrodite,  who  holds 
a  dove  in  her  right  hand,  and  two  figures  of  Eros.  The  execu- 
tion is  very  good,  and  the  whole  work  is  in  the  best  style. 
Another  mirror  of  the  finest  workmanship  is  No.  303,  from 
the  Castellani  collection. 

In  Case  B,  which  we  will  next  examine,  are  statuettes  of  a 
larger  size.  Among  the  most  important  is  a  figure  of  the 
satyr  Marsyas  (269),  found  at  Patras  in  the  course  of  some 


432 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


drainage  works  by  a  French  company.  This  is  of  interest  as 
reproducing  (though  in  a  later  style)  an  original  by  Myron 
(see  p.  49),  among  whose  works  Pliny  mentions  a  satyr  in 
wonder  at  the  flutes  and  Athena. 

According  to  the  myth  Athena  invented  the  flutes,  but  threw  them 
away  on  finding  that  they  disfigured  her  face.  They  were  picked  up 
by  Marsyas,  who,  after  learning  to  play  them,  had  the  rashness  to 
challenge  Apollo  and  his  lyre,  and  was  flayed  for  his  presumption.1 
A  relief  on  a  marble  vase  found  at  Athens  depicts  Marsyas  and  Athena, 
in  a  group  as  described  above,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  statuette 
belonged  to  a  similar  group.  Marsyas  in  that  case  would  be  in  the 
act  of  starting  back  in  amazement  when  Athena  threw  the  flutes  to  the 
ground.  The  action  of  the  figure  is  thus  very  effective.  Myron,  as 
we  have  seen  (p.  49),  was  successful  in  the  choice  of  effective 
moments.  It  is  the  momentary  pause  which  follows  the  start  that  is 
here  chosen  by  the  sculptor,  just  as  in  the  Discobolus  he  has  chosen  the 
momentary  pause  that  precedes  the  violent  motion.  It  is  an  attitude 
which  seems  to  be  almost  a  challenge  to  Polycleitus  and  his  Dia- 
dumenos,  as  much  as  to  say,  "  If  you  wish  the  arms  of  a  statue  to  be 
raised,  raise  them  under  some  strong  impulse  like  this,  and  not  merely 
to  fasten  a  diadem"  (Murray's  Greek  Bronzes ,  p.  52;  E.  Gardner's 
Greek  Sculpture,  p.  240). 

The  Philosopher  (848)  is  a  very  fine  head  ;  the  quality  of 
reflectiveness  is  nobly  expressed.  This  bronze  was  found  in 
dredging  the  harbour  of  Brindisi.  The  Silenus  Kistophoros 
(284) — Silenus  carrying  a  basket  on  his  head — served  as  the 
base  of  a  candelabrum. 

The  portrait  head,  from  Cyrene  (268),  is  a  most  interesting 
example  of  ancient  portraiture  in  bronze  : — 

"The  type  of  the  features  is  African,  and  this  head  may  represent 
some  king  of  Numidia.  It  was  probably  part  of  a  statue,  as  it  was 
found  in  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Cyrene.  The  eyes  have  been  formed 
of  vitreous  pastes,  inlaid  portions  of  which  still  remain  in  the  sockets. 


1  Dr.  Murray,  in  a  letter  published  by  Ruskin  (Fors  Clavigera,  1877, 
p.  363),  has  ingenious^  interpreted  the  punishment  of  Marsyas  as  the 
drying  up  of  the  river,  whose  "stony  channel  in  the  sun"  so  often,  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  mocks  us  with  the  memory  of  sweet  waters  in  the 
drought  of  summer.  "It  is  to  be  observed,"  says  Dr.  Murray,  "that 
Marsyas  was  a  river-god,  who  made  the  first  flute  from  the  reeds  of  his 
own  river,  and  thus  he  would  represent  the  music  of  flowing  water,  and  of 
wind  in  the  reeds.  Apollo  was  the  god  of  the  music  of  animate  nature  ; 
the  time  of  his  supremacy  was  summer.  The  time  when  Marsyas  had  it 
all  his  own  way  was  winter.  In  summer  his  stream  was  dried  up,  and,  as 
the  myth  says,  he  was  flayed  alive." 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


433 


The  eyelashes  are  indicated  by  indented  lines.  The  lips  are  formed  of  a 
separate  piece  of  bronze,  the  junction  of  which  maybe  traced  along  the 
edge  of  the  lip.  It  is  probable  that  the  lips  were  covered  with  a  thin 
coat  of  brass,  which  served  to  distinguish  their  colour  from  that  of  the 
face.  The  hair  and  beard  are  finished  with  great  care,  and  at  the  same 
time  with  masterly  breadth  of  treatment"  (Newton,  Guide  to  the  Bronze 
Room,  p.  49). 

Next  comes  a  very  beautiful  winged  head  of  Hypnos 
(sleep),  267,  believed  to  be  an  original  Greek  masterpiece  : 
ascribed  by  some  to  Praxiteles  (Murray's  Greek  Sculpture,  ii. 
259),  by  others  to  Scopas  (Furtwangler's  Masterpieces,  p.  396). 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  works  in  the  collection  : — 

The  left  wing  is  missing.  The  god  of  sleep  is  represented  as  floating 
(as  Shelley  describes) — 

O'er  city,  and  sea,  and  land, 
Touching  all  with  thine  opiate  wand. 

Notice  "the  just  observation  of  nature  which  has  made  the  wings 
those  of  a  night-hawk,  which  moves  without  noise.  It  was  an 
observation  of  Homer's  first  of  all."  It  was  another  happy  inspiration 
of  the  artist  to  place  the  wings  on  the  head  instead  of  on  the  shoulders, 
as  in  the  earlier  representations  of  Hypnos.  "  Among  mankind  it  is  a 
general  habit  in  lying  down  to  sleep  to  rest  the  temples  on  the  hollow 
of  the  hand.  Ancient  artists  had  observed  this  habit.  The  next  step 
would  be  to  assign  the  temples  as  specially  the  seat  of  sleep,  and  to 
attach  to  them  the  silently  moving  wings  of  a  night-bird  "  (Murray's 
Greek  Bronzes,  p.  20).  There  is  a  beautiful  expression  of  quiet  grace 
upon  the  broad  face  of  the  god,  and  the  hair  is  treated  with  great  refine- 
ment. This  bronze  was  found  in  1856  in  a  river-bed  near  Civitella 
d'Arna,  an  ancient  city  four  miles  from  Perugia  (see  Dennis's  Etruria, 
ii.  425). 

The  Youthful  Bacchus  (1326),  found  at  Pompeii,  and 
purchased  by  Payne  Knight  in  a  broker's  shop  in  London,  is 
in  excellent  preservation.  In  the  head  of  a  boy  (850)  notice 
the  funny  little  top-knot  of  hair.  The  head  of  a  poet  (847) 
has  been  long  celebrated  as  one  of  the  finest  bronzes  extant. 
The  expression  of  the  features  is  admirably  rendered  : — 

"  The  head  was  brought  from  Constantinople  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  for  the  collection  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel.  It  after- 
wards came  into  the  possession  of  Dr.  Mead,  at  whose  sale  in  1755  ^  was 
purchased  by  the  Earl  of  Exeter  for  presentation  to  the  British  Museum. 
The  head  is  crowned  with  a  narrow  diadem,  and,  being  inclined  for- 
wards, it  probably  belonged  to  a  sitting  figure,  holding  a  volume  in  his 
hand.    The  head  has  been  called  that  of  Homer,  but  on  a  comparison 

2  F 


434 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


with  the  accepted  type  of  Homer,  it  will  be  found  that  the  nose  in  this 
head  is  larger  and  sharper,  the  cheeks  not  so  hollow,  and  the  countenance 
less  benign  "  (Description  of  the  Ancient  Marbles,  vol.  ii.  pi.  39). 

The  Meleager  (1453) — formerly  in  the  Pulsky  collection — 
is  very  spirited. 

In  the  angles  of  this  case  are  two  bronze  tablets  inscribed 

with  interesting  state  documents.  On  one  of  these  (262)  is 
a  law  passed  by  the  Hypocnemidian  or  Eastern  Locrians, 
regulating  the  status  of  certain  colonists  proceeding  to 
Naupactus,  a  town  of  the  Ozolian  Locrians  (near  the  entrance 
to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth)  : — 

"The  document  provides  with  great  care  for  the  religious  privileges 
of  the  colonists  when  at  home  ;  defines  and  restricts  their  liability  to 
taxation ;  arranges  for  the  enforcement  of  debts  due  to  the  colony  in 
the  mother  country  ;  provides  for  succession  to  property  in  the  colony 
by  heirs  in  the  mother  country,  and  vice  versa,  and  makes  various 
arrangements  as  to  procedure.  The  date  of  the  tablet  must  be 
previous  to  455  B.C.  It  was  found  at  Galaxidi,  a  town  not  far  from 
Chaleion,  which  is  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  document  as  sending 
out  a  band  of  colonists  subject  to  the  same  conditions"  (Guide  to  the 
Department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  1 899,  p.  134). 

The  other  tablet  (263)  is  inscribed  with  a  treaty  which 
marks  a  stage  in  the  progress  of  civilised  states.  The  treaty 
is  between  two  cities  of  Locris,  Oianthe  and  Chaleion,  and 
the  tablet  was  found  on  the  site  of  the  former  city  (the  modern 
Galaxidi)  : — 

"The  treaty  restricts  the  practice  of  reprisals  as  between  citizens  of 
the  two  states.  In  the  absence  of  a  special  treaty,  it  was  necessary  for 
the  citizen  of  one  state  who  conceived  that  he  had  a  claim  on  the  citizen 
of  another,  to  enforce  it  by  a  physical  seizure  of  his  property  or  person. 
The  treaty  provides,  reciprocally,  for  the  substitution  of  a  judicial  process 
for  the  primitive  method  of  reprisal  so  far  as  concerned  seizures  by  land 
or  in  harbour,  and  at  the  same  time  appoints  penalties  for  violations  of 
the  treaty"  (ibid.  p.  134). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  treaty  provides  that  it  shall  be  lawful 
for  the  citizens  of  both  states  to  commit  piracy  anywhere 
except  within  their  own  or  their  ally's  harbours  : — 

"The  date  of  this  inscription  is  probably  not  earlier  than  431  B.C., 
and  the  barbarous  character  of  its  enactments  about  piracy  is  a  con- 
firmation of  what  we  know  from  other  evidence,  that  the  western 
Hellenic  states  outside  the  Peloponnese  did  not  participate  in  the 
general  advance  in  civilisation  which  took  place  in  the  rest  of  Greece 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


435 


after  the  Persian  war.  The  dialect  in  which  this  treaty  is  written  is  as 
rude  as  its  enactments"  (Newton's  Essays  on  Archeology,  p.  107). 

Here  also  is  a  disk  (248)  with  an  incised  design  on  each 
side  of  an  athlete.  On  one  side  he  is  preparing  to  jump, 
holding  out  in  both  hands  jumping-weights  (halteres)  ;  on  the 
other  he  is  measuring  the  length  of  his  leap  ;  the  measuring- 
cord  is  being  stretched  out  to  the  extremity  of  his  arms,  so  as 
to  measure  six  feet.  The  drawing,  in  its  severe  accuracy  and 
careful  anatomy,  is  a  fine  example  of  the  early  Greek  style. 
The  disk  comes  from  Sicily. 

On  the  next  pedestal  (No.  3)  are  Roman  or  Gallo-Roman 
bronzes,  chiefly  found  in  France.  Notice  in  the  front  here  a 
Gaulish  female  prisoner  (819) : — 

"A  very  small  bronze  which  hardly  anyone  would  think  of  stopping 
to  look  at.  It  happens,  however,  that  a  distinguished  French  sculptor, 
M.  Chapu,  caught  sight  of  this  figure,  and  made  a  sketch  of  it  many 
years  ago  when  on  a  visit  here.  Time  passed,  and  he  produced  his 
celebrated  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc,  where  she  is  represented  seated  on 
the  ground,  with  both  hands  clasped  vigorously  round  one  knee. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  posture  was  characteristic  of  Gaulish 
women  in  circumstances  of  despair.  The  resemblance  extends  only 
to  the  posture  of  the  two  figures  ;  and  the  most  that  can  be  said  is 
that  the  sight  of  our  small  bronze  may  have  helped  the  sculptor  un- 
consciously to  select  from  among  other  conceptions  then  floating  in 
his  mind  the  one  which  he  finally  worked  out.  The  moral  of  the 
story  seems  to  be  that  the  most  insignificant  of  our  statuettes  may,  on 
a  propitious  occasion,  render  a  true  service  to  an  artist.  And  the 
reason  no  doubt  is  this,  that  many  of  them  reproduce  the  conceptions 
of  men  more  gifted  than  the  actual  makers  of  the  statuette"  (Murray's 
Greek  Bronzes ',  p.  6). 

The  Gaulish  Chief  (821)  is  a  fine  national  type,  in  the 
national  costume.  The  Mars  (798),  found  near  the  Rhine,  is 
curious  as  showing  the  Gaulish  conception  of  a  classical  god. 
Many  of  the  details  are  borrowed  from  classical  models,  but 
there  is  nothing  classical  in  the  ungainly  proportions  of  the 
figure  and  the  barbaric  roughness  of  the  face.  Nearer  to  the 
classical  model  is  the  Bacchus  (808),  found  at  Chessy,  in  the 
Department  of  the  Rhone. 

The  finest  bronze  in  this  case  is  the  Hermes  (825),  stand- 
ing on  its  original  pedestal,  which  is  beautifully  inlaid  with 
silver.  This  statuette,  formerly  in  the  possession  of  Payne 
Knight,  is  one  of  the  gems  of  the  collection  ; — . 


436 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


It  was  found  intact  in  1732  in  a  cave  near  Lyons  by  a  couple  of 
weather-beaten  labourers.  The  golden  tore,  or  bangle,  round  the 
neck  must  have  been  added  by  the  Gaulish  owner,  who  had  deposited 
it  in  the  cave,  where  for  many  centuries  it  was  preserved.  The  god  is 
represented  in  his  character  of  patron  of  merchandise,  as  indicated  by 
the  big  purse,  made  out  of  the  entire  skin  of  an  animal,  which 
he  holds  in  his  right  hand.  The  caduceus,  held  in  the  left 
hand,  is  of  silver.  The  chlamys  is  a  modern  restoration  from  similar 
specimens.  Both  head  and  body  are  very  fine,  and  the  whole  work  is 
believed  to  be  modelled  on  an  original  by  Polyclitus  (Furtwangler's 
Masterpieces ',  p.  232  ;  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes •,  p.  49  ;  Specimens  of 
Ancient  Sculpture ;  i.  33). 

On  the  opposite  pedestal  (4)  are  Greek  mirrors  supported 
on  the  heads  of  female  figures  and  other  select  Greek 
bronzes.  Among  the  statuettes  here  the  most  beautiful  is 
the  Aphroditd  (1084),  from  the  Pourtales  collection.  This 
exquisite  little  work  is  believed  to  be  modelled  on  the  style 
of  Praxiteles,  of  whom  we  are  told  that,  though  he  owed  his 
greatest  fame  to  works  in  marble,  he  also  produced  statues  of 
the  greatest  beauty  in  bronze.  The  attitude  appears  to  be  a 
variant  of  the  Diadumenus,  applied  to  a  female  figure. 

The  Apollo  (271)  from  Thessaly  is  also  a  graceful  work, 
which  seems,  however,  to  carry  to  an  extreme  the  attitude  of 
indolent  ease,  characteristic  of  Praxiteles.  The  finest  of  the 
mirrors  is  one  which  shows  Aphrodite  with  winged  Loves  who 
support  the  mirror.  See  below  (p.  442)  on  the  subject  of 
mirrors  generally. 

On  the  pedestal  at  the  other  end  of  the  room  (7),  on  this 
side,  are  statuettes  from  Paramythia  (near  Dodona,  in 
Epirus),  illustrating  Greek  work  of  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century.  The  history  of  the  discovery  of  these  bronzes  is 
curious.  They  were  rescued  in  1792  from  a  coppersmith  at 
Janina,  Avho  had  bought  them  for  the  value  of  the  metal.  A 
Greek  merchant,  who  had  seen  similar  objects  in  the  museum 
of  a  collector  at  Moscow,  purchased  them  and  resold  them  to 
the  Empress  Catherine.  She,  however,  died  before  the  transac- 
tion was  completed,  and  her  successor  declined  to  take  the 
things.  The  bronzes  were  then  divided  between  two  Russian 
purchasers,  one  of  whom  sold  his  share  to  Payne  Knight, 
from  whose  collection  they  passed  to  the  British  Museum. 
Few  of  the  bronzes  were  found  unmutilated.  The  barbarians 
who  destroyed  them,  insensible  of  the  value  of  workmanship, 
understood  that  of  the  materials.    They  broke  off  heads  and 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


437 


arms  to  which  silver  emblems  had  been  attached,  but  threw 
aside  the  bronze.  The  great  number  of  bronzes  found  on  one 
spot  suggests  their  destruction  in  a  time  of  war  or  commotion. 
This  may  have  occurred  in  B.C.  167,  when  the  Romans,  after 
the  conquest  of  Macedonia,  gave  up  the  seventy  cities  of 
Epirus  to  destruction.  The  Epirots  themselves  were  sold  as 
slaves  ;  their  gods,  as  we  have  seen,  survived  to  grace  the 
cabinets  and  museums  of  St.  Petersburg  and  London  (see 
Walpole's  Travels  in  the  East,  p.  481,  and  Specimens  of 
Ancient  Sculpture,  vol.  ii.  §  80). 

The  Poseidon  (274)  is  usually  identified  with  the  School  of 
Lysippus  : — 

ce  Lysippus  was  famed  above  his  contemporaries  for  minute  finish 
down  to  the  smallest  details.  Another  ancient  statuette  could  not  be 
found  where  this  is  more  admirably  exemplified.  The  hair  and  beard 
are  full  of  the  most  beautiful  workmanship  carried  into  the  minutest 
details,  while  the  powerful  bodily  forms  are  rendered  with  an  extra- 
ordinary refinement,  extending  to  the  observation  of  the  finer  muscles 
in  the  feet,  and  even  to  a  vein  in  the  left  arm.  The  animation  he  was 
said  to  have  imparted  to  his  statues  is  conspicuous  in  the  bronze  " 
(Murray's  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  80). 

The  figure  of  Zeus  (275)  may  perhaps  belong  also  to  the 
School  of  Lysippus.  The  intense  expression  of  the  face  and 
minute  finish  of  the  hair  and  beard  are  remarkable.  The 
youth  pouring  a  libation  (278)  is  another  very  beautiful 
figure.  The  Apollo  (272)  is  the  feminine  type  of  the  god; 
the  eyes  are  of  silver.  The  drapery  in  the  Serapis  (276)  is 
simple  and  elegant. 

In  the  Wall -cases  31-53  there  are  large  numbers  of 
statuettes,  mostly  Roman  or  Graeco-Eoman.  A  selection  of 
the  finest  is  brought  together  in  Cases  44-47  ;  the  remainder 
are  arranged  according  to  subjects.  It  is  impossible  here  to 
notice  these  in  detail,  but  students  will  find  the  arrangement 
convenient  for  the  comparison  of  different  types.  Thus  in 
Cases  31  and  32  are  Cupids  and  Venuses.  We  are  here 
among  Roman  works,  and  Roman  taste  preferred  the  un- 
draped  and  sensuous  type  of  Aphrodite  to  the  stiffer  and 
draped  version  of  early  Greek  art.  "Are  there  not,"  asks 
Plato  in  the  Symposium,  "two  Loves?  The  elder  one, 
having  no  mother,  who  is  called  the  Heavenly  Aphrodite — she 
is  the  daughter  of  Uranus  ;  the  younger,  who  is  the  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Dione,  whom  we  call  common  (Pandemos)."  This 


438 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


distinction  of  the  philosopher  between  the  higher  and  the 
lower  Love  has  its  counterpart  in  art.  Perhaps  the  most 
beautiful  representation  of  the  Heavenly  Love  which  ancient 
art  has  left  us  is  the  painted  vase  of  Aphrodite  riding  on  the 
swan,  which  we  have  already  seen  (p.  373).  Of  the  lower  Love, 
Aphrodite  Pandemos,  we  have  a  representation  here  which 
shows  her  riding  on  a  ram  (1121).  The  gradual  disappear- 
ance of  drapery  can  be  traced  in  the  succession  of  statues  in 
any  museum.  The  severe  grace  of  which  the  half-draped  type 
is  capable  is  known  to  all  from  the  "  Venus  of  Melos  "  in  the 
Louvre.  Of  the  undraped  Aphrodite  the  most  perfect  type 
was  the  Cnidian  statue  by  Praxiteles.  It  was,  as  we  have 
seen  (p.  43),  a  version  or  perversion  of  this  type  which  found 
most  favour  in  Roman  and  Graeco-Roman  sculpture,  and  the 
same  rule  holds  good  with  the  bronze  statuettes.  Examples 
of  the  "  Venus  Pudica"  are  Nos.  794  and  1097-1103.  In 
other  specimens  (1085,  1094- 1096)  she  is  knotting  up  her 
hair.  In  1083  she  is  fastening  her  sandal.  Nos.  280  and  1080 
belong  to  the  "  Euploia  "  type  (see  below).  No.  829  is  curious. 
The  goddess  is  represented  as  recently  emerged  from  the  sea 
and  occupied  in  putting  on  the  ambrosial  garments  prepared 
for  her  by  the  Graces.  Her  veil  forms  a  kind  of  nimbus  or 
crown  which  is  surrounded  by  seven  ornaments  representative 
of  the  planets.  Beside  her  a  variety  of  emblems  forms  a  kind 
of  pile.  Two  cornucopias,  each  supporting  an  Eros  ;  a  mirror 
and  stephane  for  Aphrodite  ;  a  torch  for  Hecate  ;  a  syrinx  for 
Pan  ;  a  hammer  for  Hephaestus  ;  a  tambourine  for  Dionysus  ; 
a  bow  and  quiver  for  Apollo  and  Artemis  ;  and  a  club  for 
Hercules — a  piece  of  pantheistic  symbolism  characteristic  of 
imperial  Rome. 

In  Case  33  the  subjects  are  Serapis  and  Jupiter  (see  p.  64)  ; 
in  34,  Minerva  and  Cerberus  ;  in  35,  Mars,  Apollo,  Poseidon  ; 
in  36  and  37,  Bacchus ;  in  38,  Satyrs  and  Fauns ;  in  39, 
Mercury;  in  40  and  41,  Hercules.  The  large  goose  (No. 
1887)  in  Case  42  was  found  at  the  Hippodrome  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  head  of  Polyphemus  (1447)  will  be  familiar 
to  some  readers,  as  it  is  reproduced  for  the  frontispiece  to 
Butcher  and  Lang's  Odyssey.  The  sculptor  has  "  added  a 
central  eye  and  treated  the  human  eyes  as  if  they  were  withered 
by  blindness." 

In  Cases  44-47,  as  already  said,  are  select  bronzes — 
bronzes  of  individual  beauty  or  importance,  and  not  merely 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


439 


interesting  for  their  place  in  a  collection  of  types.  We  may 
notice  : — 

Aphrodite,  of  the  type  known  as  Euploia — te\  Aphrodite 
who  grants  good  passages  to  sailors — (282)  remarkable  for  the 
severe  beauty  of  the  goddess.  She  lifts  her  left  foot  as  if  to 
fasten  or  unfasten  her  sandal,  which,  however,  is  not  repre- 
sented. The  left  arm  rested  on  a  column  or  rudder.  We 
have  discussed  this  type  in  the  case  of  a  marble  statuette 
from  Cyrene  (p.  137). 

Hermes  (283),  formerly  in  the  collection  of  the  Due  de 
Chaulnes,  remarkable  for  the  simplicity,  and  beauty  of  treat- 
ment. Probably  a  fragment  from  a  statue  of  the  best  period 
of  Greek  art. 

Boy  playing  "morra"  (826);  probably  part  of  a  group. 
He  holds  his  right  hand  behind  his  back,  and  is  about  to  throw 
forward  his  left  with  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  extended. 
This  game,  which  is  of  remote  antiquity,  is  still  a  great 
favourite  in  Italy,  and  especially  with  the  Roman  populace  : — 

"  Walking  almost  anywhere  in  Rome,  the  ear  of  the  traveller  is  often 
saluted  by  the  loud,  explosive  tones  of  two  voices  going  off  together, 
at  little  intervals,  like  a  brace  of  pistol  shots.  Turning  round  to  seek 
the  cause  of  these  strange  sounds,  he  will  see  two  men  (or  boys)  in  a 
very  excited  state,  shouting  as  they  fling  out  their  hands  at  each  other 
with  violent  gesticulation.  Ten  to  one  he  will  say  to  himself,  if  he 
be  a  stranger  in  Rome,  £  How  quarrelsome  and  passionate  these 
Italians  are  ! '  But  what  he  has  seen  was  not  a  quarrel ;  it  is  simply 
the  game  morra,  which  is  thus  played.  Two  persons  place  themselves 
opposite  each  other,  holding  their  right  hands  closed  before  them. 
They  then  simultaneously,  and  with  a  sudden  gesture,  throw  out  their 
hands,  some  of  the  fingers  being  extended  and  others  shut  up  on  the 
palm,  each  calling  out  in  a  loud  voice  at  the  same  moment  the  number 
he  guesses  the  fingers  extended  by  himself  and  his  adversary  to  make. 
If  neither  cry  out  aright,  or  if  both  cry  out  aright,  nothing  is  gained 
or  lost  ;  but  if  only  one  guess  the  true  number  he  wins  a  point.  The 
points  are  five,  and  as  they  are  made  they  are  marked  by  the  left  hand, 
which,  during  the  whole  game,  is  held  stiffly  in  the  air  about  the 
shoulder's  height,  one  finger  being  extended  for  every  point.  No 
game  has  a  better  pedigree  than  morra.  It  was  played  by  the 
Egyptians  more  than  two  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
In  the  paintings  of  Thebes  and  in  the  temples  of  Beni-Hassan,  seated 
figures  may  be  seen  playing  it,  using  the  same  gestures  as  the  modern 
Romans  (see  the  illustrations  in  Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians,  i.  32  ; 
ii.  55).  From  Egypt  it  was  introduced  into  Greece.  The  Romans 
brought  it  from  Greece  at  an  early  period,  and  it  has  existed  among 
them  ever  since,  having  suffered  apparently  no  alteration.     The  ancient 


440 


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CHAP. 


Roman  name  was  micatio,  and  to  play  it  was  called  tnicare  digitis  (to 
flash  the  fingers),  the  modern  name  morra  being  merely  a  corruption 
of  the  verb  micare  "  (Story's  Roba  di  Roma,  i.  ch.  vi.). 

Bust  of  Lucius  Verus  (835),  see  p.  32.  Hercules  in  the 
garden  of  the  Hesperides  (827) :  he  has  plucked  the  golden 
apples,  and  the  serpent  that  guarded  the  fruit  hangs  dead  on 
the  tree.  This  statue  was  found  among  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
temple  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Byblus  on  the  coast  of  Syria. 
Jupiter  (909),  found  in  Hungary,  and  of  interest  as  giving 
some  idea,  though  in  a  late  and  inferior  style,  of  the  famous 
Zeus  of  Phidias  (see  on  this  point  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes, 

p.  63). 

A  bowl,  with  a  handle  terminating  in  a  ram's  head  (882), 
is  finely  modelled.  In  the  middle  of  the  bowl  is  a  relief  of 
Scylla  destroying  the  companions  of  Odysseus.  Scylla — who 
4 'yelped  terribly" — is  here  represented  with  dogs  issuing  from 
her  waist,  as  in  the  statue  in  the  Ephesus  Room  (p.  137).  We 
saw  among  the  vases  (p.  414)  a  picture  in  which  the  horrors 
of  the  Homeric  personification  of  the  treacherous  rock  are 
softened  down  to  sinewy  grace.  Here  there  is  more  attempt 
to  depict  the  terrors  of  the  scene :  "  Scylla  caught  from 
my  hollow  ship  six  of  my  company,  the  hardiest  of  their  hands 
and  the  chief  in  might.  And  looking  into  the  swift  ship  to 
find  my  men,  even  then  I  marked  their  feet  and  hands  as  they 
were  lifted  on  high  ;  and  they  cried  aloud  in  their  agony,  and 
called  me  by  my  name  for  the  last  time  of  all."  The  eyes  of 
the  men  and  dogs  are  inlaid  with  silver.  This  bowl  was 
acquired  in  1897  from  a  villa  at  Bosco  Reale,  near  Pompeii. 

In  Cases  48-53  the  collection  of  statuettes  is  continued.  In 
50  and  51  are  figures  of  Lares,  the  Roman  domestic  deities. 
In  52  and  53  are  some  very  curious  objects — symbolic  hands 
(874-876).  These  were  intended  to  serve  as  a  protection 
against  the  evil  eye  —  a  form  of  superstition  which  is  still 
very  common  in  Italy.  Notice  that  in  875  and  876  the  two 
smaller  fingers  are  bent,  the  others  extended.  The  hand  in 
this  attitude  of  sacerdotal  benediction  was  an  amulet  against 
the  evil  eye  long  before  the  Christian  era.  This  is  one  of  the 
many  cases  in  which  the  Christian  Church  adopted  pagan 
superstitions  and  turned  them  to  its  own  purposes.  Amulets 
of  simple  hands  in  this  attitude  are  often  met  writh.  Those 
before  us  are  examples  of  a  more  elaborate  charm  which  in  a 
diminutive  form  may  still  be  bought  in  Roman  shops.  Various 


XXI 


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441 


protective  symbols  are,  as  it  were,  piled  up  on  the  hands, 
many  of  the  objects  being  symbolical  of  different  deities,  and 
the  whole  being  invested  by  its  possessor  with  the  same  kind 
of  reverent  significance  as  attaches  to  a  crucifix  in  the  hands 
of  a  modern  devotee.  The  most  elaborate  of  the  hands  is  No. 
875  ;  at  the  bottom,  shown  in  section,  is  a  woman  with  a 
child  at  the  breast.  The  group  may  perhaps  represent  I  sis 
with  Horus,  and  the  charm  have  been  specially  designed  to 
protect  mothers  and  new-born  infants  against  the  fascination  of 
the  evil  eye.  The  serpent,  the  frog,  and  the  crocodile  are 
common  amulets.  The  ram's  head  is  symbolical  of  Jupiter. 
The  remarkable  table  with  three  flat  cakes  upon  it  seems  to  be 
an  offering  of  bread  to  the  Almighty  Jove,  and  one  cannot  but 
be  struck  by  the  coincidence  of  these  three  cakes  with  those 
on  the  altar  of  Melchisedec.  The  scales  are  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Osiris.  The  tortoise  (says  Pliny)  is  highly 
salutary  for  repelling  the  malpractices  of  magic.  The  pine- 
cone  and  the  fig-tree  had  a  phallic  meaning.  (For  further 
particulars  on  this  very  curious  subject  see  Story's  Roba  di 
Roma^  vol.  ii.  ch.  ix.,  and  ch.  ix.  of  Elworthy's  The  Evil  Eye.) 


BRONZE  RELIEFS,  MIRRORS,  Etc. 

We  may  now  pass  from  statuettes  to  another  department  of 
Greek  work  in  bronze  which  is  very  finely  illustrated  in  this 
room.  This  is  the  art  of  bronze  sculpture  in  relief — the  relief 
being  sometimes  cast  from  moulds  and  sometimes  beaten  up 
by  hand.  In  the  latter  class  of  work,  commonly  called 
repouss^  (or  pushed  out)  work,  the  design  is  drawn  on  a  thin 
plate  of  metal,  and  relief  is  then  given  by  pressing  or  pushing 
the  parts  from  the  back  of  the  plate  till  the  required  projection 
is  obtained.  The  details  are  then  carefully  finished  on  the 
upper  face  by  the  means  usually  employed  by  chasers.  The 
Greeks  attained  great  skill  in  this  branch  of  art,  though  they 
do  not  seem  to  have  carried  it  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
found  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  examples  of  Greek  work  in 
this  sort  are  comparatively  rare.  Our  Museum  is  particularly 
rich  in  them,  and  the  so-called  "  Bronzes  of  Siris  "  described 
below  are  probably  the  finest  specimens  extant.  Some  of  the 
Greek  bronze  reliefs  served,  as  we  shall  see,  for  mirror  cases. 
In  other  cases  it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  with  precision 


442 


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CHAP. 


the  purposes  to  which  the  reliefs  were  put.  "  Were  they  used 
to  decorate  furniture  ?  Did  they  belong  to  pieces  of  armour  ? 
Or  were  these  metallic  plaques,  often  very  thin,  designed  to 
be  sewn  upon  stuffs  or  upon  strips  of  leather?  All  these 
hypotheses  are  probable,  and  are  justified  by  the  workmanship 
of  the  plaques  themselves,  which  are  often  perforated  with 
holes,  for  the  purpose  of  affixing  them  to  some  other  material " 
(Collignon's  Greek  Archceology,  p.  352). 

Some  of  the  bronze  reliefs  served,  as  we  have  said,  as 
mirror  cases.  The  custom  of  burying  with  the  dead  all  that 
was  dear  to  them  when  alive  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  large 
numbers  of  Greek  mirrors.  These  are  infinitely  superior  in 
beauty  to  the  Etruscan  mirrors  (Ch.  xxn.)  and  show  that 
Hellenic  art  did  not  disdain  to  ornament  these  accessories  in 
the  toilette  of  women  with  most  exquisite  care  : — 

"  Of  the  beauty  of  Greek  bronze  work,  exemplified  especially  in  the 
series  of  hand  mirrors  in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  not  easy  (says  a 
well-known  metal-worker  of  our  own  day)  to  name  the  exact  quality 
that  compels  our  admiration.  It  is  not  the  extraordinary  fineness  of 
the  work,  or  the  conception  of  subject,  or  the  shape,  or  any  one  thing  ; 
it  is  its  perfection,  the  almost  superhuman  completeness  of  it,  thai: 
astonishes  us  "  (Lecture  by  Mr.  Nelson  Dawson,  reported  in  the  Times , 
May  10,  1900). 

According  to  their  form,  Greek  mirrors  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes: — (1)  Simple  mirrors  in  the  form  of  disks, 
with  a  carefully- polished  convex  front  surface  that  reflected 
the  image,  and  a  concave  back  ornamented  with  incised 
designs.  These  disks  were  provided  with  a  handle  in  the 
form  of  a  statuette  with  pedestal,  which  allowed  them  either 
to  be  held  in  the  hand  or  to  stand  upright  upon  a  table* 
These  statuette -handles  generally  represented  Aphrodite,  as 
the  ideal  of  a  beautifully-adorned  woman.  Of  this  kind  of 
mirror  some  exquisite  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  pedestals 
which  we  have  already  examined.  (2)  A  second  form  of 
mirror  consisted  of  two  combined  into  a  sort  of  case.  These 
mirrors  consisted  of  two  metal  disks,  the  one  enclosed  within 
the  other,  which  are  sometimes  held  together  by  a  hinge.  The 
upper  disk,  or  cover,  was  ornamented  on  the  outside  with 
figures  in  relief,  and  on  the  inside  was  polished  or  silvered 
to  reflect  the  image.  The  second  disk,  forming  the  body  of 
the  case,  was  decorated  on  the  inside  with  incised  designs. 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


443 


Of  this  second  kind  of  mirror  we  shall  see  specimens  in  the 
case  which  we  are  now  to  examine. 

In  Table-case  A  are  the  famous  bronzes  of  Siris  (285) — 
so  called  from  having  been  found  near  the  river  of  that  name 
(at  the  ancient  Grumentum,  now  Saponara)  in  Southern  Italy. 
The  bronzes  are  supposed  to  have  been  attached  as  ornaments 
to  mask  the  buckles  on  a  cuirass  by  which  the  breast-plate 
and  back-piece  were  united  on  the  shoulders  : — 

It  was  near  Siris  that  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  was  defeated,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  these  bronzes  may  have  belonged  to  the 
armour  worn  by  the  king  on  that  memorable  field.  However  this 
may  be,  the  bronzes  of  Siris  are  marvellous  examples  of  the  finest 
repousse  work.  "In  some  parts  (as  e.g.  in  the  chest  and  face  of  the 
Greek)  the  thin  plate  of  bronze  has  been  beaten  out  nearly  half  an 
inch  till  it  reaches  the  thinness  of  note-paper.  In  some  points  the 
bronze  has  failed  and  separate  pieces  have  been  made  and  attached  to 
their  place.  Then  again  the  minuteness  with  which  the  whole  surface 
has  afterwards  been  gone  over  is  endless  ;  most  elaborate  patterns 
have  been  incised  on  the  shields  ;  the  beard  has  been  worked  with 
almost  microscopic  faithfulness,  and  yet  with  perfect  freedom  of  touch  ; 
the  minutest  folds  of  the  drapery  have  been  followed  from  their  origin 
to  their  final  disappearance  into  some  larger  fold,  or  into  airy  nothing- 
ness. " 

The  subject  is  a  battle  between  Greeks  and  Amazons.  The  two 
compositions,  necessarily  balancing  each  other  closely,  are  modulated 
with  a  variety  of  subordinate  effects,  which  produce  an  agreeable 
diversity  within  a  general  sameness.  The  figures  in  the  one  are 
reversed  from  the  other,  so  as  to  form  companion  groups  such  as 
would  be  needed  on  the  two  shoulders  of  a  cuirass.  In  both  groups 
the  Greek  warrior  is  nude,  but  that  does  not  prevent  the  artist  from 
making  use  of  drapery  as  a  foil  to  the  nude  forms.  The  Greeks  have 
each  their  chlamys,  which  in  the  combat  has  flown  loose,  except  for  an 
end  of  it,  which  is  twisted  round  the  left  arm.  The  rest  of  the 
chlamys  floats  behind  the  figure,  and  is  very  skilfully  used  to  intro- 
duce contrasts  of  fine  folds  here  and  there  as  a  background  hard 
against  the  nude  forms,  which  would  otherwise  be  too  statuesque 
perhaps.  Thorwaldsen  said  that  "in  his  judgment  these  bronzes 
afforded  the  strongest  possible  proof  of  this  truth,  that  the  grandiose 
does  not  consist  in  mere  mass,  since  these  diminutive  works  are  truly 
great,  while  many  of  the  modern  colossal  figures  are,  notwithstanding 
their  dimensions,  petty  and  mean."  These  famous  bronzes  were  found 
in  1820,  and  in  1833  were  purchased  from  the  Chevalier  Brondsted  by 
public  subscription  for  ^"iooo,  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum  contribut- 
ing £200  (Brondsted's  Bronzes  of  Siris  ;  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture,  ii. 
334 ;  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  82 ;  and  Handbook  of  Greek  Archceology, 
p.  232). 


444 


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CHAP. 


These  beautiful  works  of  art  are  now  attributed  in  the 
Official  Catalogue  to  the  School  of  Scopas  :  "  The  style  much 
resembles  that  of  the  Mausoleum  frieze." 

Close  by  in  the  same  case  is  another  of  the  gems  of  our 
collection,  the  figure  of  a  youth  (286),  seated  on  a  rock  and 
looking  eagerly  downwards  ;  the  eyes  inlaid  with  silver — a 
beautiful  work  justly  celebrated  for  the  largeness  and  simplicity 
of  its  style.  (For  a  discussion  of  its  attribution  to  Lysippus, 
see  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture^  ii.  345,  and  Greek  Bronzes, 
p.  82.)  There  is  a  story  in  connection  with  the  discovery  of 
this  bronze  which  illustrates  the  fierce  joys  and  contests  of 
collecting.  The  figure  was  found  in  an  open  field  near  the 
Lake  of  Bracciano  by  the  peasants.  There  was  a  certain 
priest  who  received  any  antiques  that  they  came  across  in 
their  work,  and  who  sold  them  for  their  benefit  in  Rome. 
Count  Tyszkiewicz,  the  famous  collector,  who  was  often  trying 
a  fall 'with  Castellani,  the  yet  more  famous  dealer,  was  in  the 
habit  of  visiting  this  priest : — 

4 4  The  frate  brought  out,"  says  the  Count,  "a  bronze  of  the  most 
extraordinary  beauty,  the  most  wonderful  thing  of  its  kind  I  had  ever 
seen.  This  lovely  figure  was  in  perfect  preservation,  and  of  an 
astonishing  patina.  The  price  asked  was  very  low,  2000  francs 
(;£8o).  I  paid  it  without  bargaining,  wrapped  up  my  bas-relief  in 
silk-paper,  and  put  it  in  my  pocket.  Bursting  with  pride  at  my 
acquisition,  I  rushed  off  to  Alessandro  [Castellani],  who  received  me 
with  the  words,  '  I  have  a  bronze  to  show  you — such  a  bronze  ! — the 
most  beautiful  bronze  in  the  whole  world  !  '  So  saying,  he  led  me 
into  a  room  where  he  kept  all  his  most  precious  treasures,  and 
displayed  a  beautiful  statuette  of  Minerva,  with  the  pupils  of  her  eyes 
made  of  tiny  diamonds.  '  Isn't  that  the  most  beautiful  bronze  you 
ever  saw  ? '  he  asked,  radiant  with  delight.  1  One  of  the  most  beautiful, 
certainly,'  I  replied  ;  'but  I  have  seen  better.  And,  what  is  more,  I 
have  a  bronze  in  my  possession  still  more  beautiful  than  yours.'  With 
that  I  took  the  fratJs  figure  out  of  my  pocket.  Castellani  became 
green.  He  did  not  attempt  to  deny  the  superiority  of  my  bronze,  but 
without  loss  of  time  tried  to  get  me  to  sell  it  to  him.  I  treated  him 
as  he  had  treated  me  about  the  gem,  and  refused.  He  offered  £800. 
I  refused  again.  In  the  end  I  let  him  have  the  bronze  for  ^400,  on 
condition  he  threw  in  the  stone  which  I  coveted"  (Memories  of  an  Old 
Collector,  p.  82). 

Collectors  pass  away.  Museums  remain.  Both  bronzes 
are  now  in  this  room.     For  the  Minerva,  see  p.  429. 

On  the  same  side  of  this  case  are  some  very  beautiful 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


445 


female  heads  in  relief  which  served  as  mirror  cases.  These 
"grand  steadfast  faces"  (299,  302)  are  in  the  finest  style 
of  Greek  art.  [Some  bronze  work,  perhaps  even  more 
beautiful,  may  be  seen  in  "The  Waddesdon  Room" — the 
room  containing  the  collection  of  master-works  in  many  sorts 
bequeathed  to  the  nation  by  Baron  Ferdinand  Rothschild  in 
1898.  Nos.  1  and  2  in  the  catalogue  of  that  collection  are 
pairs  of  circular  medallions  with  loose  rings,  which  formed  the 
handles  of  a  litter.  They  were  found  in  a  tomb  near  Amisos, 
the  modern  Samsun,  in  the  province  of  Trebizond.  They  are 
Greek  work,  in  high  relief,  of  the  third  century  B.C.  The  head 
of  a  Bacchante,  wreathed  with  ivy  leaves,  on  No.  1  is  of 
incomparable  beauty.] 

Mirror  case  from  Corinth  (289),  remarkable  for  beauty 
of  composition  and  workmanship  both  in  the  relief  on  the  out- 
side and  in  the  incised  design  on  the  inside.  The  subject  of 
the  former  is  uncertain  ;  it  may  be  Phasdra  confessing  to  one 
of  her  attendants  her  love  for  her  step-son,  Hippolytus.  The 
subject  of  the  incised  design  is  Aphrodite  playing  at  the  game 
of  "  five  stones "  with  Pan.  (For  interesting  discussions  of 
the  artistic  qualities  of  this  mirror  case,  see  Murray's  Handbook 
of  Greek  Archceology,  pp.  127,  230.) 

Another  mirror  case,  from  Megara,  represents  Victory 
sacrificing  a  bull  (290).  This  subject,  which  greatly  attracted 
ancient  taste,  has  been  already  discussed  (see  p.  82).  The 
version  before  us  is  remarkable  for  delicacy  of  execution  and 
refinement  of  design.  The  knife  of  Victory  is  separately 
modelled  ;  passing  through  the  hand,  it  is  fastened  by  solder- 
ing at  the  back  (J.H.S.  vii.  276). 

Next  we  may  notice  a  fine  relief,  representing  Boreas  carry- 
ing off  Oreithyia  (310) — a  subject  often  represented  by  Greek 
artists.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Persian  fleet  by  the  god  of 
the  north  wind,  it  would  naturally  become  a  popular  myth. 
The  stages  of  the  story,  as  it  may  be  traced  in  literature  and 
art,  are  somewhat  as  follows  :  "  At  first  the  north  wind  riots 
among  the  waves.  This,  anthropomorphised,  is  Boreas  among 
the  sea-nymphs.  Then  he  individualises  :  he  loves  one  sea- 
maiden, Oreithyia,  whom  he  carries  off  to  become  his  wife  " 
(Harrison  and  Verrall,  Monuments  a?td  Mythology  of  Ancient 
Athens,  lxxviii.).  Here  Boreas,  as  a  wind-god,  has  buskins 
and  large  wings  ;  Oreithyia  seems  to  be  looking  back  to  the 
world  from  which  she  is  snatched  away  : — 


446 


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CHAP. 


As  the  wild  God  rapt  her  from  earth's  breast  lifted, 
On  the  strength  of  the  stream  of  his  dark  breath  drifted, 
From  the  bosom  of  earth,  as  a  bride  from  the  mother, 
With  storm  for  bridesman,  and  wreck  for  brother, 
As  a  cloud  that  he  sheds  upon  the  sea. 

Swinburne. 

This  bronze  was  found  by  Sir  C.  Newton  at  the  bottom  ot 
a  grave  in  the  island  of  Calymnus  : — 

"  Standing  over  the  grave  with  this  group  in  my  hand,  I  thought  of 
the  Eurydice  of  the  fourth  Georgic  : — 

Invalidasque  tibi  tendens,  heu  !  non  tna,  palmas. 

When  I  found  it,  minute  portions  of  gilding  were  still  adhering  to  the 
hair  of  the  female  figure  ;  and  the  earth  of  the  grave,  on  being  sifted, 
yielded  many  particles  of  gold  leaf.  The  composition  of  this  relief  is  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful,  the  execution  rather  inferior  to  the  design  ;  and  we 
miss  in  it  the  refinement  and  delicacy  of  modelling  which  distinguishes  the 
bronzes  of  Siris  (see  above)  beyond  all  other  works  of  the  same  kind. 
However,  bronzes  in  embossed  work  are  so  exceedingly  rare  that  the 
group  of  Boreas  and  Oreithyia  may  fairly  rank  among  the  most  precious 
objects  of  this  class  which  have  been  discovered.  Sifting  the  earth,  I 
found  a  number  of  small  pearls  and  other  fragments  of  a  necklace. 
The  presence  of  these  remains  shows  that  the  grave  was  that  of  a 
female  ;  and  the  subject  of  the  bronze  group  was  probably  selected  to 
commemorate  allusively  the  untimely  fate  of  the  person  in  whose 
grave  it  was  found.  Before  I  left  Calymnos,  the  Greek  who  had 
recommended  me  to  dig  in  that  particular  spot  waited  on  me  for  bak- 
shish, and  told  me  that  about  twenty  years  ago  he  opened  that  very 
grave  in  the  early  morning,  and  without  the  permission  of  the  owner, 
who  surprised  him  at  his  work.  He  would  not  tell  me  what  he  had 
found  in  it  ;  but  I  gathered  that  it  had  contained  gold  ornaments.  It 
would  appear,  then,  that  being  interrupted  before  he  had  finished  his 
work?  he  left  the  few  inches  of  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  grave  un- 
explored, and  thus  missed  the  prize  which  I  found.  Such  are  the 
chances  of  excavation  "  (Newton's  Travels,  i.  330-333). 

This  relief  was  originally  attached  to  a  vase. 

In  the  same  case  is  a  disk  (856)  with  a  relief  representing 
Hermes  making  the  lyre.  One  lyre  he  holds  in  his  left  hand  ; 
another  is  beside  the  altar.  The  strings  of  both  are  inlaid 
with  silver.  The  design  recalls  the  Hymn  to  Hermes,  where 
the  poet  describes  how  Hermes  found  a  tortoise  and  recognised 
the  soul  of  music  in  its  shell : — 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


447 


"  He  cut  to  measure  stalks  of  reed,  and  fixed  them  in  through  holes 
bored  in  the  stony  shell  of  the  tortoise,  and  cunningly  stretched  round 
it  the  hide  of  an  ox,  and  put  in  the  horns  of  the  lyre,  and  to  both  he 
fitted  the  bridge  and  stretched  seven  harmonious  cords  of  sheep-gut. 
Then  took  he  his  treasure,  when  he  had  fashioned  it,  and  touched 
the  strings  in  turn  with  the  plectrum,  and  wondrously  it  sounded 
under  his  hand,  and  fair  sang  the  God  to  the  notes,  improvising  his 
chant  as  he  played  "  (Mr.  Lang's  version  of  The  Homeric  Hymns, 
p.  136). 

Of  the  instruments  shown  on  this  disk  one  is  the  lyre  with 
a  tortoise-shell  for  sounding-board  ;  the  other  the  cithara  with 
no  such  sounding-board.  Mr.  Lang  suggests,  on  savage 
analogies,  that  the  tuneful  shell  was  primarily  used  without 
chords  as  an  instrument  for  drumming  upon. 

On  the  top  of  this  case  are  some  delicate  bronze  vases  of 
very  graceful  shape.  They  were  found  at  Galaxidi,  the  port  of 
Delphi. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  case  are  some  more  very  fine 
mirror  cases.  The  cover  of  one  of  these  (288)  represents 
in  relief  a  youth  with  a  cock,  and  a  girl  with  a  bird,  with  Eros 
between  them.  The  scene  is  idealised  from  ordinary  life. 
We  have  already  noticed  in  discussing  the  funereal  reliefs  how 
frequently  a  bird  is  the  accompaniment  of  a  young  girl  (p.  244), 
while  cock-fighting  was  very  popular  with  the  Athenians 
(p.  192).  On  the  inside  disk  of  this  mirror  is  an  incised 
design  of  Pan  with  a  nymph.  These  incised  designs  on 
mirrors  occur  more  frequently  in  Etrurian  than  in  Greek  work, 
but  the  latter  is  by  far  the  finer.  The  figure  of  a  Maenad  on 
another  mirror  case  (300)  is  in  the  grand  Greek  style.  The 
construction  of  the  mirror  cases  described  above  (p.  442)  is 
shown  in  No.  291,  which  is  closed  and  has  its  hinge  and  handle 
complete.  On  the  outside  is  a  relief  of  Artemis  striking  down 
a  young  giant. 

The  sentiment  which  clings  to  these  antique  mirrors,  found 
in  the  tombs  of  their  once  fair  owners,  and  often  accompanied 
with  other  articles  of  their  adornment  (as  in  the  Sarcophagus 
of  Seianti  Thanunia,  p.  464),  has  been  gracefully  expressed 
by  a  poet  of  our  day  (Sir  Rennell  Rodd) : — 

No  trace  to-day  of  what  in  her  was  fair  ! 

Only  the  record  of  long  years  grown  green 

Upon  the  mirror's  lustreless  dead  sheen, 
Grown  dim  at  last,  when  all  else  withered  there. 


448 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Dead,  broken,  lustreless  !    It  keeps  for  me 

One  picture  of  that  immemorial  land, 

For  oft  as  I  have  held  thee  in  my  hand, 
The  dull  bronze  brightens,  and  I  dream  to  see 

A  fair  face  gazing  in  thee  wondering  wise, 
And  o'er  one  marble  shoulder  all  the  while 
Strange  lips  that  whisper  till  her  own  lips  smile, 

And  all  the  mirror  laughs  about  her  eyes. 

We  may  also  notice  here  some  children's  toys — a  kind  of 
rattle  wheel  (878,  879) ;  the  bust  of  a  boy  with  top-knot  (17 17), 
and  a  tiny  Roman  model  of  a  skeleton  (1682)  : — 

This  was  intended  for  handing  round  at  feasts — a  custom  brought 
to  Rome  from  Egypt.  "  At  their  convivial  banquets,"  says  Herodotus 
of  the  Egyptians  (ii.  78),  "  among  the  wealthy  classes,  when  they  have 
finished  supper,  a  man  carries  round  in  a  coffin  the  image  of  a  dead 
body  carved  in  wood,  made  as  like  as  possible  in  colour  and  workman- 
ship, and  showing  this  to  each  of  the  company,  he  says,  '  Look  upon 
this,  then  drink  and  enjoy  ourselves  ;  for  when  dead  you  will  be  like 
this.'  This  practice  they  have  at  their  drinking  parties."  The  custom 
was  brought  to  Rome  and  modified.  "  While  we  were  drinking," 
says  Petronius  (Satires,  c.  35),  "a  slave  brought  in  a  skeleton  of  silver. 
It  was  so  constructed  that  its  limbs  and  spine  should  move  in  all 
directions.  It  was  thrown  on  the  table  several  times,  so  that  it  should 
take  up  all  sorts  of  positions,  and  then  Trimalchio  (the  host)  said  : — 

Eheu  nos  miseros  quam  totus  homuncio  nil  est, 
Sic  erimus  cuncti  postquam  nos  auferet  Orcus, 
Ergo  vivamus,  dum  licet  esse  bene." 


LAMPS,  CANDELABRA,  ARMOUR,  AND  VASES 

The  next  group  of  objects  in  bronze  which  we  have  to 
notice  consists  of  lamps,  candelabra,  vases,  etc. — the  former 
mostly  Roman,  the  latter  Greek.  In  all  these  objects  of 
minor  art  and  industry,  the  Greeks,  and  to  a  less  extent  the 
Romans  whom  they  taught,  knew  no  distinction  between  arts 
and  crafts.  Many  of  the  designs  and  contrivances  which  may 
be  studied  in  the  cases  of  this  room  are  familiar  from  modern 
survivals  and  adaptations.  The  lamps  are  arranged  in  the 
wall-cases  (54-60)  following  those  last  described.  Particularly 
elaborate  is  the  large  lamp  (2513)  in  Case  56,  ornamented  with 
dolphins,  lions,  and  satyric  masks,  of  bold  and  original  design. 
It  was  found  at  Paris  in  excavations  of  the  ancient  Roman 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


449 


baths,  of  which  the  site  is  now  partially  occupied  by  the  Hotel 
Cluny  : — 

"  From  Athens  to  Rome,  from  Rome  to  Paris  this  lamp  was  probably 
the  delight  and  admiration  of  its  happy  owners  up  to  the  time  when  it 
attained  the  supreme  honour  of  being  buried  by  the  side  of  its  master. 
Such  is  the  destiny  of  great  works  !  They  seem  created  for  eternity, 
and  their  vicissitudes  only  serve  to  prove  that  no  one  has  a  right  to 
claim  their  exclusive  possession,  for  were  they  not  meant  to  be  the 
heritage  of  the  entire  human  race?  After  Athens,  after  Rome,  after 
Paris,  the  Greek  lamp  now  illumines  London  "  (H.  de  Triqueti  in  Fine 
Arts  Quarterly,  1864,  p.  272,  where  a  full  description  of  the  lamp  and 
of  its  discovery  will  be  found). 

In  the  adjoining  case  (55)  is  the  figure-head  (830)  of  an 
ancient  galley,  found  embedded  in  mud  at  the  depth  of  eight 
feet  of  water  during  some  dredging  excavations  at  Prevesa,  the 
scene  of  the  battle  of  Actium.  This  interesting  relic  from  the 
sea  was  acquired  in  1839  by  Sir  Howard  Douglas,  Lord  High 
Commissioner  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  and  was  subsequently  pre- 
sented to  the  Museum  by  Queen  Victoria.  Note  also  a  Roman 
seat  (bisellium),  inlaid  with  silver  (2561) : — 

"In  the  front  and  at  the  back  resting  on  crossbars  are  supports 
(fulcra),  which  have  been  wrongly  restored  in  this  position.  They 
really  served  as  the  ends  of  the  framework  on  which  the  cushions  of 
the  chair  were  placed.  There  are  in  this  collection  and  in  other 
museums  several  specimens  of  these  bronze  fulcra.  They  all  represent 
the  head  and  shoulders  of  a  mule,  turning  sideways  and  backwards, 
with  ears  put  down,  and  a  vicious  expression,  which  is  rendered  in  a 
peculiarly  natural  manner.  The  head  is  in  almost  every  case  decorated 
with  a  garland  of  vine  leaves  entwined  with  tendrils  and  bunches  of 
grapes,  while  the  shoulders  are  covered  with  a  curious  leather  collar, 
the  top  of  which  is  turned  down  just  where  it  joins  the  shaggy  skin  of 
some  wild  animal  which  is  thrown  over  it.  The  type  is  fixed  and  the 
workmanship  very  careful "  (W.  C.  F.  Anderson  in  Classical  Review, 
iii.  323). 

Candelabra,  tripods,  etc.,  are  arranged  in  Wall-cases  1-7. 
In  Case  8  is  an  interesting  object  (2559),  resembling  at  first 
sight  a  candelabrum.  This  is  a  stand  for  playing  cottabos, 
a  game  which  we  have  already  discussed  in  connection  with 
representations  of  it  on  Greek  vases  (p.  419).  In  Cases  8-1 1, 
objects  connected  with  the  bath  (strigils,  etc.),  with  fountains 
and  water-supply,  including  bronze  stop-cock,  of  excellent  con- 
struction. 


2  G 


45° 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


Armour  (Cases  12-19). — The  specimens  of  ancient  armour 
which  have  come  down  to  us  are  comparatively  few.  Here, 
however,  we  may  study  several  helmets,  cuirasses,  greaves, 
etc.  The  helmet  originally  consisted  of  the  hide  of  wild 
beasts,  the  hunter's  trophy  becoming  the  warrior's  armour,  as 
we  may  see  in  the  vase-paintings  of  Hercules  wearing  the  hide 
of  the  Nemean  lion.  A  tight-fitting  leather  cap  formed  the 
transition  to  a  helmet  of  metal,  which  at  first  seems  to  have 
been  of  plain  semi -globular  form.  Front,  back,  and  cheek- 
pieces,  visor,  and  a  crest  (to  protect  the  skull)  were  gradually 
added.  Of  the  visored  Corinthian  type,  a  fine  specimen  is 
No.  251  (Cases  16,  17).  Front,  neck,  and  cheek-pieces  are 
made  of  one  piece  with  the  helmet  and  completely  cover  the 
head  down  to  the  shoulders ;  only  mouth,  chin,  and  eyes 
remain  uncovered.  This  helmet  has  an  interesting  inscription 
round  the  edge,  recording  that  it  was  dedicated  to  Zeus  by  the 
Argives  as  spoil  won  in  battle  from  the  Corinthians  ;  the  date 
is  probably  about  460  B.C.,  but  the  occasion  of  the  battle  is 
unknown.  The  helmet  (which  passed  to  the  British  Museum 
from  the  Payne  Knight  collection)  was  found  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  Alpheus  near  Olympia  in  1795,  an<^  was  procured  there 
by  Mr.  Morritt  of  Rokeby,  the  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
Another  form  of  Greek  helmet  was  lighter  and  more  graceful. 
The  neck-piece  was  severed  from  the  front-piece  by  an  incision, 
and  the  latter  was  a  complete  visor,  with  small  slits  for  the 
eyes.  In  the  battle  it  was  pulled  down  so  as  to  cover  the 
skull  with  the  cap,  and  the  face  with  the  visor  ;  at  other  times 
it  was  worn  pushed  back,  so  that  the  visor  rested  on  the  top 
of  the  head  (as  we  see  in  the  statue  of  Pericles  in  the  Elgin 
Room).  Various  types  of  Greek  and  Grasco- Italian  helmets 
may  be  seen  in  this  collection.  Several  are  finely  ornamented. 
On  No.  2828  is  a  socket  for  a  crest.  On  No.  2830  there  is 
on  the  brow  an  imitation  of  carefully-curled  hair.  No.  2839 
is  a  helmet  in  the  form  of  a  Phrygian  cap.  No.  2843  *s  a 
model  of  a  gladiator's  helmet.  On  No.  2817  is  the  head  of 
a  youthful  satyr  in  relief ;  the  cheek-pieces  are  fastened  on 
by  hinges.  No.  2832  is  finely  ornamented  with  incised 
designs. 

The  cuirass  is  described  by  Pausanias  (x.  26.  5)  as  having 
originally  consisted  of  u  two  iron  plates,  connected  by  means 
of  buckles,  one  of  which  covers  the  chest  and  stomach,  the 
other  the  back."    This  cuirass  was  made  of  thick  plates,  and 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


45i 


went  down  only  as  far  as  the  hips.  The  older  style  of  cuirass 
may  be  seen  in  the  figure  of  a  kneeling  warrior  in  the  casts 
from  yEgina  (No.  162).  Subsequently  the  plates  were  made 
thinner,  and  followed  more  easily  the  lines  of  the  muscles. 
From  a  passage  in  Xenophon,  where  a  visit  of  Socrates  to 
Pistias,  an  armour-maker,  is  described  (Mentor,  iii.  10),  we 
may  gather  that  considerable  importance  was  attached  to 
nicety  of  fit.  Pistias  refers  to  some  customers  who  prefer 
ornamented  and  gilded  cuirasses.  Mere  "  ornamented  and 
gilded  annoyances,"  says  Socrates,  "  if  they  do  not  fit,"  and 
Pistias  quite  agrees,  for  his  speciality  is  in  well-made  and 
properly  proportioned  goods.  For  a  sample  of  a  Greek 
cuirass  see  No.  2846.  No.  2843  is  a  breastplate  from  South 
Italy.  The  shoulder-pieces  to  cover  the  clasps  by  which  the 
breastplate  and  back-piece  were  united  were  often  elaborately 
ornamented,  as  we  have  seen  from  the  case  of  the  "  Bronzes 
of  Siris." 

The  greaves,  of  which  there  are  several  specimens  (e.g. 
Nos.  249,  2860),  are  generally  decorated  at  the  knee  with  a 
Gorgon.  Being  at  once  a  charm  to  the  wearer  and  a  terror 
to  others,  the  Gorgon  was  a  natural  device  for  armour. 
Among  miscellaneous  armour,  etc.,  are  horses'  muzzles  (Nos. 
2878,  2879),  belts  (Nos.  2852,  2856),  the  top  of  a  Roman 
standard  (No.  2908).  In  Case  15  part  of  a  trophy  is  arranged 
(cf.  No.  161 3,  a  small  bronze  trophy).  Here  also  is  a  pair  of 
wings,  found  on  the  floor  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  at  Priene. 
They  probably  belonged  to  a  statue  of  Victory,  which,  it  is 
suggested,  may  have  been  held  in  the  hand  of  the  colossal 
temple  -  statue  of  Athena  (No.  1728  in  the  Catalogue  of 
Bronzes). 

Greek  and  Roman  vases  are  in  Cases  20-30.  Especially 
fine  are  the  hydria,  with  a  relief  representing  Dionysus  and  a 
Maenad  (Case  24,  No.  312);  and  a  hydria  with  a  relief 
of  Eros  and  Psyche  (Case  25,  No.  313).  In  the  case  of  some 
of  the  vases,  Dr.  Murray  points  out  that  "the  bronze  of  them 
is  so  thin  that  they  can  do  little  more  than  stand  with  their 
own  weight.  They  must  have  been  produced  expressly  for 
show  at  the  funeral  ceremonies."  A  similar  economy  is 
noticeable  in  many  of  the  objects  found  in  ancient  tombs  :— 

1 '  Many  of  the  ornaments,  for  example  the  bracelets,  are  made  of 
sheets  of  gold  so  thin  that  they  could  not  have  been  used  in  real  life  ; 
they  are  clearly  substitutes  for  the  real  jewellery,  which  the  living 


452 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


doubtless  kept  for  themselves,  while  they  satisfied  the  demands  of  piety 
by  burying  the  sham  jewellery  in  the  grave,  deeming  these  splendid 
but  unsubstantial  baubles  good  enough  to  deck  the  unsubstantial  figures 
of  the  shadowy  dead.  In  a  similar  spirit  of  economical  piety  the 
Chinese  burn  paper  houses,  paper  furniture,  paper  ingots  of  gold  and 
silver  for  the  use  of  their  departed  kinsfolk  in  the  other  world  "  (Frazer's 
Pausanias,  iii.  107). 


INSTRUMENTS,  IMPLEMENTS,  UTENSILS,  Etc. 

Next  we  may  give  a  cursory  glance  at  the  miscellaneous 
objects  in  bronze  to  be  seen  in  this  room.  They  would  repay 
a  closer  attention,  for  such  objects  throw  valuable  light  on 
the  customs  and  manners  of  ancient  life.  Visitors  who  are 
not  already  familiar  with  museums  are  often  surprised  and 
interested  at  finding  how  well  equipped  were  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  in  many  of  our  modern  conveniences 
and  appliances,  and  how  many  specimens  of  such  things  have 
survived  the  lapse  of  centuries.  In  Case  C,  for  instance,  is 
a  large  collection  of  surgical  instruments,  such  as  tweezers, 
spatulse,  probes,  forceps.  Although  the  identification  of  some 
of  these  objects  is  doubtful,  enough  is  clear  to  show  that  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  had  attained  to  considerable  skill  in  medical 
science.  In  many  cases  the  patterns  of  the  instruments  are 
the  same  as  those  now  employed.  There  are  also  toilet 
requisites,  ear-picks,  depilatories,  and  other  implements  of  the 
"  manicure."  Also  writing  implements,  both  styli  for  writing 
on  wax  tablets,  and  ink-pots  •  and  various  objects  used  in  daily 
life,  such  as  locks,  keys,  knives,  padlocks,  hinges,  graters,  nails, 
hooks,  fish-hooks,  thimbles,  needles,  foot-rules,  and  compasses. 
In  this  same  case  are  parts  of  two  double -cylindered  force- 
pumps,  which  will  interest  engineers.  They  were  found 
among  the  remains  of  a  foundry  at  Bolsena,  and  are  identical 
in  principle  with  one  found  a  few  years  ago  at  the  Roman  city 
of  Silchester  in  Hampshire  : — 

ff  They  differ  slightly  between  themselves,  but  both  are  based  on  the 
system  invented  by  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria  [to  whom  the  origin  of 
the  pump  is  ascribed  by  Vitruvius,  about  224  B.C.].  The  two  plungers 
in  the  cylinders  were  worked  with  a  reciprocating  motion,  by  means 
of  a  rocking  beam  now  lost.  They  alternately  draw  in  water  through 
valves  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  and  force  it  into  the  vertical  pipe 
in  the  middle,  from  which  a  continuous  delivery  is  obtained.  In  the 
one  case  the  valves  are  simple  flap-valves — called  by  the  Greeks  assaria, 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


453 


farthings,  from  their  obvious  resemblance  to  coins.  In  the  other,  they 
are  the  more  advanced  spindle  valves,  in  the  form  of  cones,  which  fall 
back  into  their  seat  by  their  own  weight.  Double  pumps,  worked  on 
this  principle,  were  used  as  fire  engines"  [Guide  to  the  Department  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities ',  1899,  p.  135). 

"  An  examination  of  these  pumps  may  serve  to  take  some  of  the 
conceit  out  of  engineers  of  the  present  day  when  they  see  how  much 
the  Romans  knew  2000  years  ago.  It  is  consoling,  however,  to  know 
that  the  Romans  knew  nothing  of  the  lift  pump.  Atmospheric  pressure 
was  not  estimated  then.  That  was  left  to  the  Spaniards  to  conceive 
and  the  Italian  Torricelli  to  determine"  (Engineer,  July  16,  1894). 

On  the  top  of  this  case  is  a  selection  of  statuettes,  mostly 
of  the  Roman  period.  At  the  end  is  a  fine  figure  (849)  of 
a  seated  philosopher  (discussed  by  Dr.  Murray  in  the  Classical 
Review,  v.  241).  We  may  also  notice  a  bust  of  ^Ilius 
Caesar,  from  the  Castellani  collection.  The  eyes  are  inlaid 
with  silver,  the  pupils  being  formed  of  garnets.  M  The  bust," 
says  Newton,  "  is  in  very  fine  condition,  and,  though  rather 
mannered  in  execution,  brings  out  the  characteristics  of  the 
likeness  in  a  very  forcible  manner."  Noteworthy  also  is  the 
Mars  (1077)  from  the  Bunsen  collection.  The  figure  is  in 
the  attitude  of  a  famous  Doryphorus  (or  athlete  with  a  spear) 
of  Polyclitus. 

In  Case  D  are  seals  and  stamps  ;  also  bracelets,  armlets, 
ear-rings,  brooches,  and  other  articles  of  adornment.  Among 
these  are  several  ornaments  of  the  late  Roman  period,  with 
coloured  enamels.  The  designs  and  general  appearance  are 
very  much  like  the  cheap  pebble  ornaments  which  holiday- 
makers  of  to-day  bring  back  from  Scotland  or  the  seaside  as 
mementoes  of  a  happy  day. 

On  the  same  side  of  the  case  are  fragments  of  reliefs  in 
bronze  (187)  found  at  Eleutherae,  on  the  borders  of  Attica 
and  Bceotia.  These  represent  the  earliest  specimens  of  true 
Hellenic  art  in  bronze,  free  from  external  influences.  The 
question  of  their  place  of  origin  (Corinthian  or  Chalcidian) 
has  been  much  debated  by  archaeologists.  The  dots  were 
made  by  a  solid  circular  punch.  It  is  interesting  to  contrast 
this  early  stage  in  repousse  work  (middle  of  sixth  century 
B.C.)  with  the  perfection  which  the  art  reached  in  specimens 
we  have  already  seen. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  case  is  a  large  collection  of 
fibulae,  or  pins,  of  various  kinds  and  periods.  The  remorse- 
less industry  of  archaeologists  is  well  illustrated  by  the  scientific 


454 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


CHAP. 


study  that  has  been  bestowed  on  ancient  pins,  which  have 
been  most  elaborately  classified.  A  treatise  on  the  various 
kinds  of  safety-pins  obtainable  at  Mr.  Whiteley's  would  prob- 
ably attract  few  readers  to-day;  yet  in  some  future  ages 
remains  of  our  articles  of  utility  and  adornment  may  perhaps 
be  submitted  to  rigorous  study.  Any  one,  however,  who  ever 
dips  into  the  subject  of  ancient  objects  of  use  or  adornment 
will  soon  find  himself  interested  ;  for  in  this,  as  in  every  other 
development  of  human  handiwork  or  thought,  the  process  of 
evolution  may  be  traced.  Here,  however,  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  noticing  the  evidence  afforded  by  these  speci- 
mens of  the  antiquity  of  the  principle  of  the  modern  safety- 
pin,  and  with  pointing  out  the  distinction  between  Greek  and 
Roman  fibulae.  In  the  former  the  shape  is  semicircular,  with 
a  spiral  at  the  head  ;  in  the  Roman  fibulae  the  spiral  is  replaced 
by  a  cross-piece,  on  which  the  pin  works  as  a  hinge  (see 
introduction  to  the  Catalogue  of  Bronzes,  pp.  lviii.-lxii.).  A 
few  remarks  on  Roman  brooches  will  be  found  in  the  chapter 
on  Roman  Britain  (p.  762). 

Here  also  we  may  notice  a  large  collection  of  rings  and 
seals.  None  of  these  appears  to  be  earlier  in  date  than  the 
later  times  of  the  empire.  Under  the  Republic,  finger  rings 
were  of  iron.  The  substitution  of  other  metals  for  this 
purpose  is  recorded  by  ancient  writers  as  one  of  the  luxurious 
tendencies  of  their  day.  Many  of  the  rings  here  shown  were 
also  used  for  sealing  documents,  for  sealing  up  doors,  or  for 
keys  {e.g.  Nos.  2607,  2608). 

On  the  top  of  the  case  is  a  collection  of  animals  in  bronze. 
Many  of  these  were  used  merely  as  ornaments,  just  as  similar 
objects  are  used  to-day.  In  other  cases  they  may  have  served 
as  table  objects.  Thus  the  donkey  with  panniers  (1790) 
recalls  a  passage  in  Petronius,  where  he  mentions  a  bronze 
donkey  serving  to  carry  olives  on  a  dinner  table. 

ARMOUR  {cf.  pp.  450,  451) 

In  Table-case  E  are,  on  one  side,  examples  of  weapons  ; 
on  the  other,  inscriptions  ;  and  on  the  top,  bronze  vases  of 
various  forms.  Among  the  weapons  we  may  specially  notice 
a  hunting-knife  (868),  of  Graeco-Roman  work,  on  the  iron 
blade  of  which  scenes  from  the  chase  are  inlaid  with  brass. 


XXI 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM 


455 


Also  "The  Sword  of  Tiberius"  (867),  the  iron  blade  of  a 
Roman  sword,  in  perfect  preservation,  enclosed  in  its  sheath  ; 
the  latter  is  made  of  bronze,  tinned  so  as  to  resemble  silver  : — 

"  On  the  upper  part  of  the  sheath  is  an  embossed  plate  representing 
a  victorious  general  standing  before  a  seated  figure  ;  on  a  shield  near 
the  latter  is  inscribed  '  Felicitas  Tiberi,'  while  behind  it  is  a  figure  of 
Victory  with  a  shield  inscribed  'Vic.  Avg. '  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
this  represents  Germanicus  appearing  before  Tiberius,  after  his  great 
victories  on  the  Rhine.  Part  of  the  tang  of  the  sword  remains,  but 
the  handle  is  wanting.  With  it  was  found  a  medallion,  apparently 
representing  the  head  of  Germanicus,  but  whether  it  belonged  to  the 
sheath  or  handle  is  not  certain.  This  remarkable  relic  was  discovered 
in  1848  in  a  field  in  the  lower  part  of  Mayence  by  M.  Gold,  of  that 
city,  who  sold  it  to  Mr.  Henry  Farrer,  at  whose  sale  in  1866  it  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Slade  and  presented  to  the  British  Museum"  {Catalogue 
of  the  Collection  of  Glass  found  by  Felix  Slade,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  p.  168). 

INSCRIPTIONS 

Among  the  votive  and  other  inscriptions  are  several  of 
curious  interest.  The  ornate  axe-head  (252)  was  dedicated 
by  one  Kyniskos,  "  the  butcher."  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
one  who  killed  beasts  for  sacrifice.  The  votive  wheel  (253), 
found  near  Argos,  probably  commemorates  a  victory  in  a 
chariot  race  in  the  Nemean  games.  An  athlete's  disk  (3207) 
has  an  inscription  recording  in  Homeric  style  that  with  this 
disk  the  owner  defeated  "  the  lofty- souled  Kephallenians." 
Nos.  329-332  are  tickets  of  Athenian  jurymen,  giving  their 
name  and  parish.  The  tablets  333,  334  contain  decrees  in 
which  the  city  of  Corcyra  (Corfu)  appoints  consuls.  The  tablet 
(333)  appointing  the  Athenian  consul  is  adorned  with  the  owl 
of  Athena.  Another  interesting  inscription  records  a  treaty  of 
alliance  between  the  Eleans  and  Heraeans  on  an  oblong  bronze 
plate  found  at  Olympia,  whence  it  was  brought  by  Sir  William 
Gell  in  181 3.  Those  who  violated  the  treaty  were  to  pay  in 
atonement  a  talent  of  silver  to  be  dedicated  to  the  Olympian 
Zeus.  If  any  one  injures  the  inscription  itself  he  is  to  pay 
the  same  fine.  The  date  of  the  inscription  is  believed  to  be 
499-496  B.C.  With  more  faith  in  the  durability  of  treaties 
than  some  modern  statesmen  have  professed,  the  high  contract- 
ing parties  here  bind  themselves  for  a  hundred  years. 

Among  the  Latin  inscriptions  is  a  tablet  (904)  with  a 
dedication  to  Sextus  Pompeius  Maximus,  a  priest  of  the  sun- 


456 


THE  BRONZE  ROOM  chap,  xxi 


god  Mithras.  A  bust  of  the  god  is  figured  on  the  bronze, 
together  with  a  sacrificial  knife  and  a  bowl  for  libations.  We 
have  already  referred  to  the  popularity  of  this  worship  in  later 
Roman  times  (p.  15).  The  curious  object  numbered  902 
has  a  very  human  interest.  It  is  a  slave's  badge.  It  was 
hung  round  his  neck  as  a  warrant  for  his  arrest  if  he  ran 
away.  "  Keep  me,"  says  the  badge,  "  and  do  not  let  me  run 
away,  and  bring  me  back  to  my  master  Viventius  on  the  estate 
of  Callistus."  So  runs  the  inscription,  preserved  for  these 
many  centuries  and  now  stored  in  "  this  northern  island, 
sundered  once  from  all  the  human  race.  But  the  Rome  of 
slaves  has  perished,  and  the  Rome  of  freemen  takes  her  place." 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 

What  dark-haired  daughter  of  a  Lucumo 
Bore  on  her  slim  white  finger  to  the  grave, 
This  the  first  gift  her  Tyrrhene  lover  gave 
Those  five-and-twenty  centuries  ago  ? 
What  shadowy  dreams  might  haunt  it,  lying  low 
So  long,  while  kings  and  armies,  wave  on  wave, 
Above  the  rock -tomb's  buried  architrave 
Went  million-footed  trampling  to  and  fro  ? 

Who  knows  ?  but  well  it  is  so  frail  a  thing, 

Unharmed  by  conquering  Time's  supremacy, 

Still  should  be  fair,  though  scarce  less  old  than  Rome. 

Now  once  again,  at  rest  from  wandering, 

Across  the  high  Alps  and  the  dreadful  sea, 

In  utmost  England  let  it  find  a  home. 

J.  W.  Mackail  in  Alma  Mater* s  Mirror. 

In  this  saloon  are  collected  various  memorials  of  a  once  famous 
and  powerful  nation — the  neighbour,  the  forerunner,  and  in 
part  the  teacher,  of  Rome.  The  Etruscans  of  Roman  history 
— the  Tyrrhenes  of  the  Greeks,  the  Rasena  as  they  called 
themselves — appeared  in  Italy  before  the  beginning  of  written 
history.  "  Ages  before  the  straw  hut  of  Romulus  arose  on  the 
Palatine,  there  existed  in  that  land  a  nation  far  advanced  in 
civilisation  and  refinement,  and  Rome  was  indebted  to  Etruria 
for  whatever  tended  to  elevate  and  humanise  her,  for  her  chief 
lessons  in  art  and  science,  for  many  of  her  political,  religious 
and  social  institutions,  for  the  conveniences  and  luxuries  of 
peace,  and  the  weapons  and  appliances  of  war."  "  At  a  time 
when  Latins  and  Samnites  were  comparatively  rude  and  war- 
like barbarians,  Etruscans  were  already  displaying  their  innate 
faculty  for  art  and  their  innate  admiration  for  art-products  by 
importing  and  imitating  the  pottery  of  Athens,  and  the  silver 

457 


458 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


work  of  Phoenicia."  They  were  themselves  artists  and  crafts- 
men of  no  mean  order  ;  and  it  is  to  the  Etruscan  strain  in 
their  blood  that  the  Italians  of  later  ages  owe  much,  perhaps 
even  most  or  all,  of  what  has  been  greatest  and  noblest  in 
their  art.  "  For  all  practical  purposes,  when  we  talk  of  Italian 
poetry,  we  mean  Tuscan  poetry  ;  when  we  talk  of  Italian  art, 
we  mean  Tuscan  art."  1  Yet  of  the  history  of  the  Etruscan 
people  very  little  is  known,  and  traces  of  its  power  and 
influence  are  for  the  most  underneath  the  ground.  Of  their 
power,  indeed,  evidences  remain  to  us  in  many  of  the  old 
Etruscan  cities — in  the  walls,  for  instance,  of  Fiesole  and 
Orvieto,  in  the  ruins  of  Veii,  and  in  the  great  gates  and  fortifica- 
tions of  Volterra — 

Where  scowls  the  far-famed  hold,2 

Piled  by  the  hands  of  giants, 

For  god-like  kings  of  old. 

But  for  the  most  part  the  original  Etruscan  civilisation  is 
entirely  overlaid.  Remains  of  Etruscan  cities  are  found  in 
tracts,  now  desolated  by  malaria,  which  are  furrowed  yearly 
by  the  plough  or  forsaken  as  unprofitable  wildernesses.  Yet 
once  the  princes,  or  lucumos,  of  Etruria  held  sway  not  only 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  Italy,  but  were  lords  also  of 
the  western  waves. 

Their  sea-power  was  broken  at  the  battle  of  Cumse,  near 
Naples  (474  B.C.),  when  Hiero  I.  of  Syracuse  defeated  the 
Etruscan  fleet.     The  fame  of  this  battle  is  preserved  in  one 

1  Readers  who  are  interested  in  following  up  this  subject  should  consult 
a  very  suggestive  article  by  Grant  Allen  in  the  National  Review  for 
September  1893.  See  also  his  Guide  to  Florence.  Etruria,  says  Ruskin, 
is  the  Athens  of  Italy  as  Rome  its  Sparta  :  ' '  The  Athenian  race  is  native, 
and  essentially  with  the  Etruscan  earth-born.  How  far  or  by  what  links 
joined  I  know  not,  but  their  art-work  is  visibly  the  same  in  origin  ;  entirely 
Draconid, — Cecropian,  rolled  in  spiral  folds  ;  and  it  is  the  root  of  the 
Draconian  energy  in  the  living  arts  of  Europe"  (Bibliotheca  Pastorum,  i. 
pp.  xxii. ,  xxxiii.).  Reference  may  also  be  made  to  Dennis's  Cities  and 
Cemeteries  of  Etruria ,  i.  p.  ciii. 

2  The  gloomy  and  melancholy  tinge  in  Etruscan  art  is  well  seen  in  these 
great  walls  and  massive  gateways.  It  is  also  exactly  reproduced  at  a  later 
date  in  the  frowning  doors  and  heavy  cornices  of  the  palaces  of  Florence. 
"If  we  compare  these  solid  works  with  the  springing  airiness  of  light 
Venetian  Gothic,  we  can  feel  at  once  the  great  gulf  fixed  between  the 
joyous  Venetian  and  the  sombre  Tuscan  ;  and  we  can  feel  at  the  same 
time  the  exact  identity  of  taste  and  feeling  in  the  modern  Tuscan  and  the 
ancient  Etruscan"  (Allen). 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


459 


of  the  Odes  of  Pindar.  "  I  pray  thee,  son  of  Kronos,"  sings 
the  poet,  "grant  that  the  Phoenician  and  the  Etruscan  war- 
cry  be  hushed  at  home,  since  they  have  beheld  the  calamity 
of  their  ships  that  befell  them  before  Cumse,  even  how  they 
were  smitten  by  the  captain  of  the  Syracusans,  who  from  their 
swift  ships  hurled  their  youth  into  the  sea."  One  of  the  most 
interesting  objects  in  this  saloon  is  a  bronze  helmet  worn  by 
an  Etruscan  lucumo  at  that  very  battle  (No.  250,  Case  93). 
The  helmet,  which  resembles  those  worn  by  our  Parliament- 
arians in  the  seventeenth  century,  has  an  inscription  in  Greek, 
recording  that  Hiero  had  dedicated  it  to  Zeus  [at  Olympia]  as 
one  of  the  spoils  of  the  battle  of  Cumae.  It  was  found  twenty- 
three  centuries  later  (18 17  a.d.)  at  Olympia  in  the  bed  of  the 
river  Alpheus.  On  land  the  political  power  of  the  Etruscans 
was  finally  broken  by  the  Romans  at  the  two  battles  (310  and 
285  B.C.)  of  the  Vadimonian  Lake  (now  the  small  Lago  di 
Bassano,  a  few  miles  from  Orte).  The  characteristic  Etruscan 
life,  however,  still  survived  for  nearly  three  centuries.  "  Calm 
under  the  yoke,  and  sadly  resigned  to  their  fate,  the  Etruscan 
nation  made  no  effort  to  strive  against  its  destiny.  They 
tried  to  forget,  in  luxury  and  the  love  of  art,  the  loss  of  their 
liberty  ;  and  preserving  amid  their  sensual  pleasures  the  ever- 
present  idea  of  death,  they  continued  to  decorate  their  tombs 
with  paintings,  and  to  bury  in  them  thousands  of  objects, 
which  in  workmanship  and  material  indicate  extreme  opulence." 
The  proscriptions  of  Sulla,  and  the  enforced  settlement  of  his 
veterans,  completed  the  ruin  of  Etruria.  "  Throughout  large 
districts  the  population  entirely  changed  ;  everywhere  the  chief 
people  perished  from  off  the  face  of  the  land,  and  with  them 
most  that  was  distinctive  in  the  manners  and  institutions,  and 
even  in  the  language  of  the  country.  The  civilisation  of 
Etruria  disappeared  from  the  sight  of  men,  to  be  re-discovered 
at  the  end  of  twenty  centuries  among  the  buried  tombs  of 
forgotten  lucumos." 

Of  their  external  history  little  has  ever  been  ascertained  ; 
their  literature  has  completely  perished  ;  their  language  still 
awaits  a  satisfactory  key.  In  the  death-like  oblivion  which 
has  thus  shrouded  this  once  mighty  people,  one  thing  alone 
has  saved  some  memory  of  them — their  lively  sense  of  death. 
They  built  strong  and  spacious  tombs  ;  they  decorated  their 
sepulchres  with  pictures  of  their  present  life,  and  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  dead  numerous  and  costly  articles  both  of 


460 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


use  and  of  ornament.  Owing  to  this  great  reverence  for  the 
dead,  and  firm  belief  in  a  future  life,  the  internal  history  of  the 
buried  Etruscan  nation  has,  by  the  excavations  of  the  last 
hundred  years,  been  recovered  for  us  : — 

"We  can  now  enter  into  the  inner  life  of  the  Etruscans,  almost  as 
fully  as  if  they  were  living  and  moving  before  us,  instead  of  having  been 
extinct  as  a  nation  for  more  than  2000  years.  We  can  follow  them 
from  the  cradle  to  the  tomb, — we  see  them  in  their  national  costume, 
varied  according  to  age,  sex,  rank  and  office, — we  learn  the  varying 
fashions  of  their  dress,  their  personal  adornment,  their  peculiar 
physiognomy,  .  .  . — we  see  them  in  the  bosom  of  their  families, 
and  at  the  festive  board,  reclining  cup  in  hand  amid  the  strains  of 
music,  and  the  time-beating  feet  of  dancers, — we  see  them  at  their 
favourite  games  and  sports,  encountering  the  wild-boar,  looking  on  or 
taking  part  in  the  horse  or  chariot  race,  the  wrestling-match,  or  other 
palaestric  exercises, — we  behold  them  stretched  on  the  death -bed  — 
the  last  rites  performed  by  mourning  relatives — the  funeral  procession 
—  their  bodies  laid  in  the  tomb — and  solemn  festivals  held  in  their 
honour.  Nor  even  here  do  we  lose  sight  of  them,  but  we  follow  their 
souls  to  the  other  world — perceive  them  in  the  hands  of  good  or  evil 
spirits — conducted  to  the  judgment-seat,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  bliss, 
or  suffering  the  punishment  of  the  damned.  We  are  indebted  for 
most  of  this  knowledge,  not  to  musty  records  drawn  from  the  oblivion 
of*  centuries,  but  to  the  monuments  which  are  still  extant  on  the  sites 
of  the  ancient  cities  of  Etruria,  or  have  been  drawn  from  their 
cemeteries,  and  all  stored  in  the  museums  of  Italy  and  of  Europe  " 
(Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemete?'ies  of  Etruria,  3rd  ed.,  i.  xxvii.). 

But  in  spite  of  this  wealth  of  knowledge  there  still  remains 
much  that  is  mysterious  about  the  Etruscan  people.  Their 
origin  is  veiled  in  profound  obscurity.  Some  have  sought  the 
original  home  of  the  Etruscans  in  the  valleys  of  the  Grisons 
and  of  Tyrol  across  the  Rhaeatian  Alps  ;  others  lay  stress  on 
the  strongly  Oriental  type  of  countenance  shown  in  the  earlier 
specimens  of  Etruscan  art,  and  favour  the  belief  of  the 
Etruscans  themselves  that  they  were  of  Lydian  origin.  But 
the  problem  is  still  unsolved.  "  The  Etruscans,5'  said  the 
ancient  historian  Dionysius,  "  are  like  no  other  nation  in 
language  and  manners";  and  the  great  historian  of  to-day 
has  "  nothing  to  add  to  this  statement "  (Mommsen). 
Archaeological  research  tends  to  show  that  the  Etruscans, 
whoever  they  were,  did  not  enter  Italy  from  the  north,  and 
to  confirm  the  old  legend  of  their  Eastern  origin.  But  it  has 
as  yet  nothing  definite  to  tell  us  about  who  they  were,  or 
whence  precisely  they  came.    Something  of  this  aloofness  and 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


461 


mystery  will  strike  the  student  of  Etruscan  art  in  its  earlier 
and  more  characteristic  phases.  The  Etruscan  collections  in 
the  British  Museum  are  not  so  large  nor  quite  so  rich  as  some 
others.  But  even  the  passing  visitor,  if  he  cares  to  examine 
these  rooms  in  systematic  fashion,  may  gain  from  the  monu- 
ments of  the  Etruscans  collected  in  London  a  distinct  idea  of 
what  these  mysterious  people  were  when  they  were  alive.1 

THE  CERVETRI  SARCOPHAGUS 

Nothing  is  better  calculated  to  afford  us  a  vivid  and 
arresting  impression  of  the  ancient  Etruscans  than  the  large 
sarcophagus  on  the  left,  which  will  strike  the  eye  of  every 
visitor  as  he  enters  from  the  Bronze  Room  : — 

"  What  visitor  has  not  been  startled,  on  first  entering,  at  the  sight 
of  a  loving  pair,  as  large  as  life,  reclining  on  a  couch  in  the  centre 
of  the  room  ?  The  life-like  character  of  these  figures,  who  appear 
engaged  in  animated  conversation,  their  strange  forms,  and  still 
stranger  cast  of  features — differing  widely  from  both  the  Greek  and 
the  Egyptian,  yet  decidedly  oriental  and  akin  to  the  Calmuck  ;  the 
unusual  material  for  statuary,  which  is  soon  recognised  as  burnt 
clay — cannot  fail  to  call  forth  wonderment.  What  do  they  mean  ? 
Whence  do  they  come  ?  What  people  do  they  represent  ?  To  what 
age  do  they  belong  ?  "  (Dennis). 

The  monument  in  question,  discovered  at  Cervetri  (the 
ancient  Caere)  in  1850,  and  acquired  for  the  Museum  in 
1873  from  the  Castellani  collection,  is  a  sarcophagus  in 
which  were  deposited  the  bodies  of  one  or  both  of  the  pair 
whose  effigies  recline  on  the  lid.  Its  date  is  probably  about 
600  B.C.,  and  it  is  the  earliest  known  specimen  of  a  type  of 
monument  characteristic  of  the  Etruscans.  The  idea  is  that 
of  a  man  and  a  woman  reclining  at  a  banquet,  as  we  shall 
see  them  represented  on  the  tomb-paintings,  and  as,  indeed, 
they  are  shown  in  the  relief  on  the  back  of  this  very 
sarcophagus.  The  woman's  right  hand  is  raised  as  if  she 
held  out  something  which  the  male  figure  advances  his  right 

1  The  Etruscan  bronzes  are  described  in  the  "Catalogue  of  Bronzes," 
by  H.  B.  Walters,  issued  by  the  Trustees.  The  best  preparation  for  a 
study  of  this  or  any  other  Etruscan  collection  is  a  perusal  of  The  Cities 
and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  by  George  Dennis  (John  Murray,  2  vols.),  a 
book  which  is  not  only  full  of  information,  but  is  written  in  a  most 
attractive  style. 


462 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


hand  to  receive.  The  story  of  life  and  death,  of  which 
these  strange  and  uncouth  creatures  are  the  monument,  may 
perhaps  be  made  out  from  the  reliefs  below  : — 

( 1 )  The  relief  on  the  front  represents  a  battle  between  two  warriors, 
each  attended  by  one  male  and  two  female  figures.  At  either  end  of 
the  scene  is  a  winged  figure  ;  these  probably  represented  the  souls  of 
the  two  warriors.  A  lion  is  represented  fastening  on  the  leg  of  the 
falling  warrior.  Possibly  (says  Dr.  Murray)  some  Asiatic  legend  of  a 
warrior  attended  by  a  lion  had  found  its  way  to  Etruria.  The  only 
alternative  that  suggests  itself  is  that  the  presence  of  the  lion  may 
have  been  meant  to  show  by  a  species  of  anticipation  that  the  body 
of  the  falling  combatant  was  left  to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts. 
(2)  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  coffin  is  represented  a  banquet,  at 
which  a  male  and  a  female  figure  recline.  We  may  notice  the 
Etruscan  vases  which  form  part  of  the  scene.  The  caldron  on  a 
high  stand  closely  resembles  the  vases  from  Falerii,  exhibited  in 
Case  70.  (3)  At  one  end  are  two  warriors,  each  of  whom  appears 
to  be  taking  leave  of  two  female  relations.  (4)  At  the  other  end  are 
two  pairs  of  females,  seated  in  chairs,  in  a  mourning  attitude.  It  is  to 
be  presumed  that  the  four  scenes  thus  represented  on  the  sides  of  the 
coffin  have  relation  to  one  another,  and  that  the  subjects  are  (3)  the 
leave-taking  of  two  warriors  before  going  to  single  combat;  (1)  the 
death  of  one  of  them  ;  (4)  the  mourning  for  that  death  ;  and  (2)  the 
funeral  feast,  or  possibly  the  reception  of  the  slain  warrior  in  the  other 
world. 

Perhaps  it  is  one  of  these  same  warriors  who  reclines  on 
the  lid.  He  is  naked,  and  his  meagre  and  emaciated  condi- 
tion seems  caused  by  age  and  sickness,  though  perhaps  much 
of  the  peculiarity  of  the  type  may  be  due  to  want  of  skill  of 
the  artist  in  the  representation  of  nude  forms.  The  length 
and  tenuity  of  the  toes  are  remarkable.  The  figures  were 
modelled  in  clay  over  an  inner  core  of  wood,  and  Dr.  Murray 
suggests  that  some  of  the  anomalies  may  be  due  to  defects  in 
the  subsequent  process  of  firing  the  clay.  The  man's  face  is 
represented  as  a  mask.  Masks,  as  we  know,  were  used  to  cover 
the  face  of  the  dead.  The  gold  masks  of  Mycenae  in  the 
Athens  Museum  were  thus  used  ;  and  in  this  saloon  (Cases 
88-102,  H  148  and  149)  there  are  masks,  elaborately  in- 
cised with  hieroglyphics,  for  placing  on  the  face  of  corpses. 
In  the  case  of  the  woman  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  she 
is  intended  to  be  among  the  living  or  the  dead  :  the  idea  may 
be  that  of  a  banquet  in  the  realms  of  bliss,  or  of  the  woman 
tending  and  comforting  her  departed  spouse.    The  style  of 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


463 


these  figures  (says  Newton)  is  "  archaic,  the  treatment  through- 
out very  naturalistic,  in  which  a  curious  striving  after  truth  in 
anatomical  details  gives  animation  to  the  group,  in  spite  of 
extreme  ungainliness  of  form  and  ungraceful  composition." 
Notice  the  double  pillow  on  which  the  man  reclines.  Ruskin 
refers  to  this  as  a  decorative  detail  which  became  traditional 
in  the  subsequent  art  of  Etrurian  lands.  u  The  Etruscan 
traditions  (in  one  of  Lippi's  Madonnas)  are  preserved  in  it 
even  to  the  tassels  of  the  throne  cushion  ;  the  pattern  of  these 
and  the  folds  at  the  edge  of  the  angel's  drapery  may  be  seen 
in  the  Etruscan  tomb  now  central  in  the  first  compartment  at 
the  British  Museum,  and  the  double  cushion  of  that  tomb  is 
used,  with  absolute  obedience  to  his  tradition,  by  Jacopo  della 
Quercia,  in  the  tomb  of  Ilaria  di  Caretta 17  at  Lucca  (Fors 
Clavigera,  1876,  pp.  187,  358).  The  same  tasselled  pillow 
(the  " fringed  mattress"  of  Arnold's  poem)  is  to  be  seen  on 
the  hardly  less  famous  tomb  of  the  church  of  Brou. 

The  reliefs  on  the  side  of  the  tomb  before  us  are  more 
decorative  and  less  archaic  in  treatment  than  the  figures  on 
the  lid.  A  fine  feeling  for  composition  prevails  throughout 
them.  The  reliefs  were  stamped  from  moulds  ;  the  technical 
difficulties  were  not  so  great,  and  here  Greek  and  Asiatic 
influences  are  perceptible.  But  the  predominant  impression 
which  this  monument  will  make  upon  the  visitor,  first  and 
last,  is  that  of  the  figures  on  the  lid,  with  their  pronounced 
Tartar  physiognomy,  their  grotesque  attitudes,  their  uncanny 
smile.  "  The  beady-eyed,  narrow -mouthed  old  Etruscans, 
half- raised  on  their  couches,  laugh  their  eternal,  sly,  croco- 
dilian laugh,  which  always  seems  to  be  the  outward  expression 
of  a  formidable  latent  irony"  (Naegely).  In  all  the  most  char- 
acteristic works  of  Etruscan  art  there  is  a  certain  uncouthness 
which  at  once  fascinates  and  repels,  a  weirdness  which  seems 
to  mock  investigation  and  defy  analysis.  The  Etruscan  in- 
scription on  this  tomb,  painted  in  two  lines,  one  along  the 
edge  of  the  mattress,  the  other  immediately  below,  has  not 
been  interpreted.  Its  authenticity  and  that  of  the  sarcophagus 
have  been  questioned  by  some  critics,  but  without  any  good 
grounds.  "  It  reached  the  Museum  in  the  condition  in  which 
it  had  been  found  at  Caere "  (A.  S.  Murray's  Terra-cotta 
Sarcophagi  i?i  the  British  Museum;  C.  T.  Newton's  Caste  Hani 
Collection;  F.  W.  Burton  on  the  same  collection,  in  the  Port- 
folio, 1873,  p.  133  ;  Dennis's  Etruria,  i.  279). 


464 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


THE  SARCOPHAGUS  OF  SEIANTI 

Immediately  opposite  (in  Cases  56-63)  are  other  terra-cotta 
chests  and  sarcophagi.  These  are  of  much  later  date,  be- 
longing to  the  second  century  B.C.,  and  we  see  at  once  the  pro- 
gress made  in  terra-cotta  statuary  during  the  interval.  The 
most  remarkable  is  the  sarcophagus  (Cases  58  and  59)  of  a 
lady  whose  name  is  recorded  in  the  inscription  as  "  Seianti 
Thanunia,  wife  of  Tlesna."  Within  is  the  skeleton  of  the  lady 
herself;  on  the  cover  reclines  her  effigy,  gazing  into  a  mirror 
which  lies  within  its  open  case.  Her  ear-rings  are  painted 
to  imitate  gold  and  amber  ;  she  wears  two  armlets,  a  necklace, 
and  six  rings.  "  The  Etruscans  seem  to  have  had  an  oriental 
passion  for  jewellery — a  passion  which  was  shared  by  the 
Romans,  and  has  been  transmitted  to  their  modern  representa- 
tives, as  a  Sunday's  walk  on  the  Corso  will  abundantly  testify " 
(Dennis,  i.  476).  The  objects  of  silver  and  silver-gilt,  which 
now  rest  on  the  sarcophagus,  were  found  suspended  from  the 
walls  of  the  lady's  tomb  ;  they  comprise  a  silver  vase,  the  body 
in  the  form  of  an  ostrich  egg,  a  silver  box,  a  mirror,  and  a 
strigil.  The  date  is  fixed  as  the  first  half  of  the  second  century 
by  some  coins  which  were  found  in  a  companion  sarcophagus 
now  in  the  Etruscan  Museum  at  Florence.  Our  sarcophagus 
came  from  a  tomb  discovered  at  Chiusi  (Clusium)  in  1887. 
"  Though  not  exactly  beautiful,  this  work  must  raise  Etruscan 
sculpture  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  judge  it  by  the  examples 
commonly  seen.  The  figure  has  a  certain  dignity  ;  though 
somewhat  realistic,  it  is  not  repulsively  so,  and  the  face  (espe- 
cially when  seen  in  profile  from  the  right)  is  not  unpleasing  " 
(A.  H.  Smith  in  Classical  Review,  i.  119). 

We  have  said  that  the  archaic  terra-cotta  sarcophagus 
which  we  first  inspected  was  the  earliest  known  specimen  of 
the  distinctively  Etruscan  type  of  monument.  But  these 
couch-sarcophagi  were  more  commonly  made  in  coarse  stone 
instead  of  in  terra-cotta.  Hundreds  of  them  exist  in  many  of 
the  museums.  Many  are  placed  in  the  annexe  to  the  Graeco- 
Roman  Basement,  where  we  have  already  had  a  glimpse  of 
them  (p.  77).  The  visitor  who  is  making  a  systematic  study 
of  the  Etruscan  monuments  would  do  well  now  to  revisit  that 
room.  The  two  Etruscan  tombs  there  reconstructed  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  painted  sepulchral  chambers  in  which  the 
sarcophagi  are  found. 


46s 


ETRUSCAN  TOMB-PAINTINGS 
{Vase  Rooms  III.  and  II.) 

King  Death  was  a  rare  old  fellow — 

He  sat  where  no  sun  can  shine  ; 
And  he  lifted  his  hand  so  yellow, 

And  poured  out  his  coal-black  wine  ! 
Hurrah  !  hurrah  ! 

Hurrah  for  the  coal-black  wine  ! 

To  obtain  an  idea  of  the  best  Etruscan  tomb-paintings  we 
must  now  retrace  our  steps  through  the  Bronze  Room  and 
pause  in  the  Third  Vase  Room.  Here  on  the  wall  is  the  fac- 
simile of  a  most  remarkable  picture  unearthed  in  1830  in  the 
Grotta  del  Triclinio,  the  tomb  of  the  banquet,  at  Corneto. 
Very  striking  must  have  been  the  first  sight  of  this  chamber, 
where  a  scene  of  splendid  and  luxurious  revelry  is  depicted  in 
the  silent  abode  of  the  dead  (see  Dennis,  i.  318).  None  of 
the  paintings  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  magnificence  of  the  old 
Etruscans  in  dress,  in  furniture,  and  in  all  the  accessories  of 
sumptuous  living  : — - 

"The  picture  of  the  middle  wall  (of  the  tomb)  represents  three 
couches,  each  containing  a  man  and  a  woman.  In  front  of  two  of 
these  are  tables  covered  with  vases  (and  dishes).  Wine  is  handed 
round  to  the  guests  by  a  young  slave.  The  parti-coloured  coverings 
of  the  tables  and  couches  are  very  beautiful,  as  well  as  the  splendid 
festal  dresses  of  the  guests  and  their  crowns  of  ivy  and  olive.  An 
attendant  richly  dressed  is  playing  on  the  double  flute,  whilst  the 
guests  are  turning  towards  each  other  in  various  attitudes  and  with 
lively  gestures,  and  seem  much  more  occupied  with  the  pleasures  of 
society  than  with  those  of  the  table  ;  but  the  feast  is  already  begun,  for 
one  of  the  ladies  is  in  the  act  of  breaking  an  egg,  and  one  of  the 
gentlemen  is  receiving  a  cup  of  wine.  The  ladies  are  adorned  with  rich 
necklaces  and  bracelets.  Ointment  and  perfumes  also,  so  essential  to 
the  luxurious  habits  of  the  ancients,  are  not  wanting  to  this  banquet. 
The  clatter  of  the  dishes  and  the  smell  of  the  meats  have  attracted  to  the 
feast  a  tame  leopard,  a  partridge,  and  a  cock,  which  are  assiduously  pick- 
ing up  the  crumbs  of  good  things.  Above  the  couches  hang  crowns  or 
chaplets,  with  which  the  guests  at  the  end  of  the  entertainment  used  to 
adorn  their  heads,  necks,  and  arms,  when  they  took  their  luxurious 
siesta,  or  further  indulged  in  the  pleasures  of  the  goblet.  The  feast 
being  concluded,  the  dance  commences.  The  ballet  consists  of  eight 
persons,  and  the  musicians  are  two,  a  player  on  the  lyre  and  one  on 
the  double  flute,  but  even  they  take  a  part  in  the  dance.    The  prima 

2  H 


466 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


danzatrice  moves  her  hands  as  if  she  had  castanets,  while  the  last 
holds  a  wreath  of  ivy,  with  which  most  of  them  are  crowned.  They 
are  all  handsomely  buskined,  and  accompany  the  dance  with  a  lively 
movement  of  the  head  and  arms.  The  dance  is  still  kept  up  in  Cam- 
pania. The  dresses  are  of  the  most  splendid  material,  embroidered 
with  minute  stars  and  parti-coloured  garnitures  ;  their  necks  are  orna- 
mented with  costly  collars,  their  ears  with  pendants  and  arms  with 
bracelets.  The  youths  are  divided  from  the  dancing-girls  by  olive  and 
myrtle  trees,  covered  with  chaplets,  in  the  branches  of  which  are 
perched  various  birds  ;  while  hares  and  other  animals  are  gamboling  in 
evident  enjoyment"  (Mrs.  Hamilton  Gray's  Tour  of  the  Sepulchres  of 
Etruriax  p.  191). 

There  is  great  spirit  in  the  drawing,  but  some  of  the  atti- 
tudes are  frankly  impossible  ;  notice  especially  the  hands  of 
the  dancers.  It  will  be  noticed  that  at  the  banquet  women  are 
represented  by  the  side  of  the  men.  This  was  a  characteristic 
of  Etruria,  where  woman  was  honoured  and  respected,  and 
treated  in  a  position  of  equality  very  different  from  that  to 
which  she  was  relegated  in  Greece.  Not  all  the  Etruscan 
tombs,  however,  had  the  gay  and  festive  air  of  this  tomb  of 
the  banquet.  The  visitor,  if  he  has  inspected  the  models  of 
tombs  in  the  Basement,  will  already  have  received  a  vivid  im- 
pression of  the  gloomier  side  of  the  Etruscan  religion. 

The  pictures  on  the  other  walls  of  this  room  are  copies  from 
another  tomb,  at  the  ancient  Tarquinii.  It  was  discovered  in 
1827,  and  called  from  the  number  of  inscriptions  on  its  walls 
the  Grotta  delle  Iscrizione.  It  is  known  also  as  Grotta  delle 
Camere  Finte,  from  the  false  doors  painted,  one  in  the  centre 
of  each  wall,  as  if  to  indicate  entrances  to  inner  chambers. 
The  scenes  represented  are  games  and  dances  : — 

(Beginning  on  our  left,  we  see  first)  two  figures  boxing  over  an 
upright  stick,  to  the  music  of  a  piper,  in  blue  tunic  and  red  boots. 
Next  is  a  pair  of  athletes  wrestling  in  spirited  attitudes — one  having 
lifted  the  other  from  the  earth,  and  thrown  him  completely  on  his 
shoulder.  The  false  door  separates  these  combatants  from  an  equestrian 
procession.  There  are  four  mounted  figures,  preceded  by  another  on 
foot,  all  perfectly  naked.  From  the  exultation  of  the  first  horseman, 
who  throws  his  arms  into  the  air,  and  from  the  anxiety  of  his  followers 
to  urge  on  their  steeds,  it  is  clear  that  the  scene  represents  a  race, 
which  has  just  been  won  ;  the  victor  alone  having  his  name  recorded. 
The  man  on  foot  in  front  is  probably  an  umpire.  The  P'truscans  were 
renowned  for  their  race-horses.  The  steeds  would  hardly  pass  muster 
at  Newmarket  or  Ascot,  though  they  show  no  lack  of  spirit.  The 
figures  between  the  next  two  false  doors  form  a  Bacchic  dance,  as  is 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


467 


apparent  from  the  goblets  and  vases  in  their  hands,  and  from  the  tipsy 
excitation  of  their  gestures.  The  procession  is  brought  up  by  two 
slaves,  who  are  differently  attired  from  the  rest,  without  chaplets  or 
necklaces,  or  even  boots.  Both  carry  wine-jugs,  precisely  similar  to 
those  which  modern  excavations  have  brought  to  light  in  such  abund- 
ance. On  the  other  side  of  the  painted  door  on  this  wall  is  a  bearded 
figure,  who  from  his  attitude  appears  to  represent  some  one  in  authority, 
commanding  the  slave  in  the  corner,  who  bears  several  branches  of 
trees  in  each  hand,  to  follow  the  Bacchic  dance.  He  appears  to  have 
just  arisen  from  the  couch,  where  the  slave. has  probably  been  fanning 
him  with  the  boughs.  The  scene  on  the  right  of  the  entrance  [on  the 
end  wall  of  the  room  here]  is  difficult  of  explanation.  It  represents  an 
old  man,  naked,  holding  in  one  hand  a  forked  rod,  and  standing  before 
a  low  stool,  on  which  a  boy,  also  naked,  is  about  to  lay  a  blue  fish. 
It  is  possible  that  the  stool  is  a  sort  of  altar,  and  that  the  boy  is  making 
an  offering.  The  inscriptions  are  unfortunately  of  no  assistance,  as  the 
language  is  for  the  most  part  unknown.  (For  a  fuller  description  of  these 
paintings,  see  Dennis,  i.  ch.  xxv. ,  from  whose  pages  the  above  passage 
is  compressed.) 

We  now  proceed  to  Vase  Room  II.,  where  some  other  tomb- 
paintings  are  reproduced  (with  restorations).  The  painting  on 
one  side  of  the  door  as  we  enter  is  especially  remarkable,  for  it 
takes  us  from  scenes  of  feasting  to  one  of  mourning.  It  is  re- 
produced from  a  tomb  at  Corneto,  called  The  Dead  Man's 
Chamber  (Camera  del  Morto),  discovered  in  1831.  This  is 
interesting  both  for  the  subject  and  for  the  style  of  the  drawing. 
It  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  tombs,  and  the  style  is  purely 
Etruscan  without  any  trace  of  Hellenic  influence.  The  prin- 
cipal subject  is  an  affecting  scene  of  domestic  manners,  the 
preparation  of  a  dead  body  for  its  last  resting-place.  Yet  "  the 
usage  of  the  Etruscans  to  honour  their  dead  with  dancing  and 
music  is  not  here  forgotten.  The  very  chamber  of  death  is  re- 
presented as  not  without  this  somewhat  incongruous  accompani- 
ment" (Mrs.  Hamilton  Gray's  Sepulchres  of  Etruria,  p.  188). 

On  another  wall  is  a  facsimile  of  the  paintings  upon  another 
tomb  at  Tarquinii.  This  tomb,  called  the  Grotta  delle  Bighe 
from  the  chariots  represented  on  the  frieze,  was  discovered  in 
1827  ;  it  is  about  fifteen  feet  square  and  six  feet  high.  The 
paintings,  here  reproduced,  run  round  the  walls  as  a  frieze. 
The  upper  frieze,  containing  a  multitude  of  figures  scarcely 
more  than  a  foot  in  height,  represents  the  public  games  of  the 
Etruscans.  At  one  end  are  the  two-horse  chariots,  above 
referred  to,  preparing  for  a  race.  The  horses,  for  variety  of 
colour,  are  painted  red,  blue,  or  white.     On  the  rest  of  the 


468 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


frieze,  other  sports  are  represented  ;  most  of  the  figures  are 
naked.  At  the  corners  stands  or  platforms  are  depicted.  On 
the  upper  platform  are  the  more  distinguished  spectators,  richly 
attired  ;  below  them  are  the  common  people,  mostly  naked 
and  reclining  on  the  ground. 

What,  it  may  be  asked,  have  scenes  such  as  this — -correspond- 
ing to  the  downs  at  Epsom  or  a  football  match  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  among  ourselves — to  do  with  tombs  ?  Two  answers 
may  be  given.  The  pictures  may  represent  the  solemn  games 
held  at  funerals  ;  or  they  may  portray  the  actual  pursuits  in 
which  the  happy  dead  were  supposed  to  be  engaged.  Readers 
of  Virgil  will  remember  his  description  of  the  delights  of  the 
Elysian  fields  : — 

Here  some  in  games  upon  the  grass  their  bodies  breathing  gave  ; 
Or  on  the  yellow  face  of  sand  they  strive  and  play  the  play  ; 

for  even  as  they  loved 
Chariot  and  weapons,  yet  alive,  and  e'en  as  they  were  moved 
To  feed  sleek  horses,  under  earth  doth  e'en  such  joy  abide. 

A  similar  question  arises  with  regard  to  the  banquet  scenes, 
which  were  also  a  common  adornment  of  Etruscan  sepulchres. 
A  scene  of  this  kind  is  the  subject  of  the  lower  frieze  before  us. 
The  guests,  who  are  here  all  men,  recline  in  pairs  on  three 
couches  and  are  attended  by  naked  slaves.  Beneath  the  couches 
are  several  blue  ducks.  The  banqueters,  like  the  dancers,  are 
crowned  with  myrtle.  "  Their  feet  are  twinkling  about  in 
rapid  motion,  and  their  extended  hands  beat  time,  in  the 
still  scarcely  obsolete  Italian  fashion,  as  an  accompaniment. 
Between  each  dancer  stands  a  tree  of  olive  or  myrtle,  sacred 
to  the  dead."  Or  it  may  be  that  the  trees  are  introduced 
merely  to  indicate  that  the  festivities  were  held  in  the  open 
air.  The  ducks  and  other  animals  which  figure  in  these 
scenes  seem  only  ornamental  accessories,  introduced  as  whims 
of  the  artist — like  the  birds  in  pictures  by  Carpaccio  and  other 
Italian  painters.  The  banquets  may  represent  the  funeral 
festivities,  or  be  intended  to  realise  the  enjoyments  of  the 
other  world.  The  modern  visitor  on  entering  an  Etruscan 
tomb,  or  inspecting  these  facsimiles  of  their  paintings,  is 
struck  with  the  inappropriateness  of  such  scenes  ;  but  some 
remarks  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  Dennis  are  instructive  : — 

"  Our  view  is  not  bounded  by  a  paradise  of  mere  sensual  gratifica- 
tion.    If  we  cast  ourselves  back  into  antiquity  and  attempt  to  realise 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


469 


the  sentiments  and  creed  of  a  Greek,  Etruscan  or  Roman,  we  shall 
perceive  how  well  such  scenes  as  this  represent,  or  at  least  typify,  the 
state  of  bliss  on  which  a  departed  spirit  was  supposed  to  have  entered. 
They  believed  in  the  materiality  of  the  soul ;  and  their  Elysium  was 
but  a  glorification  of  the  present  state  of  existence  ;  the  same  pursuits, 
amusements,  and  pleasures  they  had  relished  in  this  life  they  expected 
in  the  next,  but  divested  of  their  sting,  and  enhanced  by  increased 
capacities  of  enjoyment.  To  celebrate  the  great  event,  to  us  so  solemn, 
by  feasting  and  joviality,  was  not  with  them  unbecoming.  They  knew 
not  how  to  conceive  or  represent  a  glorified  existence  otherwise  than 
by  scenes  of  the  highest  sensual  enjoyment.  The  funeral  feast  is  still 
kept  up  by  most  civilised  pagans  of  our  own  day,  the  Chinese,  and  even 
by  certain  people  of  Christendom.  The  wakes  of  the  Celtic  races  of 
our  own  land  have  in  all  probability  an  identity  of  origin — in  feeling  at 
least — with  the  funeral  feasts  of  the  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans  " 
{Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etricria,  i.  322). 


CANDELABRA,  ARMOUR,  Etc. 

Etruria  bears  the  palm  for  gold-wrought  bowls, 
And  all  the  bronze  that  ornaments  our  homes. 

Athen^eus,  i.  50. 

We  may  now  return  to  the  Etruscan  Saloon,  and  resume  our 
examination  of  the  objects  there  collected.  Turning  to  the 
left  as  we  enter  and  going  round  the  bay  in  which  the  large 
sarcophagus  is  placed,  we  find  in  the  wall-cases  a  collection  of 
bronze  articles,  of  which  the  most  important  are  candelabra  or 
lamp-stands.  It  was  in  the  production  of  articles  for  house- 
hold use  and  ornament  that  the  Etruscan  metal  -  workers 
excelled.  Etruscan  luxury  and  skill  in  this  respect  were  pro- 
verbial in  antiquity.  Etruscan  statuettes  in  bronze  were  also 
famous,  at  any  rate  among  the  Romans.  Pliny  speaks  of 
Signa  Tuscanica  (Etrurian  statuettes)  as  dispersed  through 
the  world,  and  Horace  enumerates  them  (Tyrrhena  Sigilld) 
among  the  choice  possessions  of  connoisseurs  : 

Games,  marbles,  ivory,  Tuscan  statuettes. 
Pictures,  gold  plate,  Goetulian  coverlets, 
There  are  who  have  not ;  one  there  is,  I  trow, 
Who  cares  not  greatly  if  he  has  or  no. 

Modern  excavations  have  confirmed  the  evidence  of  antiquity, 
so  far  as  Etruscan  candelabra  and  similar  objects  are  con- 
cerned.    Large  numbers  of  them,  covering,  it  is  thought,  a 


47o 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


period  of  four  centuries,  have  been  unearthed,  and  they  are 
remarkable  for  their  grace  and  ingenuity.  The  specimens 
in  the  British  Museum  are  arranged  in  Cases  76-80.  The 
candelabra,  or  lamp-stands,  vary  from  10  inches  to  5  feet  in 
height,  and  compare  very  favourably  in  easy  grace  with  the 
heavy  lamp  -  stands  of  modern  manufacture.  The  ancient 
lamps,  it  is  true,  contained  only  small  receptacles  for  oil,  and 
this  facilitated  lightness  and  grace  in  the  stands.  But  modern 
craftsmen  or  tradesmen  have  not  as  a  rule  taken  advantage  of 
the  possibilities  of  airiness  and  grace  offered  by  the  electric 
light,  which  requires  only  a  thin  wire  and  the  lightest  of  lamps. 
One  can  imagine  with  what  artistic  zest  the  old  Etruscans  would 
have  set  themselves  to  so  fascinating  a  task.  The  Etruscan 
candelabra  were,  it  will  be  seen,  of  two  kinds.  Sometimes 
the  shaft  terminates  in  a  bowl,  in  which  the  lamp  was  placed 
{e.g.  No.  777)  ;  more  commonly  it  terminates  in  a  number  of 
branches  from  which  lamps  were  suspended.  In  the  middle 
of  the  branches  is  the  figure  of  a  deity  or  a  winged  genius. 
This  is  an  idea  which  is  sometimes  adapted  by  designers  of 
electric  lamp-stands.  The  feet  of  the  Etruscan  candelabra 
are  generally  lions'  claws  ;  but  other  shapes  are  used — e.g., 
dolphins  (780),  and  human  legs  (779).  The  shafts  generally 
rise  directly  from  the  base,  and  are  often  fluted  or  twisted  or 
knotted.  It  was  a  favourite  conceit  to  introduce  a  bird  perched 
upon  the  stem  (774,  775),  or  one  animal  pursuing  another 
(772,  776-778). 

Continuing  our  inspection  of  the  wall-cases,  we  find  in  Nos. 
82-87  miscellaneous  bronze  objects — disks,  horse-trappings, 
etc. — which  may  be  referred  to  a  very  early  period  (B.C.  800 
and  later),  and  which  have  nothing  distinctively  Etruscan 
about  them.  Bronze  in  this  period  is  hammered  as  well  as 
cast.  Very  curious  are  the  plates  with  ploughing  scenes 
(345)  346) ;  similar  objects  have  been  found  in  other  parts  of 
Europe  ;  they  were  probably  connected  in  some  way  with  the 
ceremonies  of  agricultural  gods  (see  Archceologia,  xxxvi.  358). 
In  the  next  set  of  cases  (81-91)  are  Etruscan  armour  and 
weapons  in  bronze.  In  Cases  92  and  93  is  the  interesting 
helmet  (250)  already  referred  to  (p.  459).  Note  also  two 
ornate  tripod- stands  (587,  588).  Continuing  our  course  round 
into  the  next  bay,  we  may  notice  in  Case  95  a  very  curious 
cista,  or  chest  (No.  55  4).  We  shall  presently  see  some  chests 
of  this  kind  very  delicately  incised.     This  chest  with  work  in 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


47 1 


relief  is  of  a  much  earlier  date  and  very  archaic  style.  The 
frieze  of  Gorgons  is,  whether  intentionally  or  not,  very  cornic  ; 
each  figure  is  embossed  from  the  same  mould.  In  Cases  98- 
102  are  specimens  of  the  archaic  pottery  of  Etruria,  called 
bucchero  nero — black  unglazed  ware.  "  It  is  coarse  unbaked 
pottery  5  its  forms  are  uncouth,  its  decorations  grotesque,  its 
manufacture  rude  in  the  extreme,  and  it  has  little  artistic 
beauty,  yet  it  is  of  extraordinary  interest  as  illustrative  of 
Etruscan  art  in  its  earliest  and  purest  stages,  ere  it  had  been 
subjected  to  Hellenic  influences"  (Dennis,  ii.  75).  Especially 
curious  are  the  specimens  numbered  H  148,  149;  these  are 
masks,  elaborately  incised,  for  placing  on  the  face  of  corpses  ; 
the  man  on  the  terra-cotta  sarcophagus  is  so  represented.  In 
Case  102  is  an  amphora  (A  609),  with  a  frieze  of  horsemen, 
each  figure  made  from  the  same  mould  ;  this  vase  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Museum  by  Mr.  Ruskin. 

In  Cases  103-107  the  prettiest  objects  are  the  balsamaria 
or  toilet-boxes  in  the  form  of  female  heads,  and  bowls  with 
handles  in  statuette  forms.  Some  of  the  former  are  especially 
graceful  {e.g.  763,  764,  759);  these  are  in  Case  103.  In  the 
same  case  is  a  tablet  (888),  with  a  long  inscription  "  in  the 
Oscan  language,  which  ordains  festival  days  for  various 
Samnite  deities,  many  of  whose  names  would,  but  for  this 
tablet,  be  unknown.  For  the  study  of  the  Oscan  language, 
which  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  sources  of  Latin,  this 
tablet  is  important.  It  is  known  as  "  Tavola  d'Agnone " 
from  the  place  in  North  Samnium  where  it  was  found  (Newton, 
Caste  Hani  Collection,  pi.  3).  In  the  same  case  we  may  also 
notice  a  tablet  (601)  with  incised  designs,  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  early  Etruscan  style  in  this  sort. 


ETRUSCAN  BRONZE  STATUETTES 

In  the  production  of  bronze  statuettes  (Cases  108-115)  the 
Etruscans  did  not  show  the  marked  individuality  which  dis- 
tinguishes their  work  in  some  other  departments  of  art.  The 
subjects  of  most  of  the  statuettes  before  us  are  Greek ;  the 
artistic  motives  are  in  most  cases  borrowed  from  the  Greek  ;  and 
in  truth  the  classification  of  statuettes  as  Greek  or  Etruscan 
respectively  is  often  decidedly  conjectural.  Most  of  the 
statuettes  here  collected  are  strongly  archaic  in  character. 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


As  examples  we  may  note  No.  496  (Case  108),  a  little  figure 
as  wooden  in  style  as  a  wooden  image,  and  No.  495,  a  comically 
primitive  attempt  to  represent  movement. 

Next  to  it  is  No.  491,  an  archaic  figure  of  Victory  of  great 
interest.  At  first  sight  this  quaint  little  figure,  in  her  curiously 
strained  position,  lifting  up  her  skirt  while  she  runs  in  the 
most  impossible  attitude,  may  excite  only  amusement.  But 
both  historically  and  technically  the  bronze  deserves  careful 
study  : — 1 

Historically,  it  shows  us  one  of  the  earliest  representations  of  a 
type  which  the  progressive  genius  of  the  Greek  artists  developed  into 
one  of  the  most  glorious  creations  of  their  sculpture — the  figure  of 
Winged  Victory  (see,  e.g.,  the  cast  in  the  Room  of  Archaic  Sculpture, 
p.  114).  Technically,  the  bronze  shows  us  a  piece  of  sculpture  in  the 
round  which  has  already  considerable  artistic  merit,  but  which  is  still 
under  the  influence  of  the  methods  employed  in  work  in  relief*  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  the  chief  aim  of  the  artist  has  been  to  convey  an 
impression  of  swiftness.  The  result  is  in  some  ways  comical.  But 
we  may  notice  how  the  upper  folds  of  the  drapery  are  blown  out  by  the 
wind,  and  how  the  long  hair  is  dashed  backward.  Notice  as  a  touch  of 
observation  from  nature  that  the  lady  is  with  her  left  hand  lifting  up 
her  skirt.  In  various  respects  we  may  notice  a  distinct  sense  for 
Composition  in  the  bronze,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  contrast  between 
the  horizontal  lines  of  the  wings  and  the  vertical  lines  of  the  drapery. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  bronze  betrays  in  other  technical  respects  its 
archaic  character.  We  have  seen  in  the  case  of  the  large  terra- cotta 
sarcophagus  (p.  463)  that  the  sculpture  in  the  round  is  less  advanced 
artistically  than  the  sculpture  in  the  bas-reliefs.  Here  we  see  that 
work  in  the  round  is  not  yet  emancipated  from  the  traditions  of  work 
in  relief.  The  bronze  is  very  flat  at  the  back  ;  the  wings  are  spread 
out  wide  with  closedying  pinions  ;  and  the  figure  is  represented  in  a 
sideward  movement.  (See  for  these  and  other  points  an  elaborate  analysis 
in  ch.  i.  of  A;  S.  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes.) 

Another  Greek  motive  which  is  very  beautifully  rendered  in 
Attic  sculpture  of  the  great  period,  but  here  treated  in  very 
primitive  style,  is  Aphrodite  adjusting  her  sandal  (449). 
Another  Aphrodite  (448)  stands  in  the  well-known  attitude  of 
the  Venus  dei  Medici.  Many  of  these  statuettes  served,  it 
should  be  noted,  as  the  stands  of  mirrors. 

In  the  statuettes  displaying  the  best  workmanship,  certain 
Etruscan  characteristics  may  sometimes  be  distinguished.  We 
may  take  as  typical  examples  Nos.  613  (Case  110)  and  681 
(Case  112).  The  former  is  a  female  figure,  standing  in  an 
attitude  of  prayer — of  the  best  period  of  Etruscan  workman- 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


473 


ship,  but  characterised  by  exaggeration  and  in  one  or  two 
small  matters  by  absence  of  correct  taste  : — 

"On  the  archaic  marble  statues  of  the  Acropolis  we  frequently  see 
a  crown  on  the  head  richly  decorated  with  floral  patterns.  It  is  a 
crown  identical  in  shape  with  that  of  the  Etruscan  statuette,  but 
instead  of  standing  out  conspicuously,  not  to  say  boastfully,  as  in  the 
Etruscan  bronze,  it  is  invariably  kept  down  to  the  most  modest  and 
unobtrusive  dimensions.  That  was  not  to  the  Etruscan  taste.  Their 
love  of  conspicuousness  is  seen  also  in  the  massive  necklace  of  the 
bronze  and  particularly  in  the  intensified  features  of  the  face.  Yet  we 
are  bound  to  acknowledge  that  in  this  figure  the  workmanship  is  often 
excellent.  But  for  an  innate  habit  of  exaggeration,  the  sculptor  might 
perhaps  have  stood  side  by  side  with  the  Greeks  of  his  day  "  (Murray's 
Greek  Bronzes,  p.  28). 

No.  681  (Case  1 14). — A  young  man  holding  in  his  hand  a 
sword,  the  blade  of  which  has  been  broken  off.  Found  at 
Civita  Castellana,  1 89 1  ;  Etruscan  work  of  the  third  century 
B.C.,  and  again  characterised  by  Etruscan  exaggeration. 

The  details  in  Etruscan  statuettes  are,  however,  sometimes 
rendered  with  much  refinement.  As  examples,  we  may  notice 
in  Cases  1 10- 112,  No.  490,  a  siren,  and  No.  509,  a  male 
figure  remarkable  for  the  delicate  workmanship  in  the  hair  and 
eyes,  as  well  as  for  the  fine  patina  upon  it.  In  Case  1 1 1  there 
is  a  curious  group  of  two  gymnasts  (No.  508) — -this  formed  the 
handle  of  a  vase.  In  Case  112  there  is  a  fine  figure  of  Ares, 
from  a  candelabrum  (No.  603). 

But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  bronzes  here  are 
several  found  on  Monte  Falterona — a  find  which  is  one  of  the 
romances  of  excavation  : — 

<l  Relics  of  Etruscan  art  are  not  always  found  in  sepulchres.  The 
most  abundant  collection  of  non- sepulchral  relics  that  Etruria  has 
produced  was  discovered  in  the  summer  of  1838,  not  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  a  city  or  necropolis,  not  even  in  the  rich  plains  or  valleys 
which  anciently  teemed  with  population,  but,  strange  to  say,  near  the 
summit  of  one  of  the  Apennines,  one  of  the  loftiest  mountains  in 
Tuscany,  which  rises  to  the  height  of  5400  feet.  This  is  Monte 
Falterona,  the  mountain  in  which  the  Arno  takes  its  rise.  On  the 
same  level  with  the  source  of  this  celebrated  river  is  a  lake,  or  tarn, 
on  whose  banks  a  shepherdess,  sauntering  in  dreamy  mood,  chanced 
to  cast  her  eye  on  something  sticking  in  the  soil.  It  proved  to  be  a 
little  figure  in  bronze.  She  carried  it  home  ;  and,  taking  it  in  her 
simplicity  for  the  image  of  some  holy  man  of  God,  set  it  up  in  her  hut 
to  aid  her  private  devotions.  The  parish-priest,  paying  a  pastoral 
visit,  observed  this  mannikin  and  inquired  what  it  was.     4  A  saint,' 


474 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


replied  the  girl ;  but,  incredulous  of  its  sanctity  or  not  considering  it  a 
fit  object  for  a  maiden's  adoration,  he  carried  it  away  with  him.  The 
fact  got  wind  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Stia  del  Casentino,  and  some 
of  the  inhabitants  resolved  to  make  researches  on  the  spot.  A  single 
day  sufficed  to  bring  to  light  a  quantity  of  such  images  and  other  articles 
in  bronze,  to  the  number  of  335,  lying  confusedly  on  the  shores  of  the 
lake,  just  beneath  the  surface.  They  then  proceeded  to  drain  the  lake, 
and  discovered  in  its  bed  a  prodigious  quantity  of  trunks  of  fir  and 
beech  trees  heaped  confusedly  on  one  another,  with  their  roots  often 
uppermost,  as  if  they  had  been  overthrown  by  some  mighty  convulsion 
of  nature  ;  and  on  them  lay  many  similar  figures  in  bronze,  so  that  the 
total  number  of  articles  in  this  metal  here  discovered  amounted  to 
between  600  and  700.  They  were  mostly  human  figures  of  both  sexes, 
many  of  them  representing  gods  and  penates,  varying  in  size  from  two 
or  three  to  seventeen  inches  in  height.  But  how  came  they  here  ?  was 
the  question  which  puzzled  every  one  to  answer.  At  first  it  was 
thought  they  had  been  cast  into  the  lake  for  preservation  during  some 
political  convulsion,  or  hostile  invasion,  and  afterwards  forgotten. 
But  further  examination  showed  that  they  were  mostly  of  a  votive 
character — offerings  at  some  shrine  for  favours  expected  or  received. 
Most  of  them  had  their  arms  extended  as  if  in  the  act  of  presenting 
gifts ;  others  were  clearly  representations  of  beings  suffering  from 
disease,  especially  one  who  had  a  wound  in  his  chest,  and  a  frame 
wasted  by  consumption  or  atrophy ;  and  there  were,  moreover,  a 
number  of  decided  ex  votos — heads  and  limbs  of  various  portions  of  the 
human  body  (see  the  specimens  615  and  616  here).  All  this  implied 
the  existence  of  a  shrine  on  the  mountain,  surrounded,  as  the  trees 
seem  to  indicate,  by  a  sacred  grove  ;  and  it  seemed  that,  by  one  of 
those  terrible  convulsions  to  which  this  land  has  from  age  to  age  been 
subject,  the  shrine  and  grove  had  been  hurled  down  into  this  cavity  of 
the  mountain"  (see  Dennis,  ii.  pp.  107-109). 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  lake  possessed  certain 
medicinal  qualities,  corresponding  to  those  of  creosote,  which 
would  account  for  the  presence  of  a  shrine  and  for  the  votive 
offerings.  Several  of  the  choicest  products  of  this  strange 
find,  acquired  from  the  dealer  Campanari,  are  now  before  us 
in  the  British  Museum.  Among  these  we  may  specially 
notice  : — . 

450. — Artemis — an  archaic  work  of  considerable  excellence  :  wavy 
patterns  carefully  incised  on  the  robes  of  the  goddess. 

459. — A  warrior  :  a  very  fine  specimen  of  early  Etruscan  art,  the 
incised  work  especially  fine  and  elaborate. 

463. — A  figure  of  Hercules — a  forcible  piece  of  work,  but  marred 
by  characteristic  exaggeration.  This  figure  is  said  to  have  been  the 
one  first  discovered  at  Falterona — the  "  saint."  found  by  the  shepherdess, 
as  described  above. 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


475 


In  Case  115  "the  bronzes  are  of  a  late  period,  with  free 
attitude,  flaccid  forms  and  careless  work.  The  chasing  and 
engraving  of  the  surface  is  no  longer  practised  "  {Guide  to  the 
Department,  p.  125).  In  the  next  cases  are  further  specimens 
of  Etruscan  black  ware. 

THE  POLLEDRARA  TOMB 

The  objects  collected  in  Cases  126-135  are  of  special 
interest,  as  they  all  come  from  the  same  tomb,  and  that  a  tomb 
which  can  be  approximately  dated.  The  tomb  was  excavated 
at  a  place  called  La  Polledrara  near  Vulci  in  1840;  its 
contents  were  kept  together  in  the  possession  of  the  Prince  of 
Canino,  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  from  whom  they  were 
acquired  by  the  British  Museum.  Among  the  objects  found 
in  the  tomb  and  now  placed  in  the  front  of  these  cases  was  a 
small  porcelain  scarab  or  charm.  On  this  is  a  cartouche  or 
oval  ring  enclosing  the  hieroglyphic  of  the  Egyptian  king, 
Psammetichus  L,  who  reigned  666-612  B.C.  The  tomb 
cannot  therefore  be  earlier  than  his  reign  ;  but  as  internal 
evidence  points  strongly  to  its  high  antiquity,  the  date  may 
be  placed  about  612  B.C.  Its  interest  consists  in  showing  us 
native  works  of  art  of  the  early  Etruscan  style,  anterior  to 
Greek  influence,  side  by  side  with  articles  which  are  unequi- 
vocally Egyptian,  and  thus  attest  the  very  early  intercourse 
between  that  country  and  Etruria. 

From  the  Egyptian  character  of  some  of  its  contents,  it 
received  the  name  of  the  Tomb  of  I  sis  (Grotta  dTside),  but  it 
seems  really  to  have  been  the  tomb  of  two  Etruscan  ladies  of 
rank,  whose  effigies  are  still  in  existence,  though  nearly  three 
thousand  years  may  have  elapsed  since  their  decease.  Unless 
the  archaic  art  of  Etruria  entirely  failed  to  suggest  their 
charms,  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  were  remarkable  for 
beauty  or  delight.  Let  us  look  first  at  these  curious  specimens 
of  ancient  sculpture.  One  is  a  full  length,  carved  in  the 
limestone  of  the  Polledrara  district  —  a  stiff  and  ungainly 
figure.  The  other  lady  is  in  bronze  (434),  and  only  her  bust 
is  represented  : 1 — 

1  The  figure  was  found  in  fragments,  and  put  together  in  modern  times 
on  a  core  of  deal.  Mr.  Cecil  Smith  suggests  that  it  originally  represented 
not  a  bust  but  a  full-length,  that  the  bands  represented  the  upper  and 
lower  borders  of  an  embroidered  robe,  and  that  an  intervening  plate  of 


476 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


"  Being  of  vainer  mood  than  her  fellow,  and  less  modest  withal,  she 
had  it  represented  bare,  taking  care  to  put  on  her  best  necklace — and 
a  gorgeous  one  it  must  have  been,  though  stiffening  her  neck  like  a 
warrior's  gorget — and  to  have  her  hair  carefully  arranged  and  curled 
when  she  sat  to  the  artist.  And  she  seems  to  have  worn  a  broad  gold 
frontlet,  for  such  an  ornament,  embossed  with  figures,  was  found  in 
the  tomb.  Then  she  affected  modesty,  and,  with  a  gilt  bird  on  her 
hand,  thought  to  make  herself  more  engaging.  Yet  posterity,  whom  she 
intended  to  enchant,  will  hardly  accord  this  Etruscan  Lesbia  credit  for 
great  charms  ;  and  will  be  apt  to  exclaim  with  Juvenal  that  nothing 
is  more  intolerable  than  a  bedizened  dowager  "  (Dennis,  i.  460). 

From  the  technical  point  of  view  the  figure  is  interesting 
as  a  specimen  of  the  primitive  method  of  making  bronze  figures 
described  by  Pausanias  (see  p.  422).  The  bust  was  made  by 
fitting  pieces  together,  and  by  this  method  no  success  in  the 
representation  of  the  human  face  or  figure  could  be  expected. 
On  the  lower  part  of  the  bronze  before  us  are  plates  with 
friezes  of  lions,  sphinxes,  and  chariots.  The  workmanship  of 
these  reliefs  is  much  less  primitive  than  that  of  the  bust  above  ; 
the  technical  difficulty  here  was  much  less  (see  Murray's  Greek 
Sculpture,  i.  85,  and  Greek  Archceology r,  p.  243).  We  have 
already  noticed  a  similar  technical  contrast  in  the  case  of  the 
terra-cotta  sarcophagus  (p.  463).  Among  other  bronze  objects 
found  in  this  tomb  we  may  notice  two  braziers  (436,  437), 
two  oblong  cars  on  four  wheels,  and  with  a  horse's  fore-quarters 
springing  from  each  angle.  They  must  have  been,  says  Dennis, 
for  fumigation,  and  may  have  been  dragged  about  the  tomb 
to  dispel  the  effluvium  on  the  funeral  feast  or  the  annual 
ceremonies  in  commemoration  of  the  dead.  In  the  case  of 
other  bronze  objects,  the  plates  are  so  thin  and  slight  that 
they  can  only  have  been  used  for  show  at  funeral  ceremonies. 
(For  other  instances  of  this  economy  see  p.  451.) 

The  Egyptian  articles  found  in  the  tomb  consist  of  six 
ostrich  eggs,  of  which  one  is  painted  and  five  are  carved  : 
some  flat-sided  flasks,  and  unguent  pots  terminating  in  the 
figures  of  women.  The  flasks  have  hieroglyphic  inscriptions 
(invocations  to  the  gods  to  grant  a  happy  New  Year  to  the 
owner  of  the  vase).  The  eggs  have  holes  in  them,  recall- 
ing the  fact  that  ostrich  eggs  are  suspended  in  mosques  at 

plain  bronze  has  been  lost  (J.H.S.  xiv.  223).  The  sculpture  of  busts  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  a  late  development  of  the  art  (Murray's 
Archceology,  p.  242 ).  The  Official  Catalogue  conjectures  that  the  figure 
was  meant  for  Aphrodite. 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


477 


the  present  day.  What  was  their  significance  ?  Mr.  Dennis 
answers  thus  : — 

"Imitations  of  ostrich  eggs  in  terra-cotta  have  been  found  in  other 
tombs  at  Vulci,  which  seems  to  indicate  that  they  were  of  funereal 
application,  and  that  the  demand  was  greater  than  the  supply.  Hens' 
eggs  are  also  found  in  tombs,  not  only  in  Etruria,  but  in  Greece  and 
her  colonies,  and  are  sometimes  enclosed  in  vases.  They  are  not 
always  fragile,  for  many  museums  in  Italy  contain  specimens  of  this 
singular  sepulchral  furniture  [see  also  in  this  room,  p.  550].  Whether 
mere  relics  of  the  funeral  feast,  or  intentionally  left  in  the  tomb  with 
the  wine,  honey,  milk,  etc.,  as  food  for  the  Manes,  or  for  some  purely 
symbolical  purpose,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  The  signification  of 
fertility  ordinarily  attached  to  eggs  can  hardly  apply  to  a  sepulchre. 
The  egg  was  more  probably  in  this  case  an  emblem  of  resurrection  " 
(i.  458  n.). 

We  have  mentioned  the  hieroglyphics  on  the  flasks.  In 
the  inscriptions  Egyptian  scholars  have  detected  blunders,  and 
this  fact  suggests  the  theory  that  some  non-  Egyptian  inter- 
mediary was  engaged  in  introducing  the  wares  of  Egypt  to 
Etruria.  The  Greek  colony  at  Naucratis  in  the  Delta  may 
have  been  the  source  of  the  importation.  A  confirmation  of 
this  theory  is  sought  in  the  character  of  the  painted  pottery 
found  in  the  Polledrara  Tomb.  The  principal  vase  (A  632) 
is  unique  in  Etruscan  pottery,  the  ground  being  dark  gray  and 
the  figures  black,  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  white.  The  colours, 
however,  are  now  so  faint  that  few  visitors  will  have  the 
patience,  even  if  they  had  the  eyes,  to  make  out  the  designs. 
A  detailed  examination  of  the  vase  and  coloured  facsimiles 
will  be  found  in  vol.  xiv.  of  the  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies. 
Mr.  Cecil  Smith  draws  up  an  ingenious  formula  harmonising 
all  the  theories  which  have  been  propounded  with  regard  to 
this  Polledrara  ware.  It  is  "  a  local  Italian  ware  made  possibly 
at  Caere  under  the  combined  influences  of  Ionian  and  Naucra- 
tian  imports  acting  on  an  artistic  basis  principally  derived 
from  Corinth"  (loc.  cit.  p.  219). 


LATER  ETRUSCAN  WORKS 

We  must  now  turn  from  these  specimens  of  the  archaic 
art  of  Etruria  to  the  table -cases  in  this  part  of  the  room 
which  contain  some  of  the  choicest  works  of  Etruscan  art 


478 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


now  in  existence.     In  Case  A  are  some  particularly  beautiful 

objects  : — 

665.  — A  bronze  strigil,  or  instrument  for  scraping  oil  from  the 
limbs.  The  handle  is  formed  of  a  figure  of  Aphrodite,  who  is  herself 
represented  as  using  the  strigil.  This,  says  Newton,  is  an  exquisite 
specimen  of  Italian  design,  probably  of  the  Macedonian  period  ;  the 
figure  of  Aphrodite  is  finely  modelled,  and  adapted  to  the  handle 
with  that  versatile  ingenuity  which  distinguished  Greek  and  Groeco- 
Etruscan  decorative  art  in  its  best  period  {Castellani  Collection,  pi.  5). 

447. — An  archaic  female,  remarkable  among  other  things  for  the 
close-fitting  jacket  of  thick  stuff  which  the  lady  is  represented  as 
wearing  :  this  is  very  un-Greek.  The  patterns  on  the  drapery  are 
finely  incised,  especially  between  the  breasts.  This  figure  is  also  in- 
teresting as  an  early  example  of  casting.  The  bronze  was  cast  on  an 
iron  core,  and  the  iron  having  expanded  unequally  caused  the  right 
side  of  the  figure  to  split. 

557. — A  vase  cleverly  designed.  The  handles  are  formed  of  two 
nude  athletes  bent  backwards  so  as  to  support  the  mouth  of  the  vase. 

602. — A  bronze  of  the  finest  Etruscan  style,  showing  Demeter 
seated  in  a  rustic  car,  of  which  the  wheels  are  in  the  form  of  a  rose. 

656. — A  wine  jug.  The  body  is  modern  ;  the  curious  handle  is 
original. 

666.  — A  female  figure  seated  on  a  chair,  forming  the  base  of  a 
small  candelabrum.  This  very  graceful  piece,  found  at  Chiusi,  was  in 
the  collection  of  Rogers,  the  poet. 

The  best  of  these  pieces,  though  found  in  Etruria,  are 
essentially  Greek  in  their  ease  and  grace.  More  character- 
istically Etruscan  are  the  cistse  (chests),  of  which  one  or 
two  are  placed  at  the  bottom  of  this  case  ;  but  finer  specimens 
will  be  seen  presently. 

In  Case  B  we  may  notice  three  caldron-shaped  urns  (55  8- 
560)  of  elaborate  workmanship. 

ETRUSCAN  CHESTS 

In  the  next  cases  we  come  to  some  fine  specimens  of  a 
characteristically  Etruscan  product — namely,  the  cista,  or  chest 
of  bronze,  with  designs  incised  upon  it.  These  objects  have 
been  called  by  Italian  archaeologists  ciste  mistichc,  mystic 
chests,  but  it  is  clear  from  the  character  of  their  contents  (see 
below,  p.  479)  that  the  only  mysteries  attending  them  were  those 
of  the  female  bath  and  toilet.  These  chests  are  found  only  in 
Etruria,  and  there  almost  entirely  at  Praeneste  (Palestrina). 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


479 


Such  things  as  the  exquisite  strigil  noticed  above,  and  these 
beautifully  chased  toilet  boxes,  give  us  a  good  idea  of  the 
artistic  luxury  of  an  Etruscan  lady's  surroundings.  No.  638 
in  Case  C  is  one  of  the  finest  works  of  art  in  the  Etruscan 
collection.  It  was  found  at  Praeneste,  and  is  a  rival  even  to 
the  famous  "  Ficoroni  cista "  in  the  Kircherian  Museum  at 
Rome  : — 

The  subject  of  the  frieze  is  the  sacrifice  of  Trojan  captives  by 
Achilles  at  the  funeral  pyre  of  Patroclus,  as  described  in  the  Iliad, 
xxiii.  175  : — 

Last,  with  the  sword,  by  evil  counsel  sway'd, 
Twelve  noble  youths  he  slew,  the  sons  of  Troy. 

"The  drawing  is  excellent,  the  types  of  the  figures  noble,  and  the 
desire  of  the  artist  to  enliven  his  composition  by  bold  perspective  in 
the  attitudes,  conspicuous."  In  the  centre  of  the  composition  is  the 
pyre  of  logs,  and  on  it  are  placed  the  cuirass  and  two  shields  of  Patro- 
clus. On  the  left  is  Achilles  plunging  his  sword  into  the  neck  of  a 
captive,  whose  face  is  full  of  expression.  On  the  left  of  Achilles  is 
a  female  goddess,  her  legs  crossed  in  an  easy  attitude.  Farther  on  is 
Athena.  *'  There  is  great  variety  of  attitude  and  expression  in  the  other 
captives  and  the  myrmidons  who  lead  them  to  the  sacrifice.  We 
should  mention  also  the  artist's  efforts  at  shading  to  give  roundness 
to  the  forms,  because  such  efforts,  as  we  know  from  the  painted  vases, 
where  they  would  have  been  equally  applicable,  wrere  rare  among  the 
Greeks"  (Murray's  Archeology,  p.  135).  The  date  of  this  work  is 
probably  the  fourth  century  B.C. 

In  Case  D  is  another  very  fine  cista.  The  design  on  it  is 
drawn  with  freedom  and  care.  The  subject  appears  to  be  a 
burlesque  of  the  Judgment  of  Paris.  (For  a  full  account  of  this 
ingenious  and  interesting  identification  see  Murray's  Handbook 
of  Greek  A  rchceology,  pp.  140-145.) 

In  the  chest,  No.  743,  were  found,  among  other  objects, 
the  knife  here  exhibited  (2760),  and  a  statue  of  Mars  (456). 

In  Case  E  is  another  fine  chest,  No.  746  (from  Palestrina, 
1888),  of  a  late  period  (probably  third  century  B.C.),  but  of 
fine  style.  The  frieze  combines  two  scenes  from  the  Trojan 
cycle  (described  in  Murray's  Archceology,  p.  136). 

In  the  lower  part  of  this  case  are  various  articles  of 
toilet — such  as  combs,  pigment -boxes,  etc.  —  found  in  the 
bronze  chests,  and  thus  revealing  the  use  to  which  they  were 
put. 

In  Case  F  are  various  bronze  implements,  such  as  colanders; 


480 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


the  handles  of  vases,  and  feet  of  cistae.  We  may  notice  also 
the  handsome  situla  or  bucket,  No.  650  ;  this  would  make  a 
fine  wine-cooler.  Above  each  foot  is  a  group  of  Hercules 
strangling  the  Nemean  lion  ;  below  the  handles  is  a  relief  of  a 
winged  death-goddess  holding  up  a  youth  with  either  hand. 
In  Cases  H  and  I  are  more  cistse. 


ETRUSCAN  MIRRORS 

We  now  cross  to  the  other  side  of  the  room,  where,  in  the 
Table-cases  K  and  L,  is  shown  the  collection  of  Etruscan 
mirrors.  When  first  discovered  these  metal  disks  with 
handles  were  supposed  to  be  ladles  for  flour  and  other  dry 
substances  ;  but  it  is  now  established  without  doubt  that  they 
were  mirrors — a  fact  proved  by  representations  of  them,  either 
on  their  own  disks  or  on  painted  vases  ;  by  the  high  polish 
they  often  retain  ;  and  by  the  discovery  of  them  in  caskets 
with  other  articles  of  the  female  toilet.  The  Etruscan  mirrors 
are  of  the  two  different  kinds  already  specified  in  the  case  of 
the  Greek  mirrors.  Some,  that  is  to  say,  are  polished  disks, 
with  designs  incised  on  the  reverse  side,  and  furnished  with 
handles.  .  Others  are  enclosed  in  mirror-cases.  It  is  into  a 
mirror  of  this  latter  kind,  lying  within  its  open  case,  that  the 
effigy  of  Seianti  is  gazing  on  the  sarcophagus  above  described. 
Several  specimens  of  Etruscan  mirror-cases  will  be  found  in 
Case  K.  But  it  is  the  incised  mirrors  that  are  the  characteris- 
tically Etruscan  product.  Comparatively  few  have  been  found 
in  Greece  ;  a  thousand  have  been  found  in  Etruria.  Appar- 
ently the  Etruscans  in  their  search  for  luxury  had  encouraged 
the  production  of  such  works  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  the 
Greeks.  In  our  own  luxurious  days  hand  mirrors  are  in  great 
request,  but  they  do  not  show  the  same  search  for  artistic 
embellishment  as  was  common  in  Greece  and  Etruria.  Walk 
down  Holborn  or  Oxford  Street,  and  you  will  see  cheap  "  art 
mirrors,"  in  which  crude  and  conventional  designs  of  no 
beauty  or  meaning  are  stamped  on  brass.  Walk  down  Bond 
Street  or  Piccadilly  and  you  will  find  that  the  hand  mirrors  in 
the  most  sumptuous  dressing-bags  or  toilet-cases  appeal  to  the 
purses  of  the  rich  rather  by  the  costliness  of  their  material 
than  from  any  delicacy  of  artistic  design.  From  the  artistic 
point  of  view,  it  has  been  pointed  out  with  force  and  acumen 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


that  incised  mirrors  were  the  Etruscan  counterpart  of  the 
Greek  red-figured  vases.  The  Etruscan  artists  appear  to  have 
shrunk  from  the  difficulties,  so  successfully  surmounted  by  the 
Greeks,  of  decorating  suitably  the  curved  surfaces  of  a  vase. 
In  this  art  they  never  achieved  any  success.  They  devoted 
themselves  instead  to  adorning  the  flat  even  surfaces  supplied 
them  by  mirror  disks  and  the  sides  of  cistae.  These  latter,  it 
should  be  understood,  were  first  engraved  on  square,  flat 
plates  of  bronze,  which  were  afterwards  beaten  to  a  cylindrical 
form.  The  method  of  incised  drawing  may  have  been  borrowed 
from  the  incised  lines  on  the  older  Greek  vases  ;  the  idea  of 
decorating  the  circular  disk,  from  the  decoration  on  the  inside 
of  a  Greek  painted  kylix  (see  Catalogue  of  the  Bronzes  in  the 
British  Museum,  p.  li.,  and  Murray's  Archcsology,  p.  120). 

The  subjects  depicted  on  the  Etruscan  mirrors  were  similarly 
borrowed  from  Greece ;  in  the  subjects  on  the  vases  the 
Etruscan  artists  had  "  an  extensive  mythological  repertory 
ready  to  their  hand."  They  drew  upon  it  freely  and  some- 
times very  incongruously  (see  No.  719).  But  the  myths  were, 
so  to  say,  Etruscanised.  The  names  of  the  Greek  deities  and 
personages  were  translated  into  the  Etruscan  language  and 
alphabet.  Hence  to  the  student  there  is  no  branch  of  Etruscan 
antiquities  more  valuable  than  incised  mirrors  ;  "  for  the  in- 
scriptions being  always  in  the  native  character,  and  designatory 
of  the  individual  gods  or  heroes  represented,  these  mirrors 
become  a  sure  index  to  the  Etruscan  creed — '  a  figurative 
dictionary/  as  Bunsen  terms  it,  <  of  Etruscan  mythology ' ; 
while  at  the  same  time  they  afford  us  the  chief  source  and 
one  of  the  most  solid  bases  of  our  acquaintance  with  the 
mysterious  language  of  that  ancient  race"  (Dennis,  i.  lxxx.). 

We  may  now  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of  the  individual 
specimens  : — 

542  (Case  L). — This  is  a  bronze  mirror  with  a  relief  sculptured  on 
the  back  of  it,  instead  of  the  usual  incised  design.  Bronze  reliefs  were 
generally  kept  for  mirror-cases.  The  subject  is  Hercules  carrying  off 
a  woman.    The  workmanship  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  archaic  period. 

543- — A  good  specimen  of  archaic  drawing.  Some  characteristic 
Etruscanisms  may  be  noticed  :  "  The  wings  on  the  shoes  of  the  goddess 
are  much  exaggerated  in  size.  Equally  exaggerated  is  the  action  of 
holding  out  the  skirt  with  the  right  hand,  and  yet  the  series  of  long 
narrow  folds  formed  thereby  is  quite  attractive  in  its  way."  (See  for 
a  discussion  of  other  points  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  35.) 

244. — A  good  design  in  the  archaic  manner.  The  subject — Eros 
2  1 


482 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


running — is  very  similar  to  that  on  the  Greek  vase,  E  13  (V.R.  III.), 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  workmanship  is  Greek  or  Etruscan. 
Dr.  Murray,  who  takes  the  latter  view,  nevertheless  calls  attention  to 
the  many  Greek  qualities  in  the  design  :  "One  might  say,  here  is  an 
instance  of  pure  Greek  drawing,  so  finely  conceived  is  this  youthful 
figure,  so  essentially  Greek  his  action  of  holding  up  a  flower.  His 
body  outlined  against  the  background  of  the  spreading  wings,  and  these 
wings  elaborately  delineated  as  a  foil  to  the  simple  lines  of  the  body, 
the  face  of  a  large,  full  type — these  are  characteristics  singularly  Greek  " 
{Greek  Bronzes ,  p.  32). 

545. — Orion  crossing  the  sea — a  design  which  recalls  the  style  of 
the  Greek  vases.  The  sea  is  indicated  by  a  wavy  line  and  fishes — one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  constant  of  symbolic  representations  in  art. 
"There  is  a  very  curious  instance  on  a  Greek  mirror  in  the  Museum, 
and  multitudes  of  examples  with  dolphins  on  the  Greek  vases  ;  the  type 
is  preserved  without  alteration  in  mediaeval  painting  and  sculpture. 
The  sea  on  that  mirror,  in  the  mosaics  of  Torcello  and  St.  Mark's,  on 
the  front  of  St.  Frediano  at  Lucca,  on  the  gate  of  the  fortress  of  St. 
Michael's  Mount  in  Normandy,  on  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  and  on  the 
capitals  of  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Venice  (under  Arion  on  his  dolphin),  is 
represented  in  a  manner  absolutely  identical"  (Ruskin,  Stones  of  Venice, 
i.  ch.  20,  §  xxv.). 

627. — "One  of  the  very  finest  of  existing  examples,  representing 
the  meeting  of  Menelaos  and  Helen  after  the  taking  of  Troy.  The 
drawing  of  the  figures  is  very  refined  and  masterly,  especially  Ajax  and 
Menelaos"  {Catalogue  of  Bronzes •,  pp.  li.,  97). 

620. — A  curious  and  interesting  subject — the  story  of  Perseus  and 
Medusa,  peculiarly  appropriate  to  a  bronze  mirror-case,  since  it  was 
the  bronze  shield  of  Athena,  serving  as  a  mirror,  which  enabled  the 
hero  to  trace  Medusa  without  actually  seeing  her  face — a  sight  which 
would  have  turned  him  to  stone. 

719. — The  design  here  is  an  instance  of  the  incongruous  collocation 
of  Greek  personages.  Ajax,  Alcmena,  Thetis,  and  a  Silenus  are  all 
united  in  one  scene.  This  is  due  either  to  confused  ideas  or  to  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  artist,  who  has  selected  certain  types  from 
his  stock  and  combined  them  at  haphazard  "  ( Catalogue  of  Bronzes,  p.  Hi. ). 

623. — Achilles  arming.  A  Greek  subject  with  an  Etruscan  deity 
added  in  the  shape  of  a  winged  Lasa  or  Fate,  holding  a  nail  in  her 
raised  right  hand.  The  Etruscan  goddess  of  fate  is  sometimes  repre- 
sented with  a  hammer  as  well  as  a  nail,  as  if  fixing  unalterably  her 
decrees  (cf.  Ruskin's  Fors  Clavigera), 

In  the  centre  of  Case  L  are  specimens  of  early  Etruscan 
black  bucchero  ware  (see  p.  471). 

In  Case  K. — The  examples  in  this  case  are,  as  a  rule, 
later  than  those  we  have  already  examined,  and  the  drawing 
is  not  so  careful.    Among  the  most  interesting  is  No.  3217, 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


483 


recently  acquired  from  the  Tyszkiewicz  collection — a  game  of 
backgammon.  A  boy  and  a  girl  are  playing  ;  above  the  girl 
is  inscribed  in  Latin,  "  I  shall  beat  you "  ;  above  the  boy, 
"  I  think  so."  This  curious  specimen,  which  may  be  dated 
about  200  B.C.,  comes  from  Praeneste. 

On  one  side  of  this  case  are  collected  the  examples  of 
mirror-cases  with  designs  in  relief.  These  belong  exclusively 
to  the  later  period  of  Etruscan  art  (third  century  B.C.).  In 
the  centre  of  the  case  are  further  specimens  of  black  ware. 


EARLY  ETRUSCAN  PAINTINGS 

To  complete  our  survey  of  the  Etruscan  objects  in  this 
room  we  have  now  to  examine  some  more  of  the  wall-cases. 
Beginning  from  the  door  into  the  Bronze  Room,  we  may 
notice  first,  in  Cases  75-71,  five  panels  of  terra-cotta  with 
archaic  paintings  of  particular  interest,  as  they  are  entirely  free 
from  restoration.  These  are  among  the  oldest  of  Greek  or 
Italian  paintings  which  have  come  down  to  us,  dating  probably 
from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  before  Christ,  at  which 
period  the  practice  of  painting  on  terra-cotta  panels  succeeded 
that  of  painting  on  stucco.  Pliny,  in  his  account  of  the  begin- 
nings of  the  art,  refers  to  some  paintings  which  were  found  at 
Caere  (the  modern  Cervetri)  still  looking  fresh,  though  of  great 
antiquity.  It  was  at  that  place  that  the  slabs  before  us  were 
discovered  in  1874,  inside  a  small  tomb,  to  which  they  had 
served  as  wall  decorations.  With  regard  to  the  method 
employed,  the  slabs  were  first  covered  with  a  white  "slip55; 
the  design  was  then  sketched  in  with  ivory  or  wood  point  and 
filled  in  with  reds  and  blacks.  The  white  ground  was  allowed 
to  stand  for  the  faces  and  arms  of  the  women  ;  the  flesh  of  the 
men  was  red.  The  subjects  seem  to  be  scenes  of  mourning. 
The  two  sphinxes,  which  are  drawn  on  a  larger  scale,  stood  on 
either  side  of  the  doorway  of  the  tomb  ;  the  other  figures  are 
mourners.  Observe,  for  instance,  the  mantles  drawn  up  over 
the  heads  of  the  women.  An  instructive  detail  is  the  standard 
surmounted  by  a  bull  which  one  of  the  men  carries.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  art  of  painting  in  Greece — passing  thence 
to  Etruria— was  derived,  through  the  early  Greek  settlers  in 
Asia  Minor,  from  Egypt  and  Assyria.  "The  bull  is  of  a  quite 
Assyrian  type.    The  mere  idea  of  a  standard  is  peculiarly 


4§4 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


Assyrian  in  its  origin.  In  Assyria,  says  Herodotus  (i.  195), 
'  each  man  has  a  seal  and  a  staff  carved  by  hand,  and  on  each 
staff  is  carved  either  an  apple  or  a  rose,  or  a  lily  or  an  eagle, 
or  some  other  device  ;  for  it  is  not  their  custom  to  have  a  staff 
without  a  device  upon  it.'  Thence  the  use  of  a  standard  seems 
to  have  passed  to  the  Etruscans,  and  from  the  Etruscans  it 
certainly  was  handed  on  to  the  Romans.  Moreover,  the  type  of 
face  on  the  Caere  paintings  is  markedly  Assyrian.  .  .  .  The  idea 
of  facing  walls  with  decorated  slabs  of  terra-cotta  was  distinctly 
of  Mesopotamian  origin,  as  also  is  the  type  of  feature  prevalent 
in  these  slabs,  and  the  curious  form  of  boots  "  (A.  S.  Murray, 
Handbook  of  Greek  Archceology,  pp.  350,  356,  and  in  J.H.S. 
x.  243  ;  Cecil  Smith  in  Classical  Review,  iii.  187). 

TERRA-COTTA  ROOF  ORNAMENTS,  Etc 

On  the  upper  part  of  these  cases  are  archaic  terra-cotta  roof 
ornaments,  also  from  Cervetri.  We  shall  come  presently  to 
some  of  these  ornaments  of  a  later  period  ;  the  later  speci- 
mens have  been  reconstructed  so  as  to  show  how  they  were 
used  to  mask  the  ends  of  ridges  on  a  roof.  An  interesting 
legend  is  told  by  Pliny  in  connection  with  the  origin  of  this 
architectural  contrivance.  It  was,  he  says,  a  Corinthian  potter, 
named  Butades,  who  first  made  these  terra-cotta  "  antefixes," 
and  he  was  led  to  the  choice  of  faces  for  this  purpose  by 
having  seen  the  outline  which  his  daughter  had  sketched  on 
the  wall  from  the  shadow  cast  on  it  by  her  lover's  face  in  lamp- 
light. Butades  filled  in  the  face  with  clay  and  fired  it  with 
other  specimens  of  his  work  as  a  potter.  This  employment  of 
terra-cotta  was  in  time  superseded  by  the  use,  in  important 
buildings,  of  marble  for  roof-tiles  ;  but  terra-cotta  continued 
to  be  used  for  smaller  buildings — especially  in  Etruria  and 
among  the  early  Romans.  "  The  designs  of  these  cornices 
were  made  from  moulds  :  one  mould  of  a  Gorgon's  head,  for 
example,  would  be  sufficient  for  a  whole  cornice.  Uniformity 
of  effect  as  regards  artistic  type  was  reduced  by  brightness  of 
colouring"  (Murray's  Archceology,  p.  328;  Pliny,  N.H.  xxxv. 
1  51-152). 

Cases  70-64. — Antiquities  from  various  sites.  First  we 
may  notice  a  collection  of  archaic  pottery  from  a  tomb  at 
Falerii  (70-68).    The  cauldron  on  a  high  stand,  represented  on 


Xxii 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


485 


the  reliefs  of  the  large  terra-cotta  sarcophagus  opposite,  closely 
resembles  one  here  exhibited.  Another  collection  is  of  anti- 
quities from  tombs  in  the  valley  of  the  Ticino, — Giubiasco, 
etc.  (67-65).  "  These  antiquities,  though  representing  a  primi- 
tive stage  of  civilisation  in  the  Ticino  valley,  were  yet  con- 
temporary with  Republican  Rome"  {British  Museum  Return, 
1902,  p.  62).  At  the  bottom  of  these  cases  are  some  other  very 
curious  remains  of  primitive  Italian  civilisation.  These  are 
two  funeral  urns  in  the  form  of  huts  ;  one  of  the  two  contains 
calcined  bones.  The  desire  to  make  the  tomb  an  imitation  01 
the  dwelling  is  common  to  early  times.  But  whereas  Etruscan 
tombs  and  sarcophagi  were  often  imitations  of  houses  or 
temples,  these  urns  have  a  much  ruder  structure  :  the  shepherd's 
hut  of  boughs  and  skins  is  their  type — thus  indicating  a  far 
earlier  origin.  These  hut-urns  and  others  like  them  else- 
where were  found  on  the  Alban  Hills  above  the  Lake  of 
Albano : — 

The  urns  were  embedded  in  a  yellowish  volcanic  ash,  and  rested 
on  a  lower  and  earlier  stratum  of  peperino  (volcanic  rock).  The  upper 
stratum  being  broken  through  to  plant  vines,  disclosed  large  pots 
containing  hut-urns  and  other  vases.  At  first  these  hut-urns  were 
regarded  as  of  antediluvian  antiquity.  But  afterwards  it  was  sur- 
mised that  an  eruption  of  the  extinct  volcano  (of  which  the  crater 
is  now  the  Alban  Lake)  might  have  covered  the  tombs  with  a 
bed  of  peperino.  After  a  time  the  genuineness  of  the  discovery  was 
called  in  question  ;  it  was  asserted  that  these  sepulchral  relics  must 
have  been  placed  beneath  the  peperino,  either  for  greater  security  or 
to  puzzle  the  antiquaries.  In  1866,  however,  a  party  of  Italian 
scholars  and  geologists  visited  the  site  and  unanimously  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  relics  had  been  deposited  prior  to  the  formation  of 
the  volcanic  stratum  under  which  they  were  discovered.  The  cele- 
brated antiquary  De  Rossi  afterwards  continued  researches  on  the  spot, 
and  found  traces  of  a  necropolis  covering  a  large  area  in  which,  when- 
ever he  broke  through  the  superincumbent  crust  of  peperino,  he  dis- 
covered similar  remains  (see  Dennis,  ii.  457  n.f. 

The  question  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  discovery  was  thus 
completely  set  at  rest.  The  ashes  contained  in  the  hut-urns 
are  probably  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  Alba  Longa,  which, 
if  we  may  believe  tradition,  stood  on  the  ridge  surrounding 
the  Lake  of  Albano.  These  urns  thus  take  us  back  to  the  very 
dawn  of  Roman  history — to  the  legendary  days  of  King 
Amulius,  "  Of  the  great  Sylvian  line,  Who  reigned  in  Alba 
Longa,  On  the  throne  of  Aventine."    In  Case  64  is  a  larger  and 


486 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


CHAP. 


very  quaint  urn  for  ashes,  in  the  form  of  a  male  figure  with  a 
movable  head. 

Cases  63-54. — -In  the  remaining  cases  devoted  to  Etruscan 
antiquities  are  a  number  of  sepulchral  chests,  some  of  terra- 
cotta, others  of  limestone.  The  important  sarcophagus  of 
Seianti  Thanunia  we  have  already  described.  The  smaller 
terra-cotta  chests  are  cast  from  moulds,  and  roughly  coloured, 
the  names  of  the  deceased  being  occasionally  added. 

In  the  archaic  Etruscan  style,  sixth  century  B.C.,  is  one 
showing  two  sea-horses  confronted  (Case  61)  :  this  is  brightly 
coloured  in  red  and  blue.  On  the  later  chests  favourite  sub- 
jects are  repeated.  One  of  these  is  Echetlus  fighting  with  his 
plough  at  Marathon  (in  Case  63  and  elsewhere).  The  story 
of  this  phantom  warrior,  who  was  seen  assisting  the  Athenians, 
is  told  by  Pausanias  (i.  32.  4)  : — ) 

"  Now  it  befell,  they  say,  that  in  the  battle  there  was  present  a  man 
of  rustic  aspect  and  dress,  who  slaughtered  many  of  the  barbarians 
with  a  plough,  and  vanished  after  the  fight.  When  the  Athenians 
inquired  of  the  god,  the  only  answer  he  vouchsafed  was  to  bid  them 
honour  the  hero  Echetlus." 

Another  favourite  subject  is  the  story  ol  Eteocles  and 
Polynices — the  two  sons  of  CEdipus,  who  both  fell  in  a  war 
of  single  combat  between  them.  The  furies,  carrying  their 
torches,  stand  on  the  bas-relief,  as  spectators  and  abettors  of 
the  combat.  This  was  one  of  the  subjects,  as  Pausanias 
describes,  on  the  chest  of  Cypselus. 

Another  familiar  story,  represented  on  one  of  these  Etruscan 
urns,  is  that  of  Laocoon,  whose  sons  are  shown  in  the  coils  of 
a  two-headed  serpent  (Case  54).  "  The  sepulchral  chests  of 
limestone  are  adorned  with  reliefs  in  an  archaic  style  of  sculp- 
ture, which  refer  for  the  most  part  to  the  funeral  of  the 
deceased,  or  to  scenes  in  his  life.  They  include  scenes  of 
combat,  scenes  of  the  chase,  banquets,  and  the  laying  out  of 
the  corpse"  {Guide  to  the  Department,  p.  128). 

In  Cases  53-38  are  various  busts,  vases,  and  drinking 
horns.  Notice  in  Cases  42  and  41  two  oil-flasks  in  the  form 
of  Ethiopian  slaves. 

In  Cases  37-26  are  architectural  terra-cottas  (sixth  century 
B.C.)  from  the  excavations  conducted  by  Lord  Savile  at  Civita 
Lavinia,  the  ancient  Lanuvium,  1890-93.  In  Cases  31  and  30, 
a  cornice  has  been  reconstructed  from  the  remains  of  an 


XXII 


THE  ETRUSCAN  SALOON 


487 


Etruscan  temple.  Below  are  two  limestone  urns,  in  the  shape 
of  temples,  with  similar  roofs.  In  that  of  one,  from  Chiusi, 
a  winged  figure  sits  as  guardian.  The  groups  in  terra-cotta 
relief  masked  the  ends  of  circular  tiles.  Of  these  groups  the 
most  interesting  is  a  brightly  coloured  one  (in  Case  28),  show- 
ing a  Bacchic  group  of  a  satyr  and  a  msenad,  looking  eagerly 
for  the  advent  of  Dionysus.  The  attitude  of  the  satyr  in 
holding  up  his  left  hand  to  shade  his  eyes  is  new  (see  A.  J. 
Murray  in  J. U.S.  xiii.  315). 


B£t  In  the  west  central  bay  of  the  Etruscan  Saloon  are  four  standard- 
cases ;  containing  a  collection  of  the  coins  of  the  ancients.  It 
is  with  this  collection  that  the  next  chapter  deals. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 

Tout  passe — L'art  robuste 
Seul  a  l'eternite, 

Le  buste 
Survit  a  la  cite. 

Et  la  medaille  austere, 
Que  trouve  un  laboureur 

Sous  terre, 
Revele  un  empereur. 

Th.  Gautier. 

f<  In  the  finest  gems,  as  in  the  finest  coins,  we  see  how  the  Greek  artist 
contrived  to  obtain  breadth  and  grandeur  of  effect,  even  when 
his  design  was  on  the  most  limited  scale  ;  we  can  form  some  idea 
of  the  amazing  fertility  of  invention  which  enabled  him  to  repeat 
the  same  figure  or  group  on  a  number  of  separate  works,  each 
time  with  some  happy  variation  ;  we  can  appreciate  the  general 
refinement  of  taste  which  made  such  objects  the  cheap  luxury 
of  daily  life,  and  circulated  them  from  hand  to  hand"  (C.  T. 
Newton). 

The  enduring  nature  of  coins  and  their  copiousness  give 
them  a  special  value  among  monuments  of  antiquity.  The 
earliest  known  coins  were  issued  in  the  seventh  century  before 
the  Christian  era  ;  their  use  spread  through  the  civilised  world, 
and  has  never  been  interrupted.  Coins  were  hoarded  and 
deposited  in  safe  places.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  them 
have  been  found  under  conditions  which  can  leave  no  doubt 
of  their  genuineness.  They  are  made  of  materials  selected 
for  their  durability.  Hence  we  have  in  the  coins  of  the 
ancients  a  series  of  works,  often  in  perfect  condition  and  of 
unexampled  completeness.  The  collection  in  the  British 
Museum  is  one  of  the  most  complete  in  the  world.  The 

488 


chap,  xxiii     THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


489 


inspection  of  the  coins  themselves  is  confined  to  students  who 
have  obtained  special  permission.  For  the  study  of  the  coins 
in  detail,  a  large  library  of  catalogues  has  been  issued.1  For 
the  general  visitor  who  may  desire  to  obtain  a  bird's-eye  view, 
as  it  were,  of  the  subject,  a  selection  of  the  principal  coins  of 
the  ancients  has  been  arranged,  in  electrotype,  in  eight  cases 
which  stand  outside  the  Coin  Room.  It  is  with  these  alone 
that  we  are  concerned  in  this  chapter. 

The  science  of  numismatics  to  which,  so  far  as  Greek  coins 
are  concerned,  this  selection  is  intended  to  serve  as  an  intro- 
duction, covers  a  wide  field.  It  deals,  for  instance,  with  the 
metals  employed  ;  with  the  denomination  and  weight  of  coins, 
and  their  relations  ;  with  the  laws  by  which  their  issue  was 
regulated.  These  are  branches  of  the  subject  which  are  of 
importance  to  students  of  ancient  economics  and  history ;  but 
to  the  visitor  who  is  not  a  specialist,  the  interest  of  a  collection 
of  coins  is  to  be  found  rather  in  their  artistic  aspect  and  in 
such  incidental  reflections — literary,  historical,  mythological — 
as  the  inscriptions  and  devices  upon  the  coins  may  suggest. 
Regarded  chronologically,  a  collection  of  ancient  coins,  by 
their  juxtaposition,  discloses  the  characteristics  of  the  style  of 
successive  periods.  Coins  form  indeed,  as  is  remarked  by  Mr. 
Head,  "  the  grammar  of  Greek  art."  Arranged  geographic- 
ally, they  show  the  course  of  Hellenic  civilisation  and  the 
characteristics  of  local  styles.  What  are  called  the  u  types  " 
of  coins — that  is  to  say,  the  devices  on  the  two  sides — were, 
like  the  subjects  of  the  sculptor  and  the  vase-painter,  mainly 
mythical.  A  collection  of  coins  thus  exhibits  "the  Hellenic 
Pantheon  in  miniature."  But  they  are  not  only  monuments 
of  art  and  of  mythology.  They  are  also  inscribed  monuments, 
and  as  such  form  part  of  the  evidence  of  general  history. 
They  are  most  useful  in  chronology  and  geography.  But  they 
sometimes  fill  up  gaps  in  historical  records  ;  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Bactrian  coins,  which  have  supplied  the  outlines  of  the 

1  The  acquisition  of  these  catalogues  would  cost  a  small  fortune.  The 
Guide  to  the  Principal  Gold  a?id  Silver  Coins  of  the  Ancients,  by 
Barclay  V.  Head,  issued  by  the  trustees,  with  70  plates  (reproductions  in 
photogravure  of  the  electrotypes  in  Cases  I.  to  VII.  here  exhibited),  is  a 
most  desirable  possession,  and,  in  view  of  the  number  and  excellence  of 
the  illustrations,  not  expensive  (25s.).  Another  attractive  volume  is 
Professor  Percy  Gardner's  Types  of  Greek  Coins  (Cambridge  University 
Press).  An  introduction  to  the  whole  subject  is  Mr.  G.  F.  Hill's  Hand- 
book to  Greek  and  Roman  Coins  (Macmillan). 


49Q 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


history,  otherwise  almost  unrecorded,  of  a  Grasco- Indian 
kingdom.  Coins  record,  too,  many  alliances,  confederacies, 
and  passing  events,  sometimes  revealing  what  is  not  otherwise 
known,  but  more  often  confirming  and  illustrating  historical 
records. 

The  number  of  specimens  in  the  first  seven  cases  is  800. 
They  are  all  selected  for  special  interest  or  significance  of 
one  kind  or  another.  No  complete  commentary  can  be  here 
attempted.  The  object  of  the  following  pages  is  rather,  by 
taking  up  now  one  subject  and  now  another,  to  suggest  the 
wealth  of  interest  accessible  in  the  study  of  these  monuments 
of  antiquity,  which,  though  small  in  scale,  are  large  in  incidental 
interest,  and  large  also,  in  the  finest  specimens,  in  artistic 
style.  Many  of  them  are,  indeed,  "  among  the  most  exquisite 
productions  of  ancient  art ;  they  are  finished,"  as  Sir  Charles 
Newton  says,  "  with  a  delicacy  happily  described  by  Pliny  as 
Argntiae  operum  in  minimis  quoque  rebus  custoditae"  —  a 
delicacy  of  workmanship  carefully  maintained,  even  in  things 
on  the  smallest  scale. 

A  few  general  explanations  may  be  acceptable  as  a 
preliminary  to  a  more  detailed  inspection.  How  were  the 
coins  of  the  ancients  made  ?  What  were  their  weights  and 
values  ?  To  what  branch  of  art  do  they  belong  ?  What 
is  the  general  nature  of  the  devices  upon  them  ?  The  coins  of 
the  ancients  were  made  of  gold,  silver,  electrum,  and  copper. 
By  "electrum  "  was  meant  any  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  con- 
taining more  than  20  per  cent  of  the  latter.  In  books  and 
catalogues  gold  is  described  by  the  abbreviation  N ;  silver,  by 
M  ;  electrum,  by  EL.  Gold  was  used  in  a  very  pure  state. 
The  Persian  gold  pieces  contained,  out  of  1000  parts,  only 
30  of  alloy  ;  those  of  Philip  and  Alexander,  only  3  ;  the  gold 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  none  ;  the  gold  of  Augustus,  only  2. 
In  the  British  sovereign,  84  parts  out  of  1000  are  alloy.  The 
silver  pieces  of  Athens  contain  only  1 4  parts  of  alloy ;  our 
standard  silver  contains  75.  Ancient  coins  were  " struck" — 
that  is  to  say,  a  piece  of  metal  of  the  proper  weight  was  placed 
between  two  dies,  and  the  upper  die  was  then  struck  with  a 
heavy  hammer.  Every  recent  visitor  to  Pompeii  knows  the 
charming  wall-paintings  of  "  Little  Loves  of  the  House  of  the 
Vettii,"  as  they  are  called  on  the  photographs  and  coloured 
prints.  The  Cupids  are  represented  as  engaged  in  the  manifold 
work  of  everyday  life  and,  among  other  things,  in  striking 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  491 


coins.1  This  picture  should  be  studied  by  those  who  desire  to 
follow  the  ancient  method  of  striking  coins.  One  characteristic, 
distinguishing  ancient  from  modern  coins,  will  soon  be  per- 
ceived. The  form  is  not  exactly  circular  ;  the  metal  often 
spreads  into  irregular  shapes  beyond  the  limits  of  the  die. 
The  ancient  coiners  used  no  "  collars "  to  confine  the  coins 
under  pressure  to  a  regular  form.  "  When  the  coin  was  struck 
little  regard  was  paid  either  to  the  shape  of  the  lump  of  metal 
or  to  the  just  position  of  the  die  upon  its  surface.  This  and 
other  indications  of  negligence — the  cracked  edge,  perhaps, 
and  the  abnormal  outline,  which  form  a  most  remarkable 
contrast  with  the  prim  regularity  of  modern  coins — conspire  to 
set  off  in  more  captivating  beauty  the  device  that  occupies  the 
field"  {Edinburgh  Review,  July  1856). 

The  questions  connected  with  the  coin-standards  of  the 
ancients  are  very  complicated.  With  regard  to  the  origin  of 
the  standards,  there  are  two  theories.  According  to  one,  they 
were  derived  from  some  scientifically-obtained  unit ;  according 
to  another,  they  were  derived  empirically.  In  Homer  we  hear 
of  certain  pieces  of  gold  called  talents  as  being  in  circulation ; 
yet  values  are  still  expressed  in  cattle.  The  gold  talent,  it  is 
therefore  surmised,  was  equal  to  an  ox,  which  was  equal  to  the 
Attic  stater.  The  gold  unit,  in  other  words,  was  the  amount 
equivalent  in  value  to  an  ox  ;  and  this  unit  was  determined  by 
weighing  the  metal  "by  means  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  which 
nature  had  placed  ready  to  the  hand  of  the  man  as  counters 
and  weights"  (see  W.  Ridge  way's  Origin  of  Metallic  Curreitcy 
and  Weight-Standards).  However  this  may  be,  fully  de- 
veloped and  scientific  systems  were  in  force  by  the  time  that 
coins  were  invented.  One  such  system  was  the  Babylonian, 
and  it  is  to  this  that  most  Greek  coins  conform.  Another 
standard  was  the  Phoenician.  In  the  "  Room  of  Semitic 
Antiquities  "  in  the  Museum  there  is  a  bronze  lion  weight,  with 
a  Phoenician  inscription,  "  found  correct  by  the  commissioners 
for  money."  Similarly  in  the  "  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
Room"  may  be  seen  (Wall -cases  23-27)  a  collection  of  the 

1  Mau,  in  his  work  on  Po7npeii :  its  Life  and  Art  (Macmillan,  1899, 
p.  329),  explains  the  picture  as  a  goldsmith's  shop  ;  but,  as  Mr.  G.  F. 
Hill  pointedly  remarks,  "jewels  are  not  made  with  sledge  hammers" 
[Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Coins,  p.  144).  Sometimes  coins  were 
cast,  and  not  struck  :  see  the  apparatus  in  the  Romano -British  collection, 
described  below,  p.  737. 


492 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


royal  or  standard  weights  of  Assyria,  found  at  Nimroud.  They 
are  made  of  bronze,  in  the  shape  of  a  lion  couchant,  with  a 
handle  on  the  back,  and  are  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  in  whose  reigns  they  were  made,  and  with 
their  weights.  The  unit  of  weight  was  the  shekel.  Sixty 
shekels  made  one  manah  or  mina ;  and  sixty  minas,  one 
talent.  There  were  two  systems  of  Babylonian  weights, 
adjusted  to  the  "heavy  talent"  and  the  "light  talent"  re- 
spectively ;  and  to  these,  two  of  the  Greek  monetary  standards 
corresponded  :  the  Phocaic,  founded  on  the  heavy  talent ;  the 
Euboic,  founded  on  the  light.  The  ratio  of  gold  to  silver  was 
about  13  to  1.  The  drachm  (Attic)  weighed  67^  grains  ;  two 
drachms  (didrachm)  equalled  one  shekel  or  stater.  The  prin- 
cipal silver  coin  of  the  Greek  currency  was  the  drachma,  con- 
taining six  obols,  and  equal  to  a  franc  in  modern  values.  Some 
of  the  finest  of  the  silver  coins  which  we  shall  see  are  tetra- 
drachms.  The  Persian  gold  daric  (I.  A  17)  weighed  129  grains. 
The  gold  stater  of  Athens  was  worth  20  drachmas.  It  is 
remarkable  that  the  denomination  was  not  marked  on  ancient 
coins.  But  the  designs  on  the  face  were  often  modified  to 
show  it.  Thus,  at  Athens  all  the  divisions  of  the  drachm 
were  marked  by  a  varying  treatment  of  the  invariable  types. 
On  the  tetrobol  there  were  two  owls  ;  on  the  diobol,  an  owl 
with  one  head  and  two  bodies  ;  on  the  triobol,  the  owl  faces 
the  spectator.  So,  again,  on  the  Sicilian  coins,  a  four-horse 
chariot  was  placed  on  the  tetradrachm  ;  a  rider  with  a  second 
horse  on  the  didrachm  ;  a  simple  horseman  on  the  drachm. 

Turning  now  to  coins  as  works  of  art,  rather  than  as 
currency,  we  may  notice  generally  that  the  art  is  that  of  what 
Ruskin  calls  "  round  relief,"  i.e.  sculpture  in  which  every 
portion  of  the  surface  is  rounded,  but  none  under-cut.  In  this 
kind,  "sculpture  is  essentially  the  production  of  a  pleasant 
bossiness  or  roundness  of  surface."  Take,  for  instance,  the 
Syracusan  coins,  III.  C  29,  and  II.  C  33  : — 

"If  you  look  from  some  distance,  you  find  that  the  relief  on  each 
of  them  simplifies  itself  into  a  pearl-like  portion  of  a  sphere,  with 
exquisitely  gradated  light  on  its  surface.  When  you  look  at  them 
nearer,  you  will  see  that  each  smaller  portion  into  which  they  are 
divided — cheek,  or  brow,  or  leaf,  or  tress  of  hair — resolves  itself  also  into 
a  rounded  or  undulated  surface,  pleasant  by  gradation  of  light.  Every 
several  surface  is  delightful  in  itself,  as  a  shell,  or  a  tuft  of  rounded 
moss,  or  the  bossy  masses  of  distant  forest  would  be.    That  these 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  493 


intricately  modulated  masses  present  some  resemblance  to  a  girl's  face, 
such  as  the  Syracusans  imagined  that  of  the  water-goddess  Arethusa, 
is  entirely  a  secondary  matter  ;  the  primary  condition  is  that  the  masses 
shall  be  beautifully  rounded  and  disposed  with  due  discretion  and 
order"  (Aratra  Pentelici,  §  21). 

This  primary  and  general  effect  is  very  successfully  pro- 
duced on  the  best  Greek  coins.  But  they  will  bear,  and 
require,  minute  examination  also,  for  their  further  artistic 
qualities.  We  have  seen,  in  discussing  the  Parthenon  sculp- 
tures, the  limiting  conditions  of  high  relief  and  flat  relief 
(pp.  170,  175).  Coins,  and  for  the  most  part  gems,  are  in 
round  relief,  or  mezzo  rilievo.  This,  as  Eastlake  points  out, 
differs  from  both  the  other  kinds  of  relief : — 

"  It  has  neither  the  limited  attitudes  of  the  first,  nor  the  distinct 
outline  and  suppressed  internal  markings  of  the  second  ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  outline  is  often  less  distinct  than  the  forms  within  it,  and 
hence  it  requires,  and  is  fitted  for,  near  inspection.  The  imitation 
may  thus  be  more  absolute,  and  its  execution  more  finished,  than  those 
of  either  of  the  other  styles.  Most  of  the  coins  of  antiquity  are  executed 
on  the  principle  of  mezzo  rilievo,  and  though  often  far  bolder  in  their  relief 
than  modern  works  of  the  kind,  are  treated  in  a  mode  corresponding 
with  their  minute  dimensions,  which  require  close  inspection.  The 
outline  thus  gradually  rounds  into  the  ground,  and  is  never  abruptly 
sunk,  while  the  nearest  parts  are  most  relieved.  Thus  conventional 
methods  are  always  wanting  in  works  that  admit  of  close  inspection, 
where  the  eye  can  be  satisfied  without  such  expedients. 

"  The  comparatively  strong  relief  of  the  heads  on  ancient  coins  is 
again  a  contrivance  for  their  preservation,  and  presents  a  new  variety 
in  the  style  of  rilievo.  Coins  are  exposed  to  friction,  and  the  forms 
they  bear  are  thus  liable  to  be  soon  effaced.  The  earliest  means 
adopted  to  prevent  this,  was  by  sinking  the  representation  in  a 
concavity,  in  which  it  was  thus  protected.  This  plan  was  soon 
abandoned,  for  obvious  reasons  ;  and  the  method  ultimately  adopted 
was  that  of  raising  the  least  important  parts  most.  Accordingly, 
the  parts  ,  that  are  rubbed  away  in  many  fine  antique  coins  are  pre- 
cisely those  which  can  best  be  spared  ;  the  hair  has  generally  a  con- 
siderable projection,  so  that  the  face  and  profile  are  often  perfectly 
preserved  after  2000  years  "  ( Contributions  to  the  Literature  of  the 
Fine  Arts). 

Greek  coins  will,  then,  repay  minute  examination,  for  the 
sake  of  the  wide  range  of  subject  which  they  admit  and  the 
minuteness  of  their  workmanship.  To  the  student  of  Greek 
art  they  have  a  peculiar  value  ;  not  only  because  of  their  con- 
secutiveness,  as  already  noticed,  but  also  because  of  their 


494 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAF. 


genuineness.  They  do  not,  indeed,  contain  the  artist's  hand, 
as  a  veritable  gem  does.  They  are  struck  from  the  artist's 
die,  and  the  specimens  here  before  us,  being  only  electrotypes, 
are  at  yet  one  more  remove.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  such  as 
they  are,  they  are  unquestionably  genuine.  They  are  not 
copies  or  reminiscences  of  original  works  of  art ;  they  are 
themselves  directly  struck  from  the  originals.  Coins  are  free^ 
as  Eastlake  says,  from  some  of  the  conventions  which  are 
necessary  in  other  forms  of  sculpture.  But  they  are  subject  to 
various  limitations.  They  are  small.  The  subjects  represented 
on  them  are  therefore  simple.  The  engraver  worked  on  the 
actual  scale  intended.  The  coins  exhibit  therefore  that  amount 
of  delicacy  which  is  proper  to  the  size.  They  are  of  a  particular- 
shape,  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  Greek  artists  showed  the  nicest 
sense  in  adapting  their  design  to  the  requisite  space.  This  is 
a  point  sometimes  conspicuously  ignored  in  modern  coins.  An 
illustration  of  nearly  everything  that  is  to  be  avoided  in  a 
design  for  coins  is  afforded  by  our  own  Jubilee  coinage  of 
1887.  The  head  and  bust  of  Queen  Victoria  in  no  way  fill 
the  field  of  the  coin  ;  they  form  a  long  central  decoration. 
Anybody  who  compares  the  1887  coinage  with  that  of  1893 
will  at  once  feel  not  only  that  the  later  design  is  far  more 
dignified,  but  that  its  more  spreading  shape  is  as  appropriate 
as  the  earlier  design  was  the  reverse.  In  this  respect  the  best 
Greek  coins  are  models  of  what  is  appropriate  in  design. 
These  points  will  be  further  illustrated,  and  others  will  be 
noticed,  in  the  course  of  our  detailed  inspection. 

A  few  words  may  be  added  with  regard  to  the  selection  of 
designs  or  "  types  "  for  coins.  Obviously  the  first  intention  of 
the  designers  must  have  been  to  indicate  the  state  or  city  by 
which  the  money  was  issued.  "  The  stamp  was  put  on  a 
coin,"  says  Aristotle,  "as  an  indication  of  value."1  It  was 
intended  to  say  to  anybody  into  whose  hands  the  coin  might 

1  Politics,  i.  9.  0  yap  xaPaKTVP  €t407}  rod  iroffov  arj/uLeiov.  This  may 
mean  either  "as  an  indication  of  what  the  value  was  "  or  "as  an  indica- 
tion of  value,"  i.e.  that  the  value  was  according  to  standard.  The  latter 
interpretation  better  fits  Aristotle's  argument.  It  is  not  essential  to  money 
that  the  amount  of  the  value  should  be  stated  on  its  face  ;  it  is  essential 
that  it  should  be  guaranteed  as  of  full  weight  and  true.  The  passage  in 
Aristotle,  interpreted  in  the  other  sense,  is  relied  upon  by  Prof.  Ridgeway 
in  support  of  his  theory  that  the  type  on  coins  had  direct  reference  to 
measures  of  value  ;  a  coin  with  a  tunny-fish  representing  so  many  tunny- 
fish,  and  so  on. 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


495 


come,  u  This  is  a  properly  guaranteed  piece  issued  by  such  and 
such  an  authority."  Theories  have  been  propounded  with  the 
object  of  bringing  all  devices  upon  coins  within  some  single 
explanation — as,  for  instance,  that  the  motive  was  in  all  cases 
religious.  It  seems  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
methods  of  indicating  the  issuing  authorities  were  as  various 
in  the  ancient  world  as  they  are  on  modern  coins  or  postage 
stamps.1  But  Greek  and  Roman  life,  and  especially  life 
in  its  official  relations,  was  permeated  with  religion,  and 
religious  types  are  therefore  the  most  frequent  on  coins.  The 
Greek,  in  seeking  to  identify  a  coin  with  his  city,  placed  upon 
it  either  the  effigy  or  the  symbol  of  the  city's  favourite  deity. 
Athena  and  her  owl  on  the  coins  of  Athens,  Artemis  on  those 
of  Ephesus,  the  sun-god  on  those  of  Rhodes  are  obvious  in- 
stances. A  little  less  direct  are  the  types  which  show  some 
local  feature  of  the  district  personified — as,  for  instance,  the 
fountain  of  Arethusa  at  Syracuse,  and  several  river-gods.  In 
other  cases  some  staple  industry  of  the  place  is  represented  ; 
such  as  the  tunny-fish  at  Cyzicus,  and  the  ear  of  corn  at 
Metapontum.  These  types  may,  however,  in  most  cases,  be 
included  in  the  religious  class  ;  the  chief  product  of  a  district 
being  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  chief  deity.  Where 
the  issuing  authority  was  a  king,  it  was  natural  that  the  coin- 
type  should  in  some  way  express  his  royal  power.  Thus  on 
the  Persian  daric  (II.  A  i)  the  great  king  is  shown  with 
spear  and  bow.  Alexander  the  Great,  as  we  shall  see,  first 
appears  as  a  deity ;  and  this  practice  develops  into  royal 
portraits.  In  the  case  of  free  cities,  we  sometimes  find  a  per- 
sonification of  the  sovereign  people  (II.  C  4)  ;  in  other  cases, 
some  form  of  activity,  for  which  the  city  was  famous,  is  repre- 
sented— as,  for  instance,  the  horsemen  of  Tarentum  (III.  C  6-10) 
and  the  chariots  of  Syracuse  (III.  C  28-30).  Another  class 
of  types  is  historical ;  and  here  there  is  a  characteristic  con- 
trast, such  as  we  have  noticed  in  other  works  of  art,  between 
Greek  and  Roman  coins.    The  Romans  placed  actual  repre- 

1  The  British  Museum  has  been  in  possession  since  1891,  by  bequest 
of  the  late  Mr.  T.  K.  Tapling,  M.  P. ,  of  an  almost  unrivalled  collection 
of  postage  stamps.  It  is  exhibited  in  instalments  in  the  King's  Library, 
and  it  is  of  little  interest  to  anybody  but  very  advanced  collectors.  I 
have  often  thought  that  a  representative  selection,  chosen  somewhat  in 
the  manner  of  the  coins  here  shown,  would  be  an  addition,  both  popular 
and  instructive,  to  the  exhibitions  of  the  Museum  treasures. 


496 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


sentations  of  events  on  their  coins — as,  for  instance,  the  sur- 
render of  King  Aretas  on  the  denarii  of  Scaurus  (VII.  C  20)  ; 
and  indeed  "  the  Roman  money  gives  us  a  sort  of  running 
commentary  on  history."  The  Greeks,  if  they  referred  to 
historical  events  at  all,  did  so  allusively — as  when  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  commemorates  a  naval  victory  by  figures  of 
Poseidon  and  Victory  (IV.  B  17),  and  the  ^Etolians  refer  to 
their  successes  over  Gauls  and  Macedonians  by  the  genius  of 
^Etolia  seated  on  the  invaders'  shields  (V.  B  16).  Lastly,  we 
may  mention  what  are  called  canting  or  punning  types — such 
as  the  rose  of  Rhodes.  All  these  classes  will  be  referred  to 
in  the  detailed  notes  which  follow.  The  inscriptions  on  coins — 
recording  the  issuing  authority,  the  reasons  for  the  issue,  and 
incidentally  many  other  matters — might  well  form  the  subject 
of  a  separate  chapter.  We  must  be  content  with  occasionally 
noticing  some  of  the  more  interesting. 


The  First  Seven  Cases,  which  we  now  proceed  to  examine, 
are  arranged  chronologically,  so  that  the  study  of  ancient  coins 
is  spread  out  historically  before  us.  Each  case  is  subdivided 
horizontally  into  three  sections,  containing  respectively  (A)  the 
coins  of  the  East ;  (B)  Greece  and  the  ^Egean  Isles  ;  (C)  Italy 
and  the  West. 

Case  f. — Archaic  Period  (700-480  b.c.) 

The  specimens  in  this  case  begin  with  the  first  invention 
of  coinage  and  bring  us  down  to  the  Persian  wars.  The 
period  is  thus  the  same  as  that  covered  in  the  collection  of 
sculpture  by  the  Archaic  Room  (Ch.  vn.) ;  and  the  interest, 
here  as  there,  is  largely  connected  with  the  study  of  origins 
and  processes  of  evolution.  The  case  begins  with  the  first 
known  coin  (I.  A  1),  which  is  almost  without  form  and  void, 
and  ends  with  an  early  coin  of  Syracuse  which  is  remarkable 
for  delicacy  of  work  and  already  shows  the  features  that 
characterise  the  full  development  of  Greek  art  in  this  sort 
(I.  C  35).  It  may  be  interesting  to  call  attention  to  some  of 
the  lines  along  which  the  development  proceeded. 

The  obverse  (or  more  important  side  of  the  coin),  which  on 
the  Syracusan  coin  bears  a  head,  with  symbolical  accessories, 
shows  on  the  first  coin  nothing  but  some  meaningless  scratches. 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


497 


By  glancing  at  the  specimens  here  arranged  in  each  of  the 
three  geographical  divisions,  we  see  the  engravers  gradually 
acquiring  skill  in  giving  artistic  form  and  symbolic  meaning 
to  the  devices  on  the  coins.  As  in  other  departments  of 
Greek  art,  so  here  we  shall  find  that  skill  is,  as  a  rule,  earlier 
attained  in  the  representation  of  animal  forms  than  in  that  of 
the  human  form.  The  earliest  Greek  coins  are  later  in  time, 
and  less  primitive  in  style,  than  those  of  Asia  ;  but  it  is  only 
gradually  that  any  precision  of  form  or  vigour  of  treatment  is 
attained. 

The  reverse  of  coins  shows  in  the  earliest  specimens  nothing 
but  a  rude  impression  from  the  punch.  On  our  Syracusan 
coin — the  last  specimen  in  Case  I. — the  reverse  shows  a 
chariot  group  of  which  the  design  beautifully  fills  the  field,  and 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  is  of  historical  interest.  Between  these 
two  extremes  we  may  trace  various  stages  of  development. 
First  we  find  mere  oblong  or  square  spaces  punched  out. 
Then  the  coiner  tired  of  so  monotonous  an  effect,  and  the 
square  was  divided  into  quarters  (I.  B  7,  10).  By  leaving 
every  other  piece  level  with  the  surface  of  the  coin,  different 
varieties  of  what  is  called  the  "  mill-sail "  pattern  were 
obtained  {e.g.  I,  B  31,  I.  C  27).  At  some  mints  "the  incuse 
square"  in  some  such  modified  form  remained  for  a  long  time 
in  favour.  Elsewhere,  however,  it  soon  came  to  be  orna- 
mented with  a  device  within  the  square  (I.  B  25).  From  this 
idea  to  the  flat  reverse,  engraved  like  the  obverse,  was  not 
a  long  step.  In  the  coins  from  Southern  Italy  (Division  C) 
a  different  method  of  treating  the  reverse  will  be  noticed. 
Coinage  was  in  this  district  of  later  origin.  The  plan  of 
having  a  device  on  each  side  of  the  coin  was  already  in 
common  use.  But  instead  of  a  new  device  being  put  upon  the 
reverse,  the  type  of  the  obverse  was  repeated  in  incuse,  with 
slight  modifications  (I.  C  10).  "The  coins  have  thus  the 
deceptive  appearance  of  being  small  pieces  of  repousse'  work  " 
(G.  F.  Hill's  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roma?z  Corns ■,  p.  152). 

The  shape  of  the  coins  is  another  matter  in  which,  as  we  at 
once  see,  there  was  a  process  of  evolution.  The  best  shape 
for  coins  is  a  question  which  experience  has  generally  answered 
in  favour  of  a  flat  circle.  It  was  obviously  not  enough  that 
the  coin  should  be  stamped  as  a  guarantee  of  its  quality  and 
weight  by  the  issuing  authority ;  it  was  necessary  to  pre- 
vent interference  with  it  after  it  had  been  stamped.  This 

2  K 


498 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


consideration  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  regular  and  easily  defined 
form,  and  though  hexagonal  or  octagonal  coins  are  still  met 
with  in  some  parts  of  the  civilised  world,  the  circle  has  for 
many  centuries  and  everywhere  approved  itself  as  the  most 
convenient  shape.  The  earliest  coins,  we  see,  were  irregularly 
shaped  in  the  form  of  beans  or  pebbles  (like  gems),  but  the 
circle  gradually  came  into  favour  and  was  not  again  displaced. 

We  now  proceed  to  examine  a  few  of  the  more  remarkable 
specimens  in  order  of  arrangement,  calling  attention  now  to 
one  point  of  interest,  now  to  another  : — 

The  earliest  inscribed  coin  known,  found  at  Halicarnassus 
(I.  A  7). — Above  the  figure  of  a  stag  there  is  an  inscription  (in  archaic 
Greek  letters),  which  has  been  translated  "  I  am  the  sign  of  Phanes." 
A  person  of  that  name  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (iii.  4).  He  was 
a  native  of  Halicarnassus,  in  favour  at  the  court  of  Amasis,  King  of 
Egypt,  whose  service  he  deserted  by  stratagem  for  that  of  Cambyses, 
King  of  Persia.  (The  name  appears  also  on  a  vase  in  the  Museum, 
see  p.  304.)  The  coin  is  supposed  to  have  been  struck  by  an  ancestor 
of  this  Phanes.  On  this  supposition,  the  stag  would  be  the  particular 
badge  adopted  by  the  potentate,  Phanes,  as  a  guarantee  of  the  coin. 
But  another  reading  of  the  inscription  is  "  I  am  the  mark  of  the  bright 
one,"  i.e.  Artemis,  whose  symbol  was  the  stag.  (See  for  a  discussion 
of  this  matter  Ridgeway's  Metallic  Currency,  p.  230,  and  Hill's  Hand- 
book, p.  168.) 

Electrum  stater  of  Cyzicus  (I.  A  12). — The  design  on  the  obverse 
is  a  tunny-fish  and  fillets.  This  type  is  constant  on  coins  of  Cyzicus, 
and  its  origin  has  been  discussed  in  connection  with  Mr.  Ridgeway's 
theory  that  coin -types  are  survivals  from  the  age  of  barter.  Vast 
shoals  of  tunny-fish  continually  pass  through  the  Sea  of  Marmora  (on 
which  Cyzicus  was  situated).  Articles  which  form  the  staple  commo- 
dities of  a  community  form,  in  an  age  of  barter,  its  money.  Then 
when  coinage  is  invented,  it  is  stamped  with  the  device  of  the  barter- 
money  (in  this  case  tunny-fish).  "  In  a  city  like  Cyzicus,  whose  citizens 
depended  for  their  wealth  on  their  fisheries  and  trade,  rather  than  on 
flocks  or  herds  or  agriculture,  the  tunny-fish,  singly  or  in  certain  defined 
numbers,  as  by  the  score  or  hundred  and  the  like,  would  naturally 
form  a  chief  monetary  unit,  just  as  we  find  the  stock-fish  employed  in 
mediaeval  Iceland"  (Ridgeway,  p.  136).  Such  is  the  theory.  But 
the  tunny  on  the  coins  is  adorned  with  fillets,  "  And  I  am  sure,"  writes 
one  of  Prof.  Ridgeway's  critics,  "  that  (though  he  hints  at  jugged  hare 
on  the  coins  of  Messana)  he  will  not  say  that  this  tunny  is  filleted  merely 
in  a  base  culinary  sense."  On  coins,  as  on  other  Greek  monuments, 
the  fillet  is  a  plain  indication  that  the  object  to  which  it  is  attached  is 
sacred  to  a  divinity.  Probably,  therefore,  the  tunny-fish  figures  on  the 
coins  of  Cyzicus  as  an  offering  to  some  divinity  of  the  city — an  offering 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


499 


of  the  first-fruits  of  the  rich  harvest  of  the  sea  (Warwick  Wroth  in 
Classical  Review,  1892,  p.  472). 

The  coins  of  Croesus  (I.  A  13-16),  who  substituted  gold  and  silver 
for  the  earlier  coinage  in  electrum,  have  for  their  device  the  fore-parts 
of  a  lion  and  a  bull  face  to  face.  The  commonly-received  interpreta- 
tion is  that  the  lion  symbolises  the  sun-god,  and  the  bull  the  moon. 
Prof.  Ridgeway,  on  the  other  hand,  sees  in  the  bull  an  indication  that 
the  coin  supersedes  the  old  ox-unit  of  barter  ;  and  in  the  lion,  a  royal 
emblem — the  king  of  beasts  being  a  badge  of  royalty  (cf.  *  ' the  lion  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  ").  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  adopted  and 
improved  upon  the  Lydian  invention  of  coinage,  and  the  lion  and 
the  bull  were  taken  over  also,  according  to  Prof.  Ridgeway's  theory,  as 
favourite  devices : — "When  the  Greeks  borrowed  the  art  of  coining 
from  Lydia  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  they  would  likewise  borrow 
the  type  either  in  a  complete  or  modified  form,  and  hence  it  is  that  we 
find  the  lion  or  lion's  head  on  the  coins  of  Miletus  (I.  A  6),  the  lion's 
scalp  on  those  of  Samos  (I.  A  5),  the  lion's  head  on  the  coins  of  Cnidus 
(I.  A  27),  of  Gortyna  in  Crete,  at  Rhodes,  and  at  the  Phocaean  towns 
of  Velia  in  Lucania  (I.  C  16)  and  Massilia  in  Gaul  (IV.  C  1),  and  put 
by  the  Samian  exiles  on  their  coins  at  Zancle.  If  the  Greeks  had  been 
barbarians,  they  would  have  slavishly  copied  the  lion  coins  of  Lydia. 
But  their  artistic  genius  could  submit  to  no  such  trammels,  and  the 
lion  type  was  varied  and  diversified  according  to  the  fancy  of  each 
community"  {Metallic  Currency,  p.  321).  It  should,  however,  be 
remembered  that  animal  types  are  not  confined  to  coins  ;  they  are 
equally  common  on  all  early  monuments  of  Greek  art  (see  W.  Wroth 
in  Classical  Review,  1892,  p.  472). 

Persian  gold  "daric"  of  the  earliest  style  (I.  A  17),  struck  in  the 
reign  of  Darius  I.  (521-485  B.C.),  by  whom  the  Persian  coinage  was 
originated.  The  gold  coinage  of  Persia  by  its  purity  became  dominant, 
and  was  the  chief  gold  currency  of  the  world  so  long  as  the  Persian 
Empire  lasted.  The  wide  currency  serves  to  explain  its  constancy  of 
type.  On  the  obverse  of  the  coin  before  us  the  Great  King  is  figured 
holding  bow  and  spear  ;  the  reverse  is  incuse.  With  slight  variations, 
these  features  are  constant.  In  II.  A  I,  2  the  style  is  later,  the  design 
the  same  ;  and  in  IV.  A  i,  the  latest  specimen,  we  still  see  the  king 
with  his  armour,  and  the  reverse  is  still  incuse. 

Silver  coin  with  the  double  head  and  axe  of  Tenedos  (I.  A  19). 
— On  the  obverse,  a  double  head ;  on  the  reverse,  a  double  axe. 
The  meaning  of  this  type  has  been  much  discussed.  According  to 
Aristotle,  the  reference  is  to  a  certain  king  of  Tenedos  who  had  laid 
down  a  law  that  adulterers  should  be  slain  with  an  axe.  The  king's 
own  son,  being  convicted,  was  executed  according  to  the  law  ;  hence 
on  coins  of  Tenedos  an  axe  was  stamped  on  one  side  and  a  double  head 
(male  and  female)  on  the  other.  This  explanation  is,  however,  not 
likely  to  be  correct.  "  Such  subjects  were  never  represented  on 
the  money  of  the  Greeks  ;  their  types,  like  their  names  of  men  and 
women,  were  almost  always  euphemistic,  relating  generally  to  the  local 


5oo 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


mythology  and  fortunes  of  the  place,  with  symbols  referring  to  the  prin- 
cipal productions  or  to  the  protecting  deities"  (Leake).  The  "axe  of 
Tenedos  "  was,  as  we  know  from  Pausanias,  proverbial ;  and  axes  from 
Tenedos  were  dedicated  at  Delphi.  Pausanias  refers  the  proverb  and 
the  offering  to  the  story  of  Tennes,  the  mythical  settler  of  Tenedos. 
Prof.  Ridgeway  holds  that  the  reason  why  the  double  axe  was  put  on 
the  coins  of  Tenedos  was  that  axes  may  have  been  a  special  product  of 
the  place,  and  have  formed  the  unit  of  barter  there  before  the  intro- 
duction of  coined  money.  This  seems  somew7hat  far-fetched,  and  it  is 
a  serious  objection  to  the  theory  that  on  the  earliest  coins  of  Tenedos 
the  double  head  is  shown,  but  not  the  double  axe  (W.  Wroth  in 
Classical  Review,  1892,  p.  472).  The  double-headed  axe  appears  on 
vase-paintings  as  the  symbol  of  Dionysus  or  one  of  his  train  ;  and, 
according  to  some  authorities,  its  appearance  on  the  coins  of  Tenedos 
is  a  symbol  of  the  local  worship  of  that  god,  the  double  head  on  the 
same  coins  representing  the  two  types,  bearded  and  beardless,  of 
Dionysus  (see  Ridgeway's  Metallic  Currency,  p.  318;  Frazer's  Pau- 
sanias, note  on  x.  14.  1). 

The  seal  of  Phocsea  (I.  A  23). — Some  of  the  badges  used  to 
denote  the  issuing  authority  of  a  coin  wTere  of  a  punning  character — 
"types  parlant,"  they  are  called.  Thus  at  Phocsea,  one  of  the  Ionian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor,  the  seal  (in  Greek,  phoca)  was  adopted.  The 
device  was  appropriate,  for  the  Phocaeans  were,  says  Herodotus  (i.  163), 
the  first  of  all  the  Greeks  who  undertook  distant  sea-voyages. 

The  lion  of  Acanthus  (I.  B  7),  a  city  near  Mt.  Athos. — On  the 
obverse,  a  rude  representation  of  a  lion  devouring  a  bull.  That  there 
were  lions  in  this  district  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  wars  we  know  from 
Herodotus.  As  Xerxes  and  the  land  army,  were  proceeding  from 
Acanthus,  "lions  attacked  the  camels  which  carried  his  provisions; 
for  the  lions  used  to  come  down  regularly  by  night,  leaving  their  own 
haunts  "  (vii.  125). 

Poseidon  of  Potidaea  (I.  B  9). — At  Potidaea  the  Persian  besiegers 
were  defeated;  the  cause  was,  says  Herodotus,  "that  these  same 
Persians  who  perished  by  means  of  the  sea  had  committed  impiety 
towards  the  temple  of  Poseidon  and  his  image  ;  and  in  saying  that  this 
was  the  cause,  in  my  opinion  they  say  well"  (viii.  129).  The  type  on 
our  coin — Poseidon  on  horseback,  holding  a  trident — may  have  been 
copied  from  the  statue.  Note  the  star  between  the  horse's  legs.  The 
insertion  of  detached  ornaments  to  fill  vacant  spaces  is  characteristic  of 
early  art.  We  have  noticed  the  practice  already  in  the  case  of  early 
vases  (p.  301),  and  shall  find  it  again  on  early  gems  (p.  635). 

The  OX-chariot  (I.  B  17)  on  a  coin  of  one  of  the  Thracian  tribes  is 
interesting  :  notice  its  wicker- work  sides. 

Various  city  badges  may  next  be  noticed  (I.  B  20,  21,  23,  24) — 
the  Boeotian  shield  of  Thebes,  the  wheel  of  Chalcis,  the  bull's  head  of 
Eubcea,  the  gorgon  of  Eretria.  On  No.  22  is  an  amphora,  as  also  on 
No.  10.  Stamp-collectors  will  remember  that  a  Greek  vase  was  used 
as  a  type  in  the  issue  of  1896. 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


501 


The  gorgon  of  Euboea  (I.  B  24). — A  characteristic  example  of  the 
fiend-like  visage  in  which  early  art,  with  its  love  of  the  horrible,  rejoiced 
— a  monstrous  head  with  snaky  hair,  gnashing  tusks,  and  tongue  lolling 
out  of 

The  open  mouth,  that  seemed  to  containe 
A  full  good  pecke  within  the  utmost  brim, 
All  set  with  yron  teeth  in  raunges  twaine, 
That  terrifide  his  foes,  and  armed  him, 
Appearing  like  the  mouth  of  Orcus  griesly  grim. 

In  course  of  time  art  was  to  soften  the  conception  of  the  Medusa  into 
the  exquisite  beauty  of  "  the  woman's  countenance  with  serpent  locks," 
as  we  shall  see  it  on  some  Greek  gems  (p.  622). 

Athena  with  her  owl  and  spray  of  olive  appears  on  the  early  coins 
of  Athens  (I.  B  27,  28).  They  are  probably  not  much  later  than  the 
time  of  Solon  {i.e.  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.),  and  are 
good  examples  of  the  archaic  style  in  Greek  art.  There  is  an  obvious 
piece  of  conventionalism,  or  artistic  inability,  in  the  eye,  which  is 
represented  as  full,  although  seen  in  profile ;  and  hair  is  partly 
represented  by  dots.  ''The  eye  is  an  elliptical  swelling,  plastered, 
as  it  were,  on  to  the  face,  and  of  an  excessive  size.  The  ear  is 
placed  rather  too  high.  The  swelling  of  the  cheek  is  exaggerated 
by  the  emphasising  of  the  defining  line  below  it,  the  transition  from 
cheek  to  jaw  being  not  gradual,  but  marked  by  a  depression  which 
lends  to  the  face  the  6  archaic  grin "'  (G.  F.  Hill,  Handbook  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Coins ,  p.  161).  But  the  lines  are  decisive  and 
set  firmly  in  their  places.  At  this  early  period  Athens  was  the  only 
city  which  made  use  of  double  dies  for  coinage.  In  this  respect,  as  in 
artistic  execution,  she  leads  the  way.  (For  a  discussion  of  the  reason 
for  the  subsequent  want  of  development  in  Athenian  coins,  see 
II.  B  20,  p.  506.) 

The  tortoise  of  JSgina  (I.  B  29).  —To  Pheidon,  King  of  Argos 
in  the  seventh  century  B.C.,  is  ascribed  the  introduction  of  coinage 
into  the  western  world,  and  he  is  said  to  have  coined  his  money  in 
^Egina.  That  the  ^Eginetan  silver  coinage  is  the  earliest  is  admitted ; 
and  the  ^Eginetan  was  one  of  the  prevailing  monetary  standards  in  the 
ancient  world,  ^Egina  was  the  land,  says  Pindar  {01.  viii.),  where 
"Eternal  Law,  saviour  of  men,  who  sitteth  in  judgment  beside  the 
god  of  the  stranger,  is  honoured  more  than  anywhere  else  among 
men. "  This  iEginetan  standard  was  probably  of  Phoenician  origin  ; 
and,  according  to  E.  Curtius,  the  sea-tortoise  on  the  coins  of  ^Egina  is 
placed  there  as  a  symbol  of  Astarte,  the  Phoenician  goddess  of  traders. 
Prof.  Ridgeway  argues  (pp.  328-331),  more  ingeniously  than  convinc- 
ingly, that  tortoise-shell,  used  for  making  bowls,  was  the  staple  product 
of  the  island,  and  that  the  tortoise  on  her  coins  simply  indicated  that 
the  old  monetary  unit  of  the  island  was  the  shell  of  the  sea-tortoise. 

The  Cretan  labyrinth.,  built  by  Dsedalus,  the  home  of  the  Minotaur, 
figures,  as  we  shall  see,  on  many  Cretan  coins  ;  first,  in  our  collection, 
on  a  piece  from  Cnossus  (I.  B  32).      The  appearance  on  a  coin  of 


502  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


this  early  date  proves  that  it  was  no  invention  of  the  poets  of  a  later 
age.  The  astonishing  discoveries  made  by  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans  in  the 
prehistoric  palace  at  Cnossus  have  revealed  the  true  labyrinth  of 
tradition.  "There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  huge  building,  with 
its  maze  of  corridors  and  tortuous  passages,  its  medley  of  small 
chambers,  its  long  succession  of  magazines  with  their  blind  endings, 
was  in  fact  the  Labyrinth  of  later  tradition  which  supplied  a  local 
habitation  for  the  Minotaur  of  grisly  fame.  The  great  figures  of  bulls 
in  fresco  and  relief  that  adorned  the  walls,  the  harem  scenes  of  some 
of  the  frescoes,  the  cornerstones  of  pillars  marked  with  the  labrys 
or  double  axe  —  the  emblem  of  the  Cretan  Zeus,  explaining  the 
derivation  of  the  name  '  Labyrinth  '  itself — are  so  many  details 
which  all  conspire  to  bear  out  this  identification.  In  the  palace- 
shrine  of  Cnossus  there  stands  at  last  revealed  to  us  the  spacious 
structure  which  the  skill  of  Dcedalus  is  said  to  have  imitated  from 
the  great  Egyptian  building  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Mceris "  (D .  G. 
Hogarth  in  the  Times ,  Oct.  31,  1900).  The  form  of  the  labyrinth 
on  this  early  coin  is  comparatively  simple.  (For  later  and  more  elaborate 
labyrinths,  see  III.  B  39,  VI.  B  28,  29.) 

The  gorgon  of  Populonia  (I.  C  1). — This  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  coins  of  Etruria,  dating  from  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century.  "  Sea-girt  Populonia"  was  a  busy  centre  of  trade  ;  the  type 
of  its  early  coinage  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  Eubcea  (I.  B  24). 
This  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  forbidding  heads  of  Medusa  in  early 
art.  Its  ugliness  is  more  human,  and  less  conventional,  than  that  of 
the  Eubcean  coin. 

The  dolphin  of  Taras  (I.  C  3-7).— The  Greek  city  of  Tarentum 
in  Calabria  was  peculiarly  rich,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  in  the 
splendour  and  variety  of  its  coinage  :  the  prevalent  type  even  on 
these  early  coins  is  delightfully  varied.  The  legendary  founder  of 
the  city  was  Taras,  a  son  of  Poseidon,  and  it  is  he  (as  Aristotle  tells 
us)  whose  figure  appears  on  the  coins  of  Tarentum.  The  design  shows 
us  Taras  on  the  back  of  a  dolphin,  as  he  was  fabled  to  have  approached 
the  Italian  shores,  towards  which  (in  No.  7)  he  holds  out  hands  of 
longing.  That  he  is  supposed  to  be  crossing  the  sea  is  further 
symbolised  by  the  introduction  of  a  scallop  shell  or  cuttle-fish 
underneath  the  dolphin. 

The  corn  of  Metapontum  (I.  C  10,  11). — Another  rich  settlement 
in  Magna  Grcecia  was  Metapontum.  So  great  was  the  fertility  of  the 
country  that  the  inhabitants  dedicated  at  Delphi,  from  their  wealth 
derived  from  agriculture,  a  "  golden  harvest"  (Strabo  vi.  264).  The 
ear  of  corn  was,  therefore,  a  natural  badge  to  place  on  the  coinage. 

The  Poseidon  of  Psestum  (I.  C  12,  13). — The  city  of  Poseidonia 
(better  known  to  us  by  its  Roman  name,  Prestum)  was  founded  in  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  by  colonists  from  Sybaris.  As  its  name  betokens, 
it  was  dedicated  to  the  god  of  the  sea  ;  its  coins  are  stamped  with  his 
effigy  bearing  a  trident,  and  with  his  sacred  animal,  the  bull.  The 
great  temple  of  Poseidon  —  still  in  its  ruin  the  admiration  of  every 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  503 


beholder — had  two  entrances,  east  and  west ;  "and  there  is  something 
fine  in  the  notion  of  the  god  being  able  to  pass  to  and  fro  from  his 
cella  through  those  sunny  peristyles,  down  to  his  chariot,  yoked  with 
sea-horses,  in  the  brine "  (Symonds).  The  figure  of  the  god  on  the 
larger  coin  is  characteristic  of  early  sculpture.  The  anatomy  is  strongly 
marked ;  the  attitude  is  stiff ;  and  we  may  notice  a  curious  convention 
which  is  observed  in  most  early  reliefs  :  while  the  head  and  the  body 
below  the  waist  are  in  profile,  the  body  between  the  waist  and  neck 
faces  us  (cf.  I.  C  17). 

The  mule-car  of  Rhegium  (I.  C  22). — This  coin  is  of  interest 
as  one  of  a  mintage  referred  to  by  Aristotle  and  as  showing  that 
victory  in  the  games  was  a  subject  for  coin-types.  Anaxilaus, 
tyrant  of  Rhegium  (494-476  B.C.),  having  gained  a  victory  at  Olympia 
with  the  mule-car,  struck  coins  for  his  city,  says  Aristotle,  on  which 
the  mule-car  was  represented.  (For  the  hare  on  the  reverse,  see 
II.  C  28.) 

Terina  (I.  C  23),  as  we  shall  see  from  later  specimens,  produced 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  Greek  coins.  The  early  coin  here  is 
artistically  the  best  we  have  yet  seen.  On  the  obverse  is  the  head  of  a 
goddess  inscribed  Terina  ;  on  the  reverse,  a  figure  of  Wingless  Victory. 
The  wreath  in  which  this  figure  is  enclosed  was  destined  to  become  a 
very  common  form  of  coin-decoration  {e.g.  on  some  of  our  Victorian 
sixpences). 

The  eagle  of  Agrigentum  (I.  C  24). — The  lofty  site  of  the  ancient 
town  at  Girgenti  ("arduus  Acragas"),  overlooking  the  sea,  made  the 
eagle  and  the  crab  appropriate  devices  [cf.  II.  C  16). 

The  device  of  Cataxia  (I.  C  25) — a  man-headed  bull — is  a  good 
illustration  of  a  characteristic  form  of  Greek  mythology  and  symbolism. 
The  device  is  an  impersonation  of  the  river  Assinus.  The  bull,  with 
or  without  a  human  head,  was,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  vases  (p.  316),  a 
constant  type  for  a  river.  The  economy  of  Greek  symbolism  is  shown 
in  the  aquatic  bird  and  fish,  between  which  the  river-god  is  here  repre- 
sented as  kneeling  or  swimming.  The  bird  marks  the  surface  of  the 
stream,  the  fish  its  depth. 

On  the  coin  of  Gela  (I.  C  26)  we  have  another  man-headed  bull. 
There  is  considerable  dignity  in  the  river-god's  head  ;  notice  the  char- 
acteristic dots  to  denote  the  beard  and  hair  ;  on  the  reverse  a  chariot, 
the  horses  crowned  by  a  flying  Victory — the  first  instance  in  our  speci- 
mens of  a  very  common  design.  Gelon,  the  tyrant  of  Gela,  conquered 
in  the  chariot-race  at  Olympia  in  488  B.C. 

The  lion  Of  Leontini  (I.  C  28)  is  a  punning  or  "  parlant "  type. 
The  head  shows  spirit.  Ruskin  engraves  it  in  one  of  his  books  as  an 
illustration  of  Dante's  description  of  Minos  "frowning  horribly  "  at 
the  gate  of  Hell  (  Verona  and  its  Rivers,  p.  64).  On  the  obverse  a 
victorious  chariot,     Gelon  was  also  lord  of  Leontini. 

The  sickle  of  Messina  (I.  C  28).— The  modern  Messina  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  which  was  originally  called  Zancle,  from 
the  old  Sicilian  word  for  a  sickle,  D ancle  (inscribed  on  this  coin) — the 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


allusion  being  to  the  sickle-like  shape  of  its  harbour.  The  artistic 
shorthand  of  the  Greeks  is  well  illustrated  by  this  coin.  The  tongue 
of  land  is  represented  by  a  curved  line  ;  the  water  of  the  harbour 
by  a  dolphin  within  the  sickle.  As  the  town  changed  its  name  to 
Messana  about  490  B.C.,  the  date  of  our  coin  must  be  previous  to 
that  year. 

The  wild  parsley  of  Selinus  (I.  C  33). — This  city  derived  its 
name  from  a  plant  selinon,  which  grew  there  in  abundance.  A  plant, 
which  the  guides  identify  with  the  ancient  selinon,  may  still  be  found 
on  the  banks  of  the  stream  which  divides  its  two  groups  of  stupendous 
ruins.  But  what  precisely  the  plant  represented  on  the  coins  was, 
and  whether  it  was  identical  with  the  parsley  of  the  wreaths  with  which 
the  victors  at  the  Isthmian  and  Nemean  games  were  crowned,  are 
questions  which  have  been  much  debated.1  The  representations  of 
flowers  on  coins  are  hardly  exact  enough  to  afford  certainty  to  scientific 
botanists.  We  must  be  content  to  say  that  the  selinon  of  Selinus  was 
probably  water  parsley  or  wild  celery  ;  the  parsley  of  Nemea  may  not 
have  been  the  same  species.  Those,  however,  who  admit  nothing  but 
religious  significance  in  coin-types  maintain  that  the  parsley  of  Selinus 
appears  on  the  coins  as  dedicated  to  Zeus  of  Nemea,  who  gave  the 
parsley-crown  to  the  victors  in  his  games. 

Early  coins  of  Syracuse  (I.  C  34,  35). — In  these  specimens  we 
have  the  first-fruits  of  the  Syracusan  mint,  from  which  were  to  issue 
some  of  the  finest  coins  of  the  Greek  world.  The  earlier  coin  belongs 
to  the  time  of  the- oligarchy  of  the  Geomori,  who  ruled  in  Syracuse 
before  Gelon  became  tyrant  in  485  B.C.  The  coin  is  primitive,  but  it 
already  gives  promise  of  the  care  which  characterised  the  later  coinage, 
and  it  begins  the  series  of  designs  taken  from  the  races,  which  were 
afterwards  to  find  splendid  development.      On  the  next  coin,  the 


1  The  late  Mr.  Samuel  Butler,  finding  that  the  plant  which  the  guides 
show  had  no  resemblance  to  that  on  the  coins,  identified  the  latter  as 
apium  graveolens,  a  plant  which  under  cultivation  becomes  the  celery 
of  our  gardens.  ' '  Professor  Sciascia  of  Castel  Vetrano  obligingly  pro- 
cured me  some  of  the  true  plant  from  a  muddy  little  stream  a  few  miles 
inland  from  Selinus,  and  I  have  established  it  from  seed  in  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields  on  the  bed  between  the  north  gravel  walk  and  the  railings  opposite 
the  middle  window  of  the  Soane  Museum"  (Athenaum,  July  13,  1901).. 
In  the  course  of  a  discussion,  Sir  George  Birdwood  made  some  remarks 
on  the  botany  of  Greek  coins,  which  may  be  cited  here  :  "  The  olive  on 
the  coins  of  Attica,  the  silphium  on  those  of  Cyrenaica,  the  rose  on  those 
of  Rhodes,  and  the  date  on  those  of  Hierapytna  (realistic),  are  delineated 
not  only  with  more  or  less  artistic  power,  but  with  botanical  exactitude  ; 
but  the  olive  on  the  coins  of  Crete,  Elis,  and  Ionian  Magnesia  may  be  a 
willow  or  a  myrtle  ;  the  highly  conventionalised  date-palm  on  those  of 
Ephesus  might  be  any  palm,  or  even  a  fir  ;  the  oak  on  those  of  Macedon 
(VI.  B  9)  and  Smyrna  (VI.  A  20),  an  acacia  or  a  potentilla  ;  the  ivy  on 
the  coins  of  Mithradates  the  Great  (VII.  A  2)  might  be  called  by  any 
other  name  "  [Athenceum,  Aug.  10,  1901). 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  505 


chariot  is  crowned  by  Victory  ;  here,  as  at  Gela  and  Leontini,  the 
victory  of  Gelon  is  commemorated.  On  the  obverse  is  the  head  of  Are- 
thusa  surrounded  by  dolphins.  This  impersonation  of  the  sacred  fountain 
of  Syracuse  was  afterwards  to  form  the  subject  of  some  of  the  most 
exquisite  of  Greek  works  of  art  in  this  sort.  The  style  of  the  head 
here  is  archaic,  with  its  dotted  hair  and  stiff  expression  ;  but  the  work- 
manship is  delicate,  and  on  each  side  of  the  coin  the  general  lines  of  a 
singularly  happy  composition  are  already  fixed. 

Case  II. — Transitional  Period  (480-400  b.c.) 

The  coins  collected  in  this  case  cover  the  period  of  the 
Athenian  Supremacy.  They  are  transitional,  including  some 
which  show  little  advance  on  the  archaic  style,  and  others  which 
reveal  a  fully-developed  art.  The  same  period  includes,  in 
the  field  of  sculpture,  the  pediments  of  ^Egina  and  the  Par- 
thenon. There  is  between  various  coins  in  this  collection 
as  great  a  difference  as  there  is  between  those  two  sets  of 
sculptures.  Look,  for  instance,  at  II.  A  6  :  the  head  shows 
all  the  characteristics  of  archaic  workmanship.  The  hair  is 
represented  by  formal  rows  of  dots  ;  the  eye  hits  one,  as  it 
were  a  bullet ;  there  is  no  vitality  in  the  expression.  Pass  on 
to  II.  A  21  :  the  hair,  though  still  somewhat  stiff,  is  treated 
naturally  ;  the  eye  is  shown  in  correct  profile  ;  the  features  are 
chastened  into  beauty  ;  the  breath  of  life  seems  to  have  passed 
into  the  lips.  Look  lastly  at  II.  C  13  :  technical  mastery  has 
now  been  obtained,  and  the  engraver  is  free  to  realise  ideals 
of  beauty  in  the  human  form,  and  of  grace  in  composition.  It 
will  be  observed,  further,  that  the  incuse  square,  where  it  is 
retained,  is  during  this  period  cut  more  regularly  and  for  the 
most  part  treated  decoratively  as  the  frame  for  some  device. 

Electrum  staters  of  Cyzicus  (II.  A  6-19). — Among  the  coins  from 
the  East,  the  most  numerous  in  this  second  period  come  from  Cyzicus. 
This  commercial  city  on  the  Propontis  seems  to  have  enjoyed  a  mono- 
poly of  coining  electrum.  Its  coinage  was  widely  circulated.  The 
types  are  very  various,  but  the  tunny-fish  is  retained  as  a  distinctive 
mint-mark.  The  device  on  No.  14  represents  the  two  golden  eagles 
on  the  omphalos  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  (Pindar,  Pyth.  iv.  4). 

The  bee  of  Ephesus  (II.  A  31). — The  coins  of  the  great  city  of 
Ephesus  are  not  specially  attractive  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  but 
historically  they  are  interesting.  The  bee,  which  occupies  the  field  of 
this  coin,  was  the  badge  of  the  city,  being  connected  with  the  Asiatic 
goddess — barbarous  and  many-breasted — whose  worship  was  adopted  by 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


the  Greek  colonists,  and  who  was  identified,  very  inappropriately,  with 
Artemis.  On  the  next  coin  of  Ephesus  in  our  collection  (III.  A  29) 
we  have  again  the  bee  ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  the  young  Hercules 
strangling  the  serpents.  This  coin,  as  we  shall  see,  has  direct  reference 
to  an  historical  event.  On  another  coin  (III.  A  30)  we  have,  besides 
the  bee,  a  stag  and  palm-tree,  all  symbols  of  the  Ephesian  goddess. 
At  the  next  stage  (IV.  A  29)  these  symbols  recur  ;  on  the  other  side 
being  a  beautiful  head  of  the  Greek  Artemis. 

The  head  of  a  Persian  satrap  on  a  Lycian  coin  (II.  A.  38) 
is,  if  a  portrait,  the  earliest  which  occurs  on  a  coin  (cf.  VIII. 
1,  2). 

The  Hermes  Of  -Sinus  (II.  B.  2)  is  a  fine  head  in  the  transitional 
style.  But  much  finer  is  the  Bacchus  of  Thasos  (II.  B.  7),  a  work 
of  great  beauty  and  dignity  : — 

"  Remark  the  simplicity  and  repose  of  the  features,  showing 
character,  not  expression,  the  simple  treatment  of  the  hair,  the  orna- 
mentation being  wholly  thrown  into  the  wreath,  and  the  natural  beauty 
of  that  wreath,  which  seems  to  be  a  growth,  not  a  composition — a 
remark  I  owe  to  Mr.  Ruskin  "  (R.  S.  Poole  in  Numismatic  Chronicle^ 
1864,  p.  242). 

The  Boeotian  buckler  appears  as  a  badge  on  Theban  coins  (II. 
B  15-18).  An  oval  shape  with  semicircular  or  oval  incisions  in  the 
centre  was  its  characteristic.  (In  one  of  his  most  ingenious  passages, 
Prof.  Ridge  way  suggests,  p.  331,  that  the  shield  represented  a  common 
monetary  unit  in  ancient  times,  and  that  the  barter-unit  which  came 
nearest  to  the  silver  coin  was  equated  to  it,  the  piece  of  silver  being 
thus  stamped  as  worth  a  shield.)  A  terra-cotta  in  the  shape  of  a 
Boeotian  shield  may  be  seen  in  the  First  Vase  Room  (Table-case  D). 
On  the  devices  of  the  reverses  of  these  coins  there  is  considerable  force 
and  skill  ;  on  No.  15,  the  design  of  Harmonia,  seated,  holding  a 
helmet,  is  graceful. 

The  head  of  Athena  on  II.  B  20  may  be  taken  as  typical  of 
Athenian  coins.  Its  ugliness  will  probably  be  somewhat  of  a  shock  to 
those  who  come  to  it  with  preconceived  ideas  of  the  Athenian  love  of 
beauty  in  all  things.  For  we  are  looking  here  at  a  coin  which  belongs 
to  the  great  period  of  Athens — a  coin  struck  at  the  time  of  the  Par- 
thenon sculptures.  Ruskin  refers  to  it  as  proof  of  "the  intense 
ugliness"  which  the  Greeks  could  tolerate.  "There  is  a  school  of 
teachers,"  he  says,  "who  will  tell  you  that  nothing  but  Greek  art  is 
deserving  of  study,  and  that  all  our  work  at  this  day  should  be  an 
imitation  of  it.  Whenever  you  feel  tempted  to  believe  them,  think  of 
these  portraits  of  Athena  and  her  owl"  {Aratra  Pentelici,  §§  81,  194). 
But  there  was  a  reason  for  the  ugly  type  of  Athenian  coins  which 
should  be  thought  of  also.  If  the  reader  will  compare  this  coin  with 
those  in  Case  I.  (B  27,  28),  he  will  see  that  the  earlier  were  the  model 
of  the  later.     The  coin  before  us  was  made  of  a  primitive  type,  not 


Afterwards  referred  to  as  N.  C. 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  507 


from  incapacity  to  do  better,  or  indifference  to  beauty,  but  in  imitation 
of  the  older  coin.  If  the  reader  will  next  look  at  still  later  coins  of 
Athens,  including  even  the  latest  of  all  (VII.  B  14,  15),  he  will  see 
that  the  designs  remain  the  same,  though  the  archaic  uncouthness  of 
Athena's  face  is,  it  is  true,  modified.  The  reason  of  this  conservatism 
in  Athenian  coinage  was  strictly  utilitarian.  ' '  Of  all  Greek  coinages 
the  most  conservative  as  regards  types  is  that  of  Athens.  The  earliest 
Athenian  coins,  dating  from  early  in  the  sixth  century,  present  us  with 
the  head  of  Athene  on  the  one  side  and  her  owl  on  the  other,  and  the 
very  latest  silver  coins,  which  are  given  to  about  the  time  of  Sulla  the 
Dictator,  preserve  the  same  types,  which  are  continued  all  through  the 
intervening  period  with  scarcely  an  exception.  No  doubt  the  chief 
reason  of  this  persistence  is  to  be  found  in  the  wide  circulation  of  the 
Athenian  coins  which  were  current  right  into  the  heart  of  Asia  and 
Arabia.  Barbarous  peoples,  as  is  well  known,  grow  accustomed  to 
certain  classes  of  coins  and  accept  them  in  preference  to  all  others. 
To  this  day  the  dollars  of  Maria  Theresa  are  currently  accepted  in 
Abyssinia.  This  favour  the  Athenian  coins  had  acquired  in  several 
parts  of  Asia,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  purity  of  their  metal.  There- 
fore the  Athenians  were  prudently  very  averse  from  changing  their 
character,  lest  this  widespread  popularity  should  be  brought  into 
danger"  (P.  Gardner,  Types  of  Greek  Corns,  p.  47).  In  studying 
Greek  coins  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  they  were  not  primarily  intended  as  works  of  art.  Coming  back 
to  our  coin,  and  comparing  it  with  the  earlier,  we  may  find  it  interesting 
to  contrast  the  archaic  with  the  archaistic  style — the  genuine  archaic 
style  in  the  earlier  case  with  the  deliberate  imitation  of  the  archaic  style 
in  the  later.  Note  also  in  the  coin  before  us  the  economy  of  symbolism 
in  the  head  of  Athena.  "The  hair  is  restrained  by  a  round  helmet, 
for  the  most  part  smooth,  but  embossed  with  a  single  flower  tendril, 
having  one  bud,  one  flower,  and,  above  it,  two  olive  leaves.  You  have 
thus  the  most  absolutely  restricted  symbol  possible  to  human  thought 
of  the  power  of  Athena  over  the  flowers  and  trees  of  the  earth.  An 
olive  leaf  by  itself  could  not  have  stood  for  the  sign  of  a  tree,  but  the 
two  can,  when  set  in  position  of  growth  "  (Ruskin). 

The  money  of  Elis  (II.  B  26-34)  "  is  inferior  to  none  in  the 
Greek  world  in  its  art,  which  reaches  the  highest  level  of  dignified 
restraint,  and  in  the  varieties  of  its  types,  which  are  suggested  by  a  few 
subjects.  The  leading  types  are  connected,  as  we  might  expect,  with 
the  worship  of  Zeus  and  Hera  and  Nike,  the  divinities  of  the  great 
Panhellenic  contest  at  Olympia"  (Poole).  On  No.  29  we  have  an 
effigy  of  the  god  himself.  H  At  first  sight  this  head  seems  to  conflict 
with  all  our  ideas  as  to  what  the  head  of  Zeus  should  be.  The  lion- 
like brow,  the  mane-like  hair,  the  energetic  expression  are  all  wanting. 
In  their  place  we  have  very  short  closely  -  curled  beard  and  hair, 
extremely  large  features  of  the  purest  Greek  type,  and  an  air  of  calm 
unruffled  majesty "  (Gardner).  On  the  reverse  is  the  thunderbolt  of 
Zeus,  and  the  olive  wreath  with  which  he  rewarded  victorious  athletes. 


508  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


On  No.  30  is  his  consort  Hera,  Olympian  in  her  stately  beauty  ;  on 
the  reverse,  again  the  thunderbolt  and  olive  wreath.  On  other  of  the 
coins  we  see  the  eagle  of  Zeus  devouring  a  serpent,  a  hare,  or  a  ram 
— portents  whereby  the  god  revealed  his  will  to  men.  The  other 
figure  on  the  coins  is  Nike,  daughter  and  servant  of  Zeus,  whom  he 
sent  to  reward  those  who  struggled  and  won  in  his  honour  at  the 
games.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  figures  of  Nike.  On  No.  27 
she  is  running  in  the  uncouth  attitude  of  archaic  art  :  notice  how 
stiffly  the  skirt  is  spread  out.  In  No.  28  the  drapery  falls  with  some- 
thing of  the  grace  of  the  Nereids  of  Xanthus  (Ch.  XI.).  The  Victory 
on  No.  31  was  copied  by  Wyon,  the  engraver  of  the  Waterloo  medal. 

The  COW  of  EubOBa  (II.  B  39). — The  subject  of  the  cow  scratch- 
ing herself,  which  often  occurs  on  coins,  has  reference  to  the  legend  of 
Io,  beloved  of  Zeus,  and  by  him  transformed  into  a  cow.  The  jealousy 
of  Hera  sent  an  insect-fury  to  torment  Io.  In  Eubcea  was  the  spot 
where  Io  was  supposed  to  have  been  killed.  The  cuttle-fish  on  the 
reverse  is  interpolated  as  a  symbol  of  Poseidon  ;  or  it  may  have  been 
used  as  a  badge,  as  a  favourite  delicacy  of  the  island  (see  Ridgeway, 
P-  327). 

The  demos  of  Tarentum  (II.  C  4). — The  youthful  figure  on  the 
reverse  of  this  coin  is  supposed  to  be  an  impersonation  of  the  people 
of  Tarentum  :  a  device  which  several  cities  adopted  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  despots.  It  was  characteristic  of  Greek  ideas  to  select  not 
"grave  and  reverend  seigniors,"  but  a  youthful  figure  for  their  civic 
impersonation — a  figure  which  might  typify  the  perpetual  youth  and 
energy  of  the  community. 

The  coinage  of  Thurium  (II.  C  7)  is  particularly  beautiful.  This 
city,  near  the  site  of  the  deserted  Sybaris,  was  colonised  from  Athens 
about  443  B.C.,  and  in  her  coins  we  may  trace  that  Athenian  style  and 
beauty  which  on  the  coins  of  Athens  herself  are,  for  reasons  already 
explained,  somewhat  lacking.  On  the  obverse  is  a  head  of  Pallas 
Athene,  marked  by  severe  beauty  of  style  ;  the  reverse  shows  a  bull 
butting  (Oovptos),  a  play  on  the  name  Thurium.  "  The  very  name  of 
Thurium  is  derived  from  the  impetuousness  of  the  streams  in  its 
vicinity,  and  the  type  of  its  coinage  is  a  bull  charging  violently,  with 
a  fish  below  to  show  that  water  is  intended  "  ( Trans.  Royal  Soc.  Lit. , 
N.S.  xi.  173  :  see  on  this  subject  under  I.  C  25  above.  Above  the 
head  of  Pallas  is  the  letter  <£.  This  denotes  the  engraver's  name.  His 
beautiful  work  seems  to  have  been  in  request  in  the  mints  of  Southern 
Italy  (see  No.  13  below). 

On  a  coin  of  Pandosia  (II.  C  11)  we  may  note  the  impersonation 
of  a  river  in  purely  human  form.  The  river  Crathis  figures  as  a  nude 
man,  in  an  attitude  of  sacrifice  ;  in  one  hand  he  holds  the  lustral 
bough  ;  in  the  other,  a  patera.  Keats  was  possessed  of  a  thoroughly 
Greek  idea  when  he  wrote  of 

The  moving  waters  at  their  priest-like  task 
Of  pure  ablution  round  earth's  human  shores. 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


509 


The  Nike  of  Terina  (II.  C  13). — This  coin  is  signed  by  the 
engraver  <£,  and  is  one  of  the  most  exquisite  productions  of  the  art. 
Notice,  first  on  the  obverse,  how  perfectly  the  design  fits  the  space. 
The  head  dominates  ;  the  laurel  wreath  partly  frames,  but  does  not 
entirely  encircle  it ;  any  appearance  of  formality  is  thus  avoided.  The 
hair  is  very  delicately  worked  ;  on  the  diadem  the  honeysuckle  pattern 
can  be  made  out.  But  there  is  no  over-refinement,  and  the  type  of 
the  beauty  is  similarly  restrained.  The  winged  and  seated  Victory  on 
the  reverse  is  very  graceful,  and  the  composition  is  again  beautifully 
appropriate  to  the  space. 

In  the  eagles  of  Agrigentum  (II.  C  16)  we  may  see  a  representa- 
tion of  the  portent  which  appeared  to  the  sons  of  Atreus  when  about 
to  set  out  for  Troy — two  eagles  devouring  a  hare  (yfLschylus,  Agam. 
114).  "If  we  take  this  type  in  connection  with  the  worship  of  Zeus 
Atabyrios  which  the  Agrigentines  inherited  from  their  Rhodian  ancestors, 
it  seems  not  unlikely  that  the  eagle  type  symbolises  one  or  both  of  the 
two  lofty  peaks  which  form  the  ancient  citadel  of  Agrigentum,  and  on 
the  highest  of  which  stood  the  temple  of  Zeus  Atabyrios.  In  that 
case  the  crab  and  fish  which  so  constantly  recur  on  these  coins  as  the 
type  of  the  reverse  (I.  C  24)  may  represent  the  harbour  of  Agrigentum 
and  adjacent  sea-shore,  and  may  be  at  the  same  time  a  symbol  of  the 
worship  of  Poseidon  who  had  a  temple  at  Agrigentum"  (Newton's 
Essays,  p.  424).  There  is  considerable  spirit  in  the  chariot  group  on 
the  reverse ;  the  four  horses  are  here  shown,  and  not  conventionally 
indicated. 

The  coins  Of  Camarina  (II.  C  17,  18)  are  of  great  beauty.  The 
fifth  Olympian  ode  of  Pindar,  written  for  the  victory  of  Psaumis  of 
Camarina,  serves  as  a  commentary  upon  them.  On  our  first  coin,  we 
have  on  one  side  the  head  of  Hercules  in  the  lion's  skin  ;  on  the  other, 
Pallas  as  a  victor  at  the  Olympic  games  in  a  chariot.  To  the  goddess 
is  the  glory  given.  "  Thy  sacred  grove,  O  city-guarding  Pallas,  doth 
the  victor  sing,  and  the  lake  of  his  native  land,  and  the  sacred  channels 
where  through  doth  Hipparis  give  water  to  the  people."  On  the  second 
coin,  it  is  the  head  of  the  young  river-god  Hipparis  that  faces  us.  A 
fish  on  either  side  assists  the  impersonation,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed 
in  a  border  of  waves,  the  head  of  the  river-god  emerging,  as  it  were, 
from  them.  On  the  reverse  is  a  line  of  waves  over  which  the  nymph 
of  the  lake  of  Camarina  glides,  on  the  back  of  a  swan  swimming  with 
expanded  wings ;  she  spreads  her  veil  to  catch  the  breeze.  This 
charming  coin  is  signed  by  Evsenetus,  the  engraver  of  some  of  the 
loveliest  Syracusan  coins  (see  III.  C  28). 

The  former  coin  (No.  17)  was  taken  by  Ruskin  as  the  text  for  a 
discourse  on  the  characteristics  of  Greek  art  ("The  Hercules  of 
Camarina,"  in  his  Queen  of  the  Air,  §§  161-177).  Among  other 
points,  Ruskin  noticed  "the  subtle  care"  with  which  the  obverse  of 
the  coin  is  designed.  "Look,  for  instance,  at  the  inscription  of  the 
name  of  the  town — Camarina.  You  can't  read  it,  even  though  you  may 
know  Greek,  without  some  pains  ;  for  the  sculptor  knew  well  enough 


5io 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


that  it  mattered  very  little  whether  you  read  it  or  not,  for  the  Camarina 
Hercules  could  tell  his  own  story  ;  but  what  did  above  all  things  matter 
was,  that  no  K  or  A  or  M  should  come  in  the  wrong  place,  with  respect 
to  the  outline  of  the  head  and  divert  the  eye  from  it,  or  spoil  any  of  its 
lines.  So  the  whole  inscription  is  thrown  into  a  sweeping  curve,  answer- 
ing a  decorative  purpose  as  completely  as  the  curls  of  the  mane  opposite. 
Of  these,  again,  you  cannot  change  or  displace  one  without  mischief ; 
they  are  almost  as  even  in  reticulation  as  a  piece  of  basket-work  ;  but 
each  has  a  different  form  and  a  due  relation  to  the  rest,  and  if  you  set 
to  work  to  draw  that  mane  rightly,  you  will  find  that,  whatever  time 
you  give  to  it,  you  can't  get  the  tresses  quite  into  their  places,  and  that 
every  tress  out  of  its  place  does  an  injury." 

The  coin  of  Himera  (II.  C  25)  is  interesting.  The  city  had  hot 
springs,  which  were  resorted  to  by  invalids.  The  nymph  Himera  is 
accordingly  represented  as  sacrificing  to  the  deities  of  healing,  while  in 
the  background  a  satyr  stands  under  a  stream  of  the  waters  issuing  from 
a  lion's  head  in  a  wall  (cf.  the  vase  B  229,  p.  319). 

The  hare  of  Messina  (II.  C  28). — On  the  reverse  is  a  mule-chariot. 
Anaxilaus  was  ruler  of  Messina  as  well  as  of  Reggio  on  the  opposite 
coast  (I.  C  22).  The  hare  is  interpreted  by  some  in  a  religious  sense, 
as  a  symbol  of  the  god  Pan.  But  Anaxilaus  is  said  to  have  introduced 
the  hare  into  Sicily,  and  he  may  have  chosen  it  as  his  type  on  that 
account  (see  Ridgeway's  Metallic  Currency,  p.  337). 

The  Dionysus  and  Silenus  of  Naxus  (II.  C  29,  30). — On  one 
side,  head  of  bearded  Dionysus,  with  the  vine-leaves  in  his  hair  ;  on 
the  other,  Silenus  on  the  ground,  with  a  wine-cup.  "  A  comparison 
of  these  two  coins,  the  first  struck  about  460  B.C.,  the  second  towards 
the  end  of  the  century,  shows  the  transition  from  the  strong,  firm  style 
which  characterises  the  earlier  period,  to  the  softer  modelling  and  more 
ornate  work  of  the  later"  (Head's  Coins  of  the  Ancients,  p.  33).  The 
earlier  coin  is,  according  to  Professor  P.  Gardner,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able in  existence.  <£  In  this  figure  (of  the  squatting  satyr)  we  have  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  age,  the  square  proportions,  the  exaggerated 
muscles,  the  rigidly  defined  attitude  ;  the  head  also,  according  to  the 
universal  rule  at  this  early  time,  is  in  profile,  while  the  body  faces  the 
spectator.  But  ...  we  should  scarcely  have  expected  to  find,  as  we  do, 
a  distinct  notion  of  perspective  and  an  attempt  to  foreshorten,  as  well  as 
a  most  successful  realism  in  the  result  of  the  position  of  the  left  arm  of 
the  satyr,  which  supports  the  weight  of  his  body,  the  left  shoulder  being 
pushed  up  with  considerable  truth  to  nature  "  ( Types  of  Greek  Coins, 
p.  105). 

The  next  coin,  from  Selinus  (II.  C  32),  is  from  a  different  point  of 
view  of  equal  interest.  At  Selinus,  as  elsewhere  in  Sicily,  it  was  said 
that  Empedocles  did  "cleanse  to  sweet  airs  the  breath  of  poisonous 
streams,"  by  draining  the  pestiferous  marshes  which  have  again  in  later 
days  made  the  place  a  haunt  of  desolation  and  malaria.  On  one  side 
of  our  coin  we  see  the  young  river-god  Selinus  sacrificing  at  an  altar, 
in  thanksgiving  for  the  purification  of  his  streams.     The  cock  before 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


the  altar  is  a  symbol  of  Asclepius,  the  god  of  healing.  Behind  Selinus 
is  a  selinon-leaf  and  the  image  of  a  bull  (symbol  of  the  stream).  On 
the  reverse  are  Apollo  and  Artemis  in  a  chariot.  Apollo  is  shooting 
out  his  arrows  of  light  :  an  action  symbolical  of  the  power  of  bright 
sunlight  in  dispersing  vapours  and  purifying  the  air.  (This  is  Professor 
Gardner's  interpretation  ;  Mr.  Head  explains  the  reverse  as  referring 
to  a  plague  sent  by  Apollo.) 

The  "  demaretion  "  of  Syracuse  (II.  C  33). — This  coin  is  of  great 
historical  interest,  and  of  importance  as  affording  a  fixed  date  by 
which  the  chronology  of  early  Sicilian  coins  is  fixed.  In  480  B.C. 
Gelon,  King  of  Syracuse,  defeated  the  Carthaginians  at  Himera. 
They  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  to  them  on  the  intercession 
of  Demarete,  wife  of  Gelon.  In  gratitude  the  Carthaginians  pre- 
sented her  with  a  hundred  talents  of  gold,  by  means  of  which  she 
coined  great  silver  pieces  of  money,  called  after  her,  demaretia.  These, 
as  we  know  from  Diodorus  (xi.  26),  were  of  the  weight  of  ten  Attic 
drachms.  The  coin  before  us  is  precisely  of  that  weight  (alone  among 
all  early  Greek  coins).  The  lion,  moreover,  which  runs  along  beneath 
the  chariot,  is  the  symbol  of  Africa.  There  can  therefore  be  no 
doubt  that  we  have  before  us  one  of  the  very  coins  issued  by  Demarete, 
and  thus  we  obtain  from  them — which  close  the  archaic  series  of 
Syracuse — a  fixed  point  in  the  chronology  of  this  form  of  Greek  art, 
at  about  479  B.C.  The  beauty  of  the  work  is  remarkable  for  its 
period  ;  there  is,  however,  "  a  touch  of  Egyptian  "  in  the  style  (Poole). 
"  All  the  primitive  exaggerations  are  toned  down  ;  the  eye,  though 
still  shown  in  full,  no  longer  projects  from  the  face  ;  the  ear,  however, 
is  still  set  too  high.  The  cheek  merges  naturally  into  the  jaw,  and 
the  archaic  grin  becomes  a  smile.  The  hair  is  still  represented  with 
formality,  but  by  means  of  wavy  lines  instead  of  dots"  (Hill).  In  the 
next  period  the  Syracusan  heads  are  of  the  purest  Greek  type.  The 
design  on  the  reverse  is  beautifully  composed  ;  into  it  a  modern  writer 
has  read  a  symbol  of  the  Greek  genius.  "  The  Greeks  stand  as 
masters  of  human  order  and  justice,  subduing  the  animal  nature, 
guided  by  the  spiritual  one,  as  you  see  the  Sicilian  charioteer  stands, 
holding  his  horse-reins,  with  the  wild  lion  racing  beneath  him,  and  the 
flying  angel  above,  on  the  beautiful  coin  of  early  Syracuse  "  (Ruskin's 
Aratra  Pentelici,  §  205). 

The  heads  of  Arethusa  on  other  Syracusan  coins  (II.  C  34-38)  of 
the  fifth  century  are  "  marked  by  a  youthful  simplicity  of  beauty 
combined  with  fanciful  and  even  fantastic  treatment  of  the  hair  ;  the 
reverses  remain  extremely  severe"  (Poole).  The  style  of  these  heads 
is  in  contrast  with  the  more  ornate  and  less  severe  beauty  of  the  suc- 
ceeding period  (III.  C  28,  29).  In  the  last  coin  here  (II.  C  40),  we 
see  the  transition  to  a  greater  freedom  of  style.  It  is  signed  by  the 
engraver,  Eumenus.  "  Most  of  his  work  appears  to  be  earlier  than 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  This  artist  may  be  said  to  have  intro- 
duced the  highly  ornate  style  which  characterises  the  Syracusan  coin- 
age of  the  age  of  Dionysius  the  Elder  "  (Head).    The  treatment  of 


512 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


the  chariot  is  particularly  interesting,  as  affording  us  an  opportunity, 
by  contrast  with  earlier  coins,  to  trace  the  progress  of  art  with  curious 
minuteness.  The  problem  before  the  engravers  of  these  racing  sub- 
jects was  to  represent  in  a  side  view  the  four  horses  and  two  wheels 
of  the  quadriga.  The  latter  part  of  the  problem  was  frankly  not 
attempted  on  the  small  scale  of  coins.  To  see  nothing  of  the  second 
wheel  is  a  common  convention  even  on  bas-reliefs  of  larger  scale  (see 
the  Parthenon  frieze,  but  on  the  Phigalian  frieze  there  is  a  chariot 
shown  with  its  two  wheels  three-quarters  to  the  front,  No.  523).  The 
Greek  sculptor,  says  Ruskin  in  describing  the  laws  of  bas-relief,  "is 
not  only  debating  and  deciding  how  to  show  what  he  wants,  but  much 
more,  debating  and  deciding  what,  as  he  can't  show  everything,  he 
will  choose  to  show  at  all.  Thus,  being  himself  interested,  and  sup- 
posing that  you  will  be,  in  the  manner  of  the  driving,  he  takes  great 
pains  to  carve  the  reins  (see  No.  33),  to  show  you  where  they  are 
knotted,  and  how  they  are  fastened  round  the  driver's  waist  (you  re- 
collect how  Hippolytus  was  lost  by  doing  that) ;  but  he  does  not  care 
the  least  bit  about  the  chariot,  and  having  rather  more  geometry  than 
he  likes  in  the  cross  and  circle  of  one  wheel  of  it,  entirely  omits  the 
other"  {Aratra  Pentelici,  §  171).  In  the  matter  of  the  horses,  a 
curious  convention  was  adopted  by  the  earlier  engravers.  They  indi- 
cated two  horses  clearly,  and  the  more  distant  ones  by  doubling  the 
outlines  of  the  nearer  two  and  adding  a  spare  leg  or  two  {e.g.  Nos. 
25,  26).  The  engraver  of  No.  33  throws  us  in  an  extra  head,  but 
this  concession  is  not  repeated  by  his  successors  (Nos.  35-38).  In 
No.  40,  however,  all  four  horses  are  shown,  and  this  is  a  marked 
advance,  but  the  movements  of  the  legs  are  almost  comically  regular. 
If  the  reader  will  pass  on  to  C  28,  29,  in  the  next  case,  he  will  see 
much  greater  power  and  freedom  shown  in  this  respect.  "  On  those 
grand  silver  medallions  the  four  horses  bound  along  in  skilfully  con- 
trasted action,  so  composed  as  to  enable  the  eye  at  once  to  discriminate 
each  horse  from  its  fellows,  and  at  the  same  time  to  take  in  the  com- 
plicated group' as  a  rhythmical  whole,  in  which  the  controlling  skill  of 
the  charioteer  has  blended  the  discordant  plunges  of  his  fiery  team 
into  a  harmonious  concord.  Their  felicitous  composition  depends 
mainly  on  the  bold  use  of  foreshortening,  an  innovation  in  sculpture 
which  was  but  sparingly  used  in  the  age  of  Phidias,  but  which,  in 
the  succeeding  century,  was  carried  much  further,  as  we  see  in  the 
Mausoleum  frieze"  (Newton's  Essays,  p.  421).  A  similar  study 
might  be  made  by  contrasting  the  Victory  in  the  coins  of  different 
dates;  in  the  earlier  coins,  she  flies  "  more  feebly  and  awkwardly 
(says  Newton)  than  a  bat  in  broad  daylight,  if,  indeed,  such  mere 
wing-flapping  can  be  called  flight  at  all." 

Case  III. — Period  of  Finest  Art  (400-336  b.c.) 

We  have  traced,  in  comparing  earlier  coins,  the  rise  of  the 
art  from  archaic  restraint  and  rudeness  to  greater  naturalism 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


513 


and  freedom.  Some  of  the  coins  which  we  have  seen  in  the 
transitional  period  were  never  surpassed  in  chastity  of  design 
and  serenity  of  severe  beauty.  In  the  period  now  before  us— 
the  period  in  sculpture  of  Praxiteles  and  Scopas — the  technical 
mastery  of  the  engravers  is,  if  not  greater  than  before,  employed 
with  a  somewhat  freer  hand,  and  a  certain  softer  grace  is 
imparted  to  the  ideal  heads.  The  head  of  Persephone  on 
the  famous  Syracusan  coin  of  Evaenetus  (III.  C  28) — showing 
a  girl  in  full  bloom — may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  full,  rich 
art  of  the  period.  The  ornamentation  is  more  elaborate  than 
in  earlier  work.  The  execution  is  delicately  finished.  Charm 
of  expression  is  added  to  dignity  of  bearing.  It  is  noticeable 
that  "to  this  period  all  the  coins  which  bear  artists'  signatures 
belong,  a  proof  that  the  men  employed  at  this  time  to  engrave 
the  coin  dies  were  no  mere  mechanics  but  artists  of  high  repute 
—  among  them  the  two  names  of  Euainetos  and  Kimon  of 
Syracuse,  the  engravers  of  the  splendid  silver  medallions  of 
that  city,  can  never  be  forgotten  so  long  as  their  works  remain, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  no  ancient  writer  has  recorded 
them"  (Head's  Historia  Nummorum,  p.  lxi.). 

The  Demeter  of  Cyzicus  (III.  A  7,  8).— These  two  heads  of 
Demeter  are  among  the  finest  in  the  collection.  They  are  good 
instances  of  the  more  picturesque  and  expressive  style,  which  is  the 
special  note  of  the  Ionian  School.  Ruskin  complains  that  the  calm 
faces  given  by  the  Greeks  to  their  gods  and  goddesses  are  devoid  of 
any  expression  of  divine  mystery  and  power.  The  statement  is  only 
partially  correct.  Certainly  it  is  possible  to  find  expressionless  Demeters. 
We  may  refer,  for  instance,  to  III.  B  35  or  III.  C  39  (though  the 
latter  is  only  a  Carthaginian  imitation  of  a  Syracusan  type).  In  such 
heads  there  is  no  attempt  to  personify  anything  but  fulness  of  harvest ; 
"there  is  no  mystery,  no  sadness,  no  vestige  of  the  expression  which 
we  should  have  looked  for  in  any  effort  to  realise  the  Greek  thoughts 
of  the  earth  mother,  as  we  find  them  spoken  by  the  poets  .  .  .  nothing 
to  interest  you  except  the  common  Greek  perfections  of  a  straight  nose 
and  a  full  chin"  {Aratra  Fentelici,  §  196).  Of  the  conventional  type 
of  Demeter,  such  criticism  is  true  ;  but  in  the  heads  before  us — which 
are  comparable  (so  far  as  the  small  scale  allows)  with  the  sorrowing 
Demeters  we  have  already  seen  in  the  Sculpture  Galleries — the  engraver 
has  ennobled  the  features  with  mystery  of  gloom  and  tenderness. 

Grold  coins  of  Lampsacus  (III.  A  15-19). — Here,  also,  a  beautiful 
representation  of  Demeter — "  embowered  amid  the  ears  of  growing 
corn,  and  like  it  half  buried  in  the  ground  " — may  be  seen  (on  No.  16). 

The  two  heads  of  a  maenad  (Nos.  15,  18)  are  also  notable.  One 
(No.  18)  is  in  repose;  the  other  is  marked  by  its  expression  of  wild 

2  L 


514 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


frenzy  ;  the  dishevelled  hair  and  streaming  ends  of  ivy- wreath  add  to 
the  effect.  The  inspiration  for  such  a  head  may  have  come  from  the 
famous  maenad  of  Scopas,  of  which  an  epigram  said  that  the  artist 
had  <(  mingled  frenzy  with  the  stone."  Very  remarkable  is  the  bearded 
head  in  a  conical  cap,  bound  with  a  wreath  (No.  17).  The  manner 
of  treatment  is  highly  pictorial,  and  the  effect  startling  in  its  modernity. 

The  Apollo  of  ClazomenaB  (IV.  A  24-26). — On  these  coins  are 
perhaps  the  finest  instances  of  the  full-face  type  (see  III.  A.  24),  and 
the  second  head  (No.  25)  is  one  of  the  highest  efforts  of  Greek  art  in 
this  sort.  Notice,  first,  the  simplicity  of  the  treatment.  A  high 
degree  of  beauty  is  reached  without  any  trick  or  elaboration.  The 
hair  is  very  pictorial,  but  does  not  distract  attention  by  any  over- 
elaboration.  "  No  quantity  of  labour  would  obtain  the  real  surface  of 
a  tress  of  Apollo's  hair,  and  the  full  expression  of  his  mouth.  So  that 
we  are  compelled  at  once  to  call  the  imagination  to  help  us."  Again, 
"  the  incisions  are  softened  into  a  harmony  like  that  of  Correggio's 
painting."  In  the  face  of  the  god  there  is  a  pathos,  combined  with 
a  certain  haughty  dignity,  which  at  once  fascinates  and  commands 
(see  Ruskin's  Aratra,  §§  138,  140,  179,  and  R.  S.  Poole  in  JV.  C., 
1864,  p.  243).  On  the  reverse  of  these  coins  is  a  swan,  a  symbol  of 
Apollo.  In  the  territory  of  Clazomense  there  was  a  temple  of  the  god. 
"The  delta  of  the  Hermus  abounds  in  wild  swans,  and  the  name  of 
Clazomense  may  have  been  due  to  their  shrill  cries  "  (Head). 

For  some  remarks  on  the  head  of  a  Persian  satrap  (III.  A  27) 
see  under  VIII.  I. 

The  next  coins  (III.  A  28,  29)  are  of  historical  interest,  as  afford- 
ing numismatic  evidence  of  the  alliance  (394-387  B.C.)  entered  into  by 
Samos  and  Ephesus  (as  well  as  by  Rhodes,  Cnidus,  and  Iasus)  for  the 
maintenance  of  their  independence  and  neutrality  in  the  conflict  between 
Sparta  and  Athens.  On  the  obverse,  each  city  retained  its  own  device  ; 
on  the  reverse,  all  the  allied  cities  stamped  a  common  device — that  of 
Hercules  strangling  the  serpents.  The  inscription  2TN  was  identified 
by  the  late  M.  Waddington,  distinguished  alike  in  politics  and  numis- 
matics, as  referring  to  the  alliance  (<rw/*axfa). 

The  sun  and  rose  of  Rhodes  (III.  A  37,  38). — Exquisitely 
beautiful  is  the  head  of  Helios,  on  the  first  of  these  coins  ;  beautiful 
as  befits  the  legend  of  the  sun-god's  chosen  isle  : — 

"  Behold  beneath  the  glimmering  sea 
A  land  unclaimed,  the  land  for  me." 
Therewith  he  shot  an  arrowy  ray 

Down  through  the  blue  yEgean  deep  ; 
Thrilled  by  that  magic  dart  of  day, 

The  hidden  isle  shook  off  her  sleep. 
She  moved,  she  rose,  and  with  the  morn 
She  touched  the  air,  and  Rhodes  was  born. 

E.  Myres. 

Favoured  by  the  sun  (there  is  hardly  a  day  in  the  year,  it  is  said,  on 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


515 


which  the  sun  is  there  not  visible),  Rhodes  was  celebrated  also  for  its 
roses  ;  and  from  the  similarity  of  name  (podov),  that  flower  was  chosen 
as  the  device  on  its  coins  (on  the  reverse)  ;  or,  it  may  be,  as  the  flower 
sacred  to  the  sun-god  of  the  island.  The  head  on  the  second  coin 
(38)  is  less  fascinating,  but  there  is  something  in  the  fixed  and  almost 
glaring  outlook  which  well  befits  the  character.  In  the  arrangement 
of  the  hair  in  No.  37,  the  sun's  rays  are  suggested  and  no  more  ;  in 
the  next  stage,  the  art  and  the  symbolism  alike  are  less  restrained. 
See  IV.  A  33,  on  which  coin  the  head  is  more  staring  and  actual  rays 
spring  out  of  the  hair. 

The  head  of  Hermes  (III.  B  4)  on  a  coin  of  MllUB  (in  Thrace)  is 
taken  by  Ruskin  as  ' '  entirely  characteristic  of  the  central  period  of 
Greek  art,"  "  as  decisive  and  clear  in  arrangement  of  masses,"  as 
the  work  of  earlier  periods,  ' 'but  its  contours  are  completely  rounded 
and  finished."  ''There  is  no  character  in  its  execution  so  prominent 
that  you  can  give  an  epithet  to  the  style.  It  is  not  hard,  it  is  not 
soft,  it  is  not  delicate,  it  is  not  coarse,  it  is  not  grotesque,  it  is  not 
beautiful  ;  and  I  am  convinced,  unless  you  had  been  told  that  this  is  fine 
central  Greek  art,  you  would  have  seen  nothing  at  all  in  it  to  interest 
you.  Do  not  let  yourselves  be  anywise  forced  into  admiring  it ;  there 
is,  indeed,  nothing  more  here  than  an  approximately  true  rendering  of 
a  healthy  youthful  face,  without  the  slightest  attempt  to  give  an  expres- 
sion of  activity,  cunning,  nobility,  or  any  other  attribute  of  the  mercurial 
mind.  Extreme  simplicity,  unpretending  vigour  of  work,  which  claims 
no  admiration  either  for  minuteness  or  dexterity,  and  suggests  no  idea 
of  effort  at  all  ;  refusal  of  extraneous  ornament,  and  perfectly  arranged 
disposition  of  counted  marks  in  a  sequent  order,  whether  in  the  beads, 
or  the  ringlets  of  hair  :  this  is  all  you  have  to  be  pleased  with."  But 
though  the  artist  does  not  attempt  portraiture,  he  does  aim  at  anima- 
tion ;  "  and  as  far  as  his  means  will  admit,  he  succeeds  in  making  the 
face — you  might  almost  think — vulgarly  animated  ;  as  like  a  real  face 
literally,  '  as  it  can  stare'"  (Aratra  Pentelici,  §§  119,  121). 

This  coin  is  a  good  instance  further  of  the  full  face — a  method  of 
representing  the  human  face  which  is  peculiar  to  the  central  period  of 
art.  It  is  a  proof  of  the  artist's  skill,  for  a  full  face  is  much  harder 
to  do  than  a  profile  ;  but  "the  wear  to  which  a  full-face  representation 
was  exposed,  soon  reduced  a  beautiful  face  to  a  caricature."  In  one 
coin  the  nose  has  been  flattened.  "  It  was  therefore  little  loss  to  art 
when,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  this  form  of  representa- 
tion became  less  common.  The  form  was  unsuited  to  coins,  and  was 
only  adopted  by  a  magnificent  blunder  "  (Hill's  Handbook,  p.  163).  It 
may  be  remarked  that  this  objection  was  not  applicable  to  engraved 
gems,  and  some  of  the  greatest  of  the  gem-engravers  preferred  the 
front  face. 

Another  political  alliance,  that  of  the  Chalcidian  League  (formed 
in  392  B.C.),  is  represented  in  a  series  of  coins  (III.  B  9-1 1)  with 
types  relating  to  Apollo,  and  inscribed  x<x\/a5ea;p.  The  head  of 
Apollo  on  No.  1 1  is  beautiful  in  its  simple  strength  and  dignity.  The 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


coinage  of  this  League  circulated  in  Macedon  until  Philip  II.  began  in 
about  358  B.C.  to  work  the  rich  gold  mines  of  Philippi. 

III.  B  13  is  a  coin  of  Philippi.  No.  17  is  one  of  the  gold 
staters,  issued  by  Philip  and  called  after  him  u  Philips  "  (like  the 
Napoleons  of  our  time)  :  thus  Horace  speaks  of  regale  mumisma 
Philippos  (Epist.  ii.  1,  232).  On  one  side  is  the  head  of  Apollo  ;  on 
the  other,  a  chariot.  From  these  "Philips"  were  derived  the  types 
of  the  coins  used  for  centuries  by  the  Gauls  and  Britons.  The  chariot 
and  horseman  refers  to  Philip's  victories  at  the  Olympian  games. 

The  head  of  Zeus  on  the  next  coin  (III.  B  18),  which  was  also 
issued  by  Philip  II.,  is  very  fine.  The  horse  on  the  reverse  of  this 
coin  is  very  clumsy.  This  Zeus  may  be  compared  with  another,  also 
very  simple  and  dignified,  on  a  coin  of  Alexander  of  Epirus  (III.  B 
23).  The  Zeus  on  a  coin  of  Elis  (III.  B  33)  is  very  inferior  to  the 
earlier  one  (II.  B  29)  which  we  have  already  described,  and  in  which 
some  authorities  find  the  repose  and  reserve  of  power  associated  with 
the  Zeus  of  Phidias  (see,  for  instance,  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture >  ii. 
131.  Those  who  desire  to  pursue  this  tantalising  question  will  find 
a  list  of  the  authorities  in  Frazer's  Pausanias,  vol.  iii.  p.  532). 

The  head  of  the  nymph  Larissa  (III.  B  19)  is  very  beautiful.  It 
strongly  resembles  that  of  Arethusa  on  the  coin  of  Syracuse  (III.  C 
30),  but  is  somewhat  simpler  in  treatment. 

A  coin  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  (III.  B  25)  is  historically 
interesting,  for  it  was  probably  struck  by  the  Council  when  it  re- 
assembled after  the  termination  of  the  Sacred  War,  346  B.C.,  and 
conferred  upon  Philip  of  Macedon  the  votes  which  had  previously 
belonged  to  the  Phocians.  On  the  obverse  is  Demeter  seated ;  on 
the  reverse,  Apollo  seated  on  the  Delphian  omphalos. 

The  name  of  the  famous  Epamiliondas  is  inscribed  (Epami.)  on  the 
next  coin  (III.  B  26). 

The  Zeus  and  Demeter  of  Messenia  (III.  B  35),  "the  two 
together  signifying  the  sustaining  strength  of  heaven  and  earth."  The 
temple  of  Demeter  on  Mount  Ithome  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias  as  a 
peculiar  sanctity  ;  and  on  the  same  mountain  was  a  temple  to  Zeus  of 
Ithome,  in  whose  honour  an  annual  festival  was  celebrated  by  the 
Messenians.  Ruskin,  noting  these  facts,  remarks  on  the  strangely 
mundane  character  of  the  divinities  as  shown  on  this  coin.  The 
Demeter  is,  indeed,  a  very  fine  head,  but  it  is  invested  with  no  mystery 
(see  above,  under  III.  A  7,  8).  "  We  pass,  on  the  reverse  of  the 
die,  to  the  figure  of  Zeus.  Think  of  the  invocation  to  Zeus  in  the 
Suppliants,  '  King  of  Kings,  and  Happiest  of  the  Happy,  Perfectest 
of  the  Perfect  in  strength,  abounding  in  all  things,  Zeus — hear  us 
and  be  with  us  ' ;  and  then,  consider  what  strange  phase  of  mind  it 
was,  which,  under  the  very  mountain-home  of  the  god,  was  content 
with  this  symbol  of  him  as  a  well-fed  athlete,  holding  a  diminutive 
and  crouching  eagle  on  his  fist.  The  features  and  the  right  hand  have 
been  injured,  but  the  action  of  the  arm  shows  that  it  held  a  thunder- 
bolt "  {Aratra  Pentelici,  §  197).    Numismatists  claim  that  this  coin  is 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


517 


a  copy  of  a  statue  of  Zeus  by  Ageladas  (master  of  Myron,  Polyclitus, 
and  perhaps  Phidias),  which  was  preserved  at  Ithome ;  but  this 
identification  is  disputed  (see  Murray's  Greek  Sculpture,  i.  187). 

The  Hera  of  ArgOS  (III.  B  36)  is  interesting  as  being  copied  from 
the  famous  statue  of  Polyclitus  (see  a  marble  in  the  Elgin  Room, 
p.  192).  The  figures  of  the  Graces  and  Seasons  which  are 
mentioned  by  Pausanias  (ii.  17.  4)  as  adorning  the  crown  of  the 
goddess  are  omitted  on  the  coin,  and  a  floral  decoration  is  substituted. 
The  engraver  probably  despaired  of  reproducing  the  figures  on  so 
small  a  scale  (Frazer).  On  the  reverse  of  our  coin  are  two  dolphins 
-and  a  wolf — symbols  of  Apollo  Lycius,  who  was  worshipped  at  Argos  ; 
* '  the  idea  symbolised  by  the  wolf  is  that  of  winter  slain  by  the  god 
of  light  and  warmth  "  (Head). 

The  COW  on  a  coin  of  Etruria  (III.  C  2)  is  said  to  be  symbolical 
of  moon-worship.  The  reader  will  already  have  been  struck  by  the 
frequency  of  bulls  and  cows  on  ancient  coins.  In  view  of  the  well- 
known  use  of  cattle  as  units  of  barter  in  early  times,  it  is  difficult  not  to 
feel  some  attraction  to  Professor  Ridgeway's  theory  that  on  early  coins 
the  cow  or  bull's  head  was  the  indication  of  value  ;  and  that  in  later 
times,  when  the  connection  between  cattle  and  coin  was  only  tra- 
ditional, the  ox  or  the  cow  was  put  on  them  simply  as  symbolical  of 
money  (as  in  the  Greek  proverb,  44 an  ox  on  the  tongue";  see  p.  620). 
The  Greek  engravers  v/ere  not  content,  however,  with  repeating  pre- 
cisely the  same  symbol,  but  give  us  such  beautiful  types  as  the  cow 
suckling  her  calf  (I.  B  18,  V.  B  9),  the  cow  with  the  bird  on  her 
back  and  scratching  herself  (II.  B  39),  and  the  two  calves'  heads  on 
the  coins  of  Mytilene  (II.  A  28). 

The  Partnenope  of  Naples  (II.  C  4). — The  siren  Parthenope 
gave  its  ancient  name  to  Neapolis.  The  head  on  this  coin  is  pretty. 
On  coins  of  this  type,  ear-rings  are  carefully  wrought'.  The  fertility 
of  invention  of  the  Greek  jeweller  was  conspicuous  in  the  variety  of 
form  given  to  these  ornaments,  of  which  many  beautiful  specimens  may 
be  seen  in  the  Gem  Room.  In  the  coins  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily 
we  meet  with  a  softer  beauty  than  that  which  distinguishes  the  products 
of  Greece  itself.  The  man-headed  bull  on  this  and  the  preceding  coin 
is  symbolical  not  of  a  river,  but  of  Dionysus.  (For  the  gold  coin 
Of  Tarentum  (III.  C  5),  see  below,  under  IV.  C  11.) 

The  "horsemen  of  Tarentum"  (III.  C.  7-10). — The  opulence 
and  luxury  of  gay  Tarentum,  second  only  to  Syracuse  in  the  whole 
West,  are  well  illustrated  in  the  number  and  variety  of  her  coins. 
Here,  as  on  the  earlier  coins  already  noticed,  we  have  always  on  one 
side  Taras  riding  on  his  dolphin,  but  the  composition  is  varied  with 
delightful  ingenuity.  On  the  other  side  we  see  the  type  of  the  Taren- 
tine  horseman  "  repeated  with  a  vivacity  and  endless  felicity  of 
invention  almost  worthy  of  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  "  (Newton). 
On  the  gold  coin  (5)  the  young  rider  crowns  his  horse.  Next  (6),  a 
second  youth  welcomes  the  horse,  clasping  it  by  the  neck,  On  another 
(10)  the  horse  and  rider  are  surrounded  by  a  border  of  waves — with 


5i8 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


reference,  perhaps,  to  the  white  wild  horses  of  the  sea.  The  delicacy 
of  the  workmanship  is  also  remarkable.  "I  should  like,"  said 
Ruskin  of  some  art  students,  ' 6  to  show  them  an  enlarged  black 
outline,  nobly  done,  of  the  two  sides  of  a  coin  of  Tarentum,  with  that 
fiery  rider  kneeling,  careless,  on  his  horse's  neck,  and  reclined  on  his 
surging  dolphin,  with  the  curled  sea  lapping  round  them  ;  and  then  to 
convince  my  boys  that  no  one  (unless  it  was  Taras'  father  himself  with 
the  middle  prong  of  his  trident)  could  draw  a  horse  like  that,  without 
learning  "  ("The  Cestus  of  Aglaia,"  in  On  the  Old  Road,  i.  §  333).  The 
horses  and  horsemanship  of  Tarentum  were  famous  ;  there  was  a  verb 
TapavTL^eip,  "  to  ride  like  a  Tarentine  horseman."  The  representations 
on  the  coins  refer  no  doubt  to  local  "meetings" — at  which  this  skill 
was  displayed.  The  Tarentine  coins  are  an  interesting  instance  of  the 
methods  of  personification  adopted  by  the  Greeks.  Early  in  the  fifth 
century  the  Tarentines  dedicated  at  Delphi  statutes  of  Taras  and 
Phalanthus,  the  mythical  and  historical  founders  of  their  city  (Paus. 
x.  13.  10).  "These  two  heroes  represent  in  the  most  complete  and 
lively  manner  all  the  activities  and  successes  of  the  Tarentines.  The 
Tarentine  cavalry  was  excellent,  so  their  heroes  appear  constantly  on 
horseback,  performing  military  evolutions  and  crowned  for  success  in 
the  games.  The  Tarentine  wine  was  good,  so  Taras  bears  a  bunch  of 
grapes  or  carries  a  thyrsus  (in  III.  C  6,  a  cup).  The  Tarentines  were 
skilful  fishers,  so  Taras,  as  he  rides  on  his  dolphin's  back,  spears  the 
fish  of  the  sea  through  which  he  passes.  Tarentum  was  a  city  of 
shipping  and  of  cavalry,  so  on  one  side  of  her  coins  Taras  rides  his 
dolphin,  and  on  the  other  Phalanthus  mounts  his  steed,  repeating  age 
after  age  the  exploits  by  which  they  were  supposed  to  have  won  fame, 
and  furnishing  a  constant  model  to  the  ambitious  youth  of  Tarentum  " 
(P.  Gardner  on  "Countries  and  Cities  in  Ancient  Art,"  in  J.HS. 
ix.  p.  55). 

The  Heracles  Of  Heraclea,  in  Lucania  (III.  C  1 1),  is  an  interesting 
figure.  These  whole  figures,  seated  in  various  attitudes,  are  among 
the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the  engraver's  art  on  coins  (cf.  III. 
B  37,  III.  C  20). 

The  coin  of  Thulium  (III.  C  17)  is  celebrated  for  the  perfection 
of  its  art.  The  helmet  adorned  with  a  splendid  figure  of  the  sea- 
monster,  Scylla,  is  a  masterpiece  on  this  scale.  The  butting  bull  on 
the  reverse  is  no  less  celebrated.  In  its  truth  and  vitality,  and  large- 
ness of  style  (which  depends  not  on  scale),  it  is  compared  by  Ruskin 
with  a  colossal  bull  of  Eastern  art  (see  Aratra  Pentelici,  pi.  xx. ).  It 
is  customary  to  talk  of  the  "idealism"  of  Greek  art,  and  if  the  term 
be  rightly  understood  the  talk  is  right.  The  idealism  of  the  best 
Greek  sculpture  was  the  perfection  of  natural  form,  not  a  departure 
from  nature.  A  certain  amount  of  symbolic  conventionalism,  the 
Greek  did,  indeed,  allow  himself.  But  "the  eagle  of  Elis,  the  lion 
of  Velia,  the  horse  of  Syracuse,  the  bull  of  Thurium,  the  dolphin  of 
Tarentum,  the  crab  of  Agrigentum,  and  the  crawfish  of  Catana,  are 
studied  as  closely,  every  one  of  them,  as  the  Juno  of  Argos,  or  Apollo 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  519 


of  Clazomense.  Idealism,  so  far  from  being  contrary  to  special  truth, 
is  the  very  abstraction  of  speciality  from  everything  else.  It  is  the 
earnest  statement  of  the  characters  which  make  man  man,  and  cockle 
cockle,  and  flesh  flesh,  and  fish  fish"  ("The  Study  of  Architecture," 
in  On  the  Old  Road,  i.  §  276). 

Another  coin  which  might  form  a  text  for  many  a  discourse  on 
Greek  art  is  that  of  Croton  (III.  C  19).  Let  us  read,  first,  Professor  P. 
Gardner's  description  of  it  : — "On  the  obverse  is  Heracles,  leaning  on 
his  club,  and  seated  on  his  lion  skin,  which  is  spread  on  the  rocks. 
He  is  claimed,  as  an  archaic  inscription  on  the  coin  states,  as  founder  of 
the  city  and  is  engaged  in  some  ceremony  of  purification.  The  reference 
is  to  the  solemn  rites  performed  by  Heracles  after  he  had  accidentally 
slain  the  hero  Croton,  to  purify  himself  from  the  stain  of  manslaughter, 
on  which  occasion  he  is  said  to  have  prophesied  the  future  greatness  of 
the  city,  which  should  be  called  by  the  name  of  the  man  he  had  slain. 
But  Croton  was  also  under  the  patronage  of  Apollo  ;  and  so,  on  the 
reverse,  we  find  him  occupied  in  his  noblest  achievement,  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  monstrous  Python,  at  which  he  is  aiming  an  arrow.  The 
character  of  this  design  is  governed  by  various  conditions;  some  of  them 
particular,  others  general.  The  fillet-bound  tripod  usually  occupies  the 
whole  field  in  coins  of  Croton  and  is  here  made  the  principal  feature. 
The  serpent  is  made  to  stand  erect  on  his  coils,  in  order  the  better  to 
fill  the  space.  The  foreshortening  of  the  lower  limbs  of  Apollo,  as  he 
bends  with  the  strain  of  his  shooting,  is  a  remarkable  effect  for  the 
period.  I  know  of  no  work  of  antiquity  more  characteristic  than  this, 
or  more  full  of  suggestion.  Marvellously  human  and  measurable  is  the 
picture  which  a  Greek  artist  has  here  wrought  of  the  victory  of  light 
over  darkness  ;  entire  the  absence  of  mysticism.  If  we  recall  to  mind 
great  modern  works  treating  of  the  same  subject,  we  gain  a  glimpse  of 
the  infinite  abyss  separating  Hellenic  from  modern  art  "  {Types  of  Greek 
Coins,  p.  119).  The  absence  of  mysticism,  the  absence  also  of  all  sense 
of  dramatic  strain  :  these  are  two  characteristics  of  Greek  art  which  may 
be  deduced  from  this  coin.  In  the  latter  respect,  Ruskin  couples  with 
it  the  contest  of  Heracles  with  the  Nemean  lion  as  shown  on  a  coin  of 
Heraclea  (IV.  C  16) — "examples,"  he  says,  "of  true  Greek  repre- 
sentation ;  the  subjects  being  the  two  contests  of  leading  import  to 
the  Greek  heart.  You  see  that  in  neither  case  is  there  the  slightest 
effort  to  represent  the  XtWa,  or  agony  of  contrast"  (see  Aratra 
Pentelici,  §  192). 

A  coin  of  Pandosia  (III.  C  22)  is  by  the  artist  <£,  whose  beautiful 
work  we  have  already  noticed  in  II.  C  7  and  13.  With  the  latter 
coin,  a  later  one  of  Terina  here  (III.  C  24)  should  be  compared. 
The  earlier  is  the  purer  in  style  and  more  severe  ;  but  it  is  a  pretty 
touch  here  that  makes  the  winged  figure  of  Victory  fondle  a  dove. 

The  Apollo  of  Catana  (III.  C  25)  is  a  striking  head.  It  looks 
not  like  the  ideal  head  of  a  god,  but  the  head  of  a  girl,  with  the  fluffy 
hair  and  deep-set  eyes  that  one  may  see  in  the  streets  and  alleys  of 
South  Italy  to-day. 


520 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


The  gold  coin  of  Syracuse  (III.  C  27)  is  by  Cimon,  whose 
masterpiece  we  shall  presently  examine.  Its  value  was  that  of  two  of 
the  large  medallions. 

These  medallions  of  Syracuse  (III.  C  28,  29)  are  perhaps  the 
best  known,  and  are  certainly  among  the  most  beautiful,  of  all  ancient 
coins.  They  are  called  "  medallions  "  incorrectly,  for  they  were  issued 
as  currency ;  but  their  unusual  size,  as  well  as  their  artistic  merit,  invests 
them  with  special  interest.  "  Might  not  Raphael,"  asks  Winckelmann, 
"  who  complains  that  he  could  not  find  in  nature  any  beauty  worthy 
to  stand  for  Galatea,  have  taken  her  likeness  from  the  best  Syracusan 
coins?  Beyond  these  coins,  human  comprehension  cannot  go." 
Critics  of  our  own  day  have  been  hardly  less  enthusiastic.  No.  28  is 
by  Evsenetus  ;  No.  29,  by  Cimon.  The  reverse  on  the  two  coins  is 
the  same  ;  which  head  is  the  finer  ?  "  If,"  says  a  French  writer,  "  we 
only  possessed  Cimon's  piece  it  would  justly  awaken  in  us  entire 
admiration  and  would  be  cited  as  a  type  of  inimitable  perfection.  But 
it  pales  beside  the  work  of  Evaenetus.  The  style  of  Cimon — superior 
as  it  still  is  to  the  finest  works  that  the  Renaissance  itself  produced  in 
monetary  art — appears  smaller  by  comparison  with  the  other.  .  .  . 
Cimon  is  a  great  artist  ;  Evaenetus  is  the  greatest  of  all  in  the  branch 
that  he  has  cultivated.  He  is  the  Pheidias  of  coin-engraving  "  (Lenor- 
mant,  Gazette  des  Beaux- Arts,  1863,  p.  338).  It  has  been  objected 
that  the  "medallions"  show  an  over-richness  in  ornament,  an  excessive 
delicacy  in  execution.  To  such  objections  Mr.  Arthur  Evans  makes 
an  interesting  reply  :  "  The  gem-like  finish  of  the  details,  the 
decorative  richness,  the  more  human  beauty  of  the  features  that  they 
represented,  the  naturalistic  gleanings  from  the  Sicilian  fields  around 
— from  air  and  sea — thrown  into  these  designs,  were  regarded  by  the 
artists  of  these  dies  as  altogether  appropriate  to  this  class  of  small 
relief  in  metal  work.  To  the  greater  works  of  Greek  statuary  and 
relief,  in  ivory  or  marble,  warmth  and  variety,  and  even  minute  relief, 
far  beyond  our  present  ken,  was  supplied  by  calling  in  the  painter's 
and  the  goldsmith's  art.  Even  in  bronze  work,  monotony  was  avoided 
by  the  inlaying  and  overlaying  with  gold  and  silver  ;  diamonds  might 
sparkle  in  the  eyes,  diadems  and  torques  of  precious  metal  might 
glitter  about  head  and  neck,  But  in  the  smooth,  glistening  surface  of 
a  coin  there  was  no  opportunity  for  such  adventitious  adornments. 
Limited  in  relief,  the  outlines  yet  could  not  be  thrown  up  by  colour 
contrasts.  Hence,  according  to  the  canons  of  Greek  taste,  there  was 
the  greater  need  for  luxuriant  detail  and  minutely  decorative  treatment 
of  surfaces  ;  for  the  avoidance  of  bare  background  by  a  more  pictur- 
esque treatment  of  the  design  itself,  and  the  insertion  of  accessory 
objects  of  beauty  ;  for  infusing  the  divine  forms  portrayed  with  a 
greater  glow  of  liveliness  and  life  to  make  up  for  the  golden  hair,  the 
flashing  eyes  and  roseate  lips,  that  were  beyond  the  reach  of  the  die- 
sinker's  art  ;  but  which,  in  the  case  of  the  greater  works  of  sculpture, 
might  serve  to  reconcile  severer  outlines.  It  was  this  which  the  Sicilian 
engravers  instinctively  perceived,  and  it  is  this  which  raises  them  in 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  521 


their  own  profession  above  the  level  of  their  fellow-workers  in  the 
greater  art-centres  of  the  mother-country"  ("Syracusan  Medallions 
and  their  Engravings,"  in  N.C.  1890,  p.  211). 

In  one  respect  the  engravers  of  the  coin-dies  have  an  advantage 
over  the  artists  on  a  greater  scale.  The  marble  perishes  ;  metal 
endures : — 

Le  temps  passe.     Tout  meurt.     Le  marbre  meme  s'use. 

Agrigante  n'est  plus  qu'une  ombre,  et  Syracuse 

Dort  sous  le  bleu  linceul  de  son  ciel  indulgent  ; 

Et  seul  le  dur  m£tal  que  1' amour  fit  docile 

Garde  encore  en  sa  fleur,  aux  m^dailles  d' argent, 

L' immortelle  beaute"  des  vierges  de  Sicile. 

Turning  to  the  two  "medallions"  severally,  we  observe  that  the 
coin  of  Evsenetus  (28)  shows  us  the  head  of  Persephone,  as  we  may  see 
from  the  wreath  of  corn-leaves  in  her  hair.  The  features  are  of  a  more 
refined  and  somewhat  severer  beauty  than  that  of  Cimon's  Arethusa  in 
the  next  coin,  and  the  hair  is  treated  in  a  broader  style.  The  first 
letters  of  the  artist's  name  are  faintly  given  below.  The  high  praise  of 
his  work,  quoted  above,  will  probably  be  endorsed  by  most  readers  ; 
but,  if  any  be  inclined  to  hesitate  and  find  on  closer  examination  that 
the  artistic  effect  is  not  entirely  satisfying,  they  also  can  quote  high 
authority  : — 

"I  admit,"  says  R.  S.  Poole,  formerly  keeper  of  the  Museum 
coins,  "that  nothing  more  delicately  finished  has  been  produced  in 
Greek  art.  Its  merit  is  another  question.  The  first  impression  is  very 
pleasing,  but  the  work  does  not  bear  analysis.  You  cannot  magnify 
it  without  becoming  aware  of  a  want  of  expression  in  the  face  and  an 
exaggeration  in  the  features.  You  could  not  judge  from  the  face 
whether  the  head  were  of  Proserpine  or  Juno  ;  and  indeed  it  has  been 
disputed  whether  it  is  of  Proserpine  or  Arethusa,  though  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  represents  the  first.  The  ornamental  arrangement  of 
the  hair  is  not  accidental,  but  essential,  in  the  treatment  of  the 
countenance,  and  conceals  the  weakness  of  the  features.  It  is,  more- 
over, intensely  artificial,  with  shell-like  and  snake-like  curls  that  are 
suggestive  of  the  hot  irons  and  '  artists  in  hair '  of  conventional  life. 
She  is  neither  goddess  nor  maiden,  merely  the  most  beautiful  young 
lady  of  Syracuse,  with  her  hair  very  elaborately  dressed  by  the  best 
Syracusan  hair-dresser.  The  eye  is  too  large,  the  nose  too  small,  the 
mouth  exaggerated  in  its  pout  and  too  small.  The  chin  is  too  large, 
and  the  cheek  is  heavy  "  ("  Greek  Coins  as  illustrating  Greek  Art "  in 
N.C,  1864,  p.  245).  For  some  remarks  on  the  design  of  the  reverse 
of  these  coins,  see  III.  C  34-38.  Not  only  are  the  horses  here  distinctly 
represented;  but  the  difficulty  of  showing  the-  second  chariot-wheel  is 
also  solved. 

On  the  medallion  of  Cimon  (III.  C  29)  the  head  is  of  Arethusa. 
The  lower  part  of  her  hair  is  worn  in  a  jewelled  net ;  she  wears  also 
a  jewelled  ear-ring  and  necklace.  The  name  of  Cimon  is  inscribed 
on  the  dolphin  below  the  head.    The  date  is  about  400  B.C.    It  is 


522 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


interesting  to  compare  the  design  with  the  similar  one  of  a  century 
earlier  (II.  C  33).  The  type  of  face  is  the  same,  but  the  archaic 
severity  of  the  earlier  has  given  place  to  freedom  and  animation.  The 
eye  in  particular  has  been  made  to  live.  Another  point  of  contrast 
occurs  in  the  treatment  of  the  symbolic  dolphins.  In  the  earlier  coin, 
the  symbols  overpower  the  head  ;  in  the  latter  they  are  smaller,  and 
take  their  proper  place  in  the  general  decorative  design. 

The  next  coin  (III.  C  30),  showing  a  head  of  Aretiiusa  facing  us, 
is  considered  the  chef  dee uvre  of  Cimon,  whose  name  is  inscribed  on 
her  diadem.  The  representation  of  the  spirit  of  the  famous  fountain 
is  here  more  poetical  than  in  the  medallion,  and  the  face,  if  less 
attractive  at  first  sight,  is  perhaps  more  arresting.  The  fountain  is 
represented  by  the  flowing  locks,  which  suggest,  though  they  do  not 
directly  imitate,  the  bubbling  action  of  the  fresh-water  spring  rising 
in  the  sea,  here  typified  by  the  dolphins  which  dart  in  and  out  of  the 
locks.  The  design  on  the  reverse  is  interesting.  The  horses  have 
overturned  the  meta,  and  the  charioteer  looks  back  as  if  a  rival  chariot 
were  close  behind  him.  It  has  been  suggested  that  there  may  be  a 
reference  here  to  the  Olympic  contest  in  388  B.C.,  in  which  the 
chariots  of  Dionysius  I.  of  Syracuse  were  upset  and  broken,  either  by 
misadventure  or  in  the  course  of  a  popular  demonstration  roused  against 
the  Sicilian  tyrant  by  the  orator  Lysias.  Dionysius  may  have  com- 
memorated his  unfair  defeat  on  that  occasion  as  a  triumph. 

The  coins  we  have  been  describing  and  the  next  two  (III.  C  31, 
32)  all  belong  to  the  time  of  Dionysius  or  his  successors  (405-345  B.C.). 
The  dynasty  was  then  overthrown  ;  Syracuse  appealed  to  Corinth,  and 
Timoleon  was  sent  to  restore  order.  The  next  coins  (III.  C  33-36) 
belong  to  the  period  of  freedom  restored  by  that  public-spirited  poli- 
tician. The  change  of  political  conditions  is  reflected  in  them.  The 
monetary  standard  (as  seen  from  the  size  of  the  coins)  is  altered  to  that 
of  Corinth.  The  types  made  familiar  during  the  Dionysian  era  are 
abandoned  ;  divinities  of  healing,  defence,  and  freedom  are  adopted — 
Apollo,  Artemis,  Soteira,  and  Zeus  Eleuthereus. 

Some  of  the  Carthaginian  coins  (III.  C  39,  40)  were  obviously 
copied  from  the  Proserpine  and  Arethusa  of  Syracuse.  Manner  has 
here  become  mannerism.  In  39  the  hair  is  heavy,  the  mouth  is  made 
smaller,  and  the  neck  is  uncompromisingly  pillar-like.  The  head  on 
No.  41,  perhaps  intended  for  a  representation  of  Dido,  is  fine,  and 
must  have  been  designed  by  a  Greek  artist. 

The  coins  of  Cyrene  (III.  C  43,  44)  have  on  one  side  or  the  other 
a  representation  of  Zeus  Ammon,  who  had  a  famous  oracle  in  the 
oasis  of  Ammon  in  the  Libyan  desert.  The  worship  of  Zeus  Ammon, 
confused  with  that  of  the  Egyptian  Amoun-Ra,  was  in  later  times  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  the  mixed  cults,  and  representations  of  Zeus 
with  the  ram's  horns  are  common  in  art.  "And  you,  Zeus,5'  cries 
Momus  in  Lucian's  Assembly  of  the  Gods^  "  how  can  you  bear  the 
ram's  horns  that  they  have  put  on  your  forehead  ?  "  Often  the  horns 
are  the  only  point  of  difference  in  representations  of  Zeus  Ammon. 


xxni  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  523 


On  one  of  these  coins  (44),  however,  the  type  of  face  is  altogether 
rude  and  shaggy.  On  the  gold  coin  (43)  the  deity  is  represented  as 
himself  performing  sacrifice.  On  the  reverse  of  No.  44  is  the  silphium 
plant,  conventionally  treated.  This  plant,  which  possessed  medicinal 
properties,  formed  one  of  the  staple  products  of  Cyrene  (cf.  a  note  on 
the  vases,  p.  338).  As  such  it  appears  on  the  coins,  though  here  also 
those  who  see  nothing  but  religious  symbolism  in  coin-types  are  not 
at  a  loss.  It  was  placed  on  the  coins,  we  are  told,  because  it  may  have 
been  the  symbol  of  Aristaeus,  "  the  protector  of  the  corn-field  and  the 
vine,  and  all  growing  crops  ;  and  bees,  and  flocks,  and  shepherds,  and 
the  averter  of  the  scorching  blasts  of  the  Sahara."  4 'There  is  prob- 
ably," replies  Prof.  Riclgeway,  "just  as  much  evidence  for  this  as 
there  is  for  believing  that  the  beaver  on  some  Canadian  coins  and 
stamps  is  symbolical  of  St.  Lawrence,  after  whom  the  great  Canadian 
river  is  named,  the  warm  skin  of  the  beaver  indicating  that  the  saint 
of  the  red-hot  gridiron  is  the  averter  of  the  cruel  and  biting  blasts  that 
sweep  down  from  the  icy  North"  {Metallic  Currency ',  p.  313). 

Case  IV. — Later  Fine  Art  (336-280  b.c.) 

This  period,  which  may  be  described  as  that  either  of  later 
tine  art  or  of  early  decline,  is  chronologically  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors.  We  see  at  once 
reflected  in  the  coinage  the  leading  historical  event  of  the  age. 
The  Macedonian  conquest  has,  to  a  large  extent,  annihilated 
independent  states.  Coins  were  struck  at  local  mints,  but 
their  general  character  is  identical.  Thus  the  coins  IV.  A  2, 
4-8,  10,  and  B  5,  6,  7,  9-14,  all  issued  by  Alexander  or  his 
successors,  closely  resemble  each  other.  Minor  differences 
or  marks  alone  distinguish  their  place  of  origin.  Thus  A  3 
has  the  monogram  of  Aradus  (a  town  in  Phoenicia)  ;  A  5,  a 
ram  (the  badge  of  Damascus)  ;  A  8,  an  anchor  (the  badge  of 
Seleucus  I.  of  Syria).  There  is  a  sameness  in  the  coins  of 
Alexander  which  deprives  them  of  interest.  On  the  obverse 
is  a  head  of  Hercules,  from  whom  the  Macedonian  kings 
claimed  descent.  There  is  in  the  head  some  slight  assimila- 
tion to  Alexander's  own  portrait.  On  the  reverse  is  Zeus 
seated,  holding  his  eagle.  Another  obvious  historical  fact  is 
reflected  in  the  coins.  Not  only  did  Alexander  absorb,  he  also 
expanded.  He  carried  his  empire,  and  with  it  the  civilisation 
of  Greece,  to  "  the  furthest  Ind."  Among  "  Greek  coins"  we 
now  begin  to  find  coins  of  Egypt,  of  Parthia,  of  India.  Thus 
the  gold  coin  IV.  A  16,  with  the  head  of  Zeus  on  one  side 
and  of  a  chariot  on  the  other,  was  found  at  an  old  fort  on 


524 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP, 


a  tongue  of  land  at  the  confluence  of  two  rivers  which  flow  into 
the  Oxus.  The  silver  coin  IV.  A  17,  with  the  helmeted  head 
of  a  king,  bears  the  name  of  Sophytes,  an  Indian  prince  in 
the  Panjab,  who  submitted  to  Alexander.  The  gold  coin  IV. 
A  15,  with  a  very  distinctive  head  of  a  ruler  in  Persian  head- 
dress, is  identified  with  Phrataphernes,  satrap  of  Parthia  under 
Alexander  the  Great. 

Artistically,  the  coins  of  this  period  show,  as  has  been  said, 
less  inventiveness  and  freshness  in  the  types.  Another  very 
common  type  —  as  on  the  gold  staters  of  Alexander  (A  3) — 
is  Victory  with  a  wreath  and  trophy-stand.  This  subject,  and 
that  of  seated  deities,  supersede  the  free  play  of  fancy  on  the 
earlier  coins.  The  execution  is  still  in  many  cases  very  good, 
but  on  the  whole  this  period  is  marked  by  less  delicacy  than 
that  of  the  best  time.  In  realistic  portraiture,  and  in  human 
portraiture  idealised,  the  art  of  this  period  strikes  out  a  new 
and  successful  line.  But  the  ideal  heads  of  divinities  show  a 
marked  decline  in  dignity  of  type  and  beauty  of  execution.  If 
the  reader  will  first  look  back  at  the  noble  head  of  Zeus  on  a 
coin  of  the  great  time  (III.  B  18)  and  then  look  at  the  head 
on  the  later  coin  of  Elis  (IV.  B  23),  he  will  at  once  appreciate 
the  change. 

The  gold  staters  of  Alexander  (IV.  A  3  and  cf.  IV.  B  3)  show 

the  changes  introduced  into  the  coinage  by  that  monarch.  The  widely- 
circulated  "Philips"  (III.  B  17)  show  the  head  of  a  male  deity  on 
one  side  and  a  chariot  on  the  other.  Alexander  placed  on  the  obverse 
of  his  coins  a  head  of  Pallas,  the  patroness  of  the  besiegers  of  Ilium  ; 
and  on  the  reverse,  no  longer  a  representation  of  his  father's  racing 
chariots,  but  a  figure  of  warlike  Victory. 

The  coins  of  Seleucus  I.  (IV.  A  11-14)  are  interesting.  Seleucus 
— one  of  the  ablest  of  all  Alexander's  successors,  king  of  Babylon  and 
Syria  and  founder  of  the  Seleucid  dynasty — adopted  the  title  of  king 
in  306  B.C.  Coins  8  and  II  have  his  badge  (an  anchor),  but  are  not 
yet  inscribed  with  the  word  "king";  Nos.  12-14  are  inscribed  as 
coins  "of  King  Seleucus."  Notice  the  chariot  of  elephants,  in  which 
the  goddess  Pallas  is  fighting — a  very  type,  it  might  seem,  of  that 
marriage  of  West  and  East,  that  spread  of  Hellenism  over  the 
barbarian  East,  which  was  accomplished  by  Alexander  and  his 
successors.  The  type  has,  however,  a  special  reference  to  Seleucus  : 
it  was  with  the  480  elephants  of  Chandragupta,  the  Indian  king,  that 
he  crushed  the  force  of  Antigonus  at  Ipsus.  The  head  on  this  coin  is 
of  Zeus.  On  No.  14  is  a  portrait  of  the  king  himself — a  strong  and 
striking  face.  Round  his  neck  is  a  lion's  skin.  The  head  of  the  king 
himself  takes  the  place  of  that  of  Hercules,  whose  attribute,  however, 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  525 


remains.  The  bull's  horn  with  which  the  helmet  is  adorned  is  a 
further  symbol  of  divine  strength. 

The  coins  (IV.  A  18,  19)  of  Lysimachus,  another  of  Alexander's 
successors  and  King  of  Thrace,  are  remarkable  for  the  fine  ideal 
portraits  of  Alexander.  This,  it  will  be  observed,  is  not  an  example 
of  actual  portraiture  ;  it  is  a  case  of  a  successor  putting  on  his  coins 
the  head  of  a  predecessor  (just  as  on  American  postage-stamps  it  is  the 
heads  of  past  presidents  only  that  are  given)  ;  and,  even  so,  the  portrait 
is  given  on  the  coins  not  so  much  as  that  of  a  man,  as  of  a  god.  It  is 
not  a  realistic  portrait  of  Alexander  as  king  ;  it  is  an  idealised  portrait 
of  Alexander  deified  (with  the  horn  of  Zeus  Amnion).  Notice  on  the 
reverse  of  No.  19  the  small  bee  :  this  is  the  mint -mark  of  Ephesus. 
lysimachus,  who  included  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor  in  his  kingdom, 
rebuilt  the  city  of  Ephesus.  The  sculptures  from  the  later  temple  of 
Ephesus  belong  to  the  earlier  portion  of  the  period  covered  by  the 
present  group  of  coins  ;  the  deep-set  eyes  and  intensity  of  expression 
in  the  ideal  coin-portraits  are  characteristic  of  this  period  of  art. 

The  coin  (IV.  A  22)  with  the  portrait  of  Ptolemy  Soter  (306- 
284  B.C.)  is  of  special  interest.  Ptolemy,  who  did  not  assume  the 
title  of  king  till  306,  was  the  first  to  place  his  own  head  as  such  on 
coins.  There  is  no  longer  any  semblance  of  a  Greek  divinity  ;  no 
attributes  of  god  or  hero  adorn  the  head  ;  there  is  no  idealisation  in 
the  portraiture.  The  head  at  once  attracts  attention  as  that  of  a 
remarkable  man.  By  the  time  Ptolemy  assumed  the  title  of  king,  he 
had  grown  old  ;  the  coins  show  us  the  king  in  old  age.  The  face,,  so 
full  of  resolution,  craft,  and  intelligence,  brings  before  us  the  most  far- 
sighted  of  all  Alexander's  generals,  who,  instead  of  aiming  at  universal 
rule,  planted  himself  securely  in  Egypt,  extending  his  authority  thence 
to  Cyprus  and  the  Cyrenaica ;  who  diverted  the  burial  of  Alexander 
from  Macedon  to  Egypt ;  and  made  Alexandria  a  seat  of  Hellenic 
culture  by  the  library  and  museum  he  founded  there.  The  eagle 
standing  on  a  thunderbolt,  on  the  reverse  of  our  coin,  was  Ptolemy's 
badge  ;  it  appears  as  such  in  miniature  on  the  preceding  coin  (IV.  A 
21),  which  Ptolemy  issued  in  the  name  of  Alexander  IV.  It  was  a 
characteristic  of  his  statesmanship  to  care  more  for  the  reality  of  power 
than  for  its  names  and  appearances  ;  for  many  years  he  did  not  declare 
himself  independent,  but  placed  the  names  of  phantom -kings,  in  the 
direct  line  of  descent  from  Alexander,  on  his  coins,  as  also  on  the 
temples  which  he  restored. 

The  title  of  "  Soter,"  the  saviour,  was  given  to  Ptolemy  by  the 
Rhodians,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  great  siege  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
(304  B.C.).  Out  of  the  spoils  left  behind  him  by  Demetrius,  the  great 
statue  of  the  sun-god,  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  was  set  up.  The  fine 
coin  of  Rhodes  (IV.  A  33)  was  issued  at  about  that  time,  and  the 
head  may  very  probably  be  a  copy  of  the  Colossus. 

The  coin  of  Sidoil  (IV.  A  35)  *s  very  unlike  those  we  have  been 
examining.    The  design  is  more  like  a  piece  of  Assyrian  bas-relief. 

Of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  king  of  Macedonia  (b.  337,  d.  284), 


526  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


called  the  Besieger  from  his  prolonged  attack  on  Rhodes,  we  have 
some  interesting  coins  (IV.  B  15-17).  The  king's  head  has  the  bull's 
horn  of  Bacchus.  "  In  mind,"  says  Diodorus,  ' *  he  was  exalted  and 
magnificent,  looking  down  not  merely  upon  the  common  people,  but 
upon  those  in  authority.  In  time  of  war  he  was  active  and  abstemious, 
outrivalling  his  companions  in  toil  alike  of  mind  and  of  body ;  in  time 
of  peace  he  spent  his  time  in  drinking  and  in  banquets  with  dance  and 
revel,  seeking  in  short  to  emulate  the  reign  of  Bacchus,  once  fabled 
among  men."  Demetrius  was  also  famous  for  his  beauty  :  cf.  the 
engraved  gem,  No.  1526  (p.  629).  In  306  B.C.  the  fleet  of  King 
Antigonus,  under  his  son  Demetrius,  gained  a  victory  over  Ptolemy  off 
the  island  of  Cyprus.  This  is  the  naval  victory  commemorated  on  our 
coin,  No.  17.  A  figure  of  Victory,  carrying  a  trophy-stand  and  blowing 
a  trumpet,  is  standing  on  the  prow  of  a  galley.  The  beautiful  statue 
of  Victory,  found  in  the  island  of  Samothrace  in  1863,  and  now  in  the 
Louvre,  stood  upon  a  similar  pedestal.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  coin  was  copied  from  the  statue.  On  the  back  of  our  coin  is 
Poseidon  striking  with  his  trident.  The  figure  of  Poseidon  on  No.  16 
is  in  marked  contrast :  he  rests  his  foot  on  a  rock  and  looks  meditatively 
over  the  sea. 

At  the  naval  victory  of  Demetrius,  the  booty  which  fell  to  the 
victor  included  a  number  of  women.  Among  these  was  the  celebrated 
Lamia,  who,  "  at  first  was  only  taken  notice  of  for  her  performing  on 
the  flute,  which  was  by  no  means  contemptible,  but  afterwards  became 
famous  as  a  courtesan.  By  this  time  her  beauty  was  on  the  wane,  yet 
she  captivated  Demetrius,  though  not  near  her  age,  and  so  effectually 
enslaved  him  by  the  peculiar  power  of  her  address,  that,  though  other 
women  had  a  passion  for  him,  he  could  only  think  of  her.3'  The 
two  lived  together  at  Athens,  and  Plutarch  (in  his  life  of  Demetrius) 
tells  many  stories  about  her.  On  one  occasion  Demetrius  levied  a  tax 
on  the  Athenians,  and  then  at  the  request  of  Lamia  bestowed  it  upon 
her  and  her  friends  to  buy  unguents.  She  went  so  far  as  to  make 
requisitions  on  her  own  account,  and  with  the  proceeds  entertained 
Demetrius  at  a  banquet  which  equalled  in  splendour  any  in  antiquity. 
The  degenerate  Athenians,  as  well  as  the  people  of  Thebes,  erected 
temples  to  Aphrodite  Lamia  and  made  sacrifices  in  her  honour.  To 
please  Demetrius,  the  people  of  Lamia,  in  Thessaly,  placed  her  head, 
it  is  supposed,  upon  their  coins.  The  head  on  our  specimen  (IV.  B21) 
agrees  with  this  identification.  "  She  is  no  longer  young,  as  we  may 
see  from  the  double  chin  and  lines  on  the  neck.  Her  features  are  of 
extreme  regularity  ;  the  nose  is  almost  more  than  Greek  in  its  extreme 
straightness.  The  deep-set  eye  and  strongly-cut  lips  show  character 
and  wit ;  the  hair  is  unconventional  and  accords  with  her  masculine 
beauty  "  (P.  Gardner  in  N.  C.  1878,  p.  266).  On  the  reverse  of  the  coin 
is  a  figure  of  the  young  Hercules  (intended,  perhaps,  in  flattery  to 
represent  Demetrius)  ;  he  is  seated  on  a  rock,  holding  a  bow  in  a 
case — a  pleasing  composition. 

Among  the  idealised  portraits  of  Alexander  the  Great  none  is 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


527 


finer  than  that  on  a  coin  issued  by  Lysimachus  (IV.  B  20) :  the  head 
expresses  both  dignity  and  yearning.  The  coin  is  supposed  to  have 
been  copied  from  the  gem-portrait  by  Pyrgoteles  (see  p.  629)  or  the 
portrait-statue  by  Lysippus.  Plutarch  tells  us  that  when  Lysippus 
first  made  a  portrait  of  Alexander  with  his  countenance  uplifted  to 
heaven,  some  one  wrote  of  it :  "  This  man  of  bronze  is  as  one  that  looks 
on  Zeus,  and  will  address  him  thus  :  O  Zeus,  I  place  earth  beneath  my 
feet ;  do  thou  rule  Olympus."  While  other  sculptors  gave  the  king's 
pathetic  expression,  Lysippus  was  preferred  for  preserving  also  his 
masculine  and  leonine  aspect. 

Turning  to  the  coins  of  the  West,  we  notice  first  a.  coin  of 
Marseilles  (IV.  C  1).  Massilia  was  a  colony  of  the  Phocaeans, 
and  on  this  CQin  we  find  the  Asiatic  lion  common  to  it  and  to  another 
Phocaean  colony,  the  Italian  Velia  (see  IV.  C  24).  On  the  obverse  is 
the  head  of  Artemis,  crowned  with  sprigs  of  olive  —  "at  once  marking 
the  sacred  tree,  which  had  grown  from  a  branch  carried  by  the  colonists 
with  a  statue  of  the  goddess  from  Ephesus,  and  proclaiming  the  value 
of  the  olive-groves  of  Massilia"  (Poole). 

The  earliest  silver  coins  struck  in  the  name  of  the  Roman  people 
come  from  Campania  (IV.  C  5-10),  where  the  Roman  dominion  dates 
from  338  B.C.  Before  this  time  the  Roman  coinage  was  entirely  of 
bronze.  Observe  on  the  reverse  of  No.  5,  Romulus  and  Remus  and 
the  wolf. 

The  gold  coinage  of  Tarentum  (IV.  C  12-14,  and  cf.  III.  C  5) 

"  is  a  delight  to  the  eye,  with  the  varied  beauty  of  its  gem-like  types, 
which,  while  they  show  the  gem-engraver's  art,  prove  the  medallist's 
knowledge  of  the  rich  but  opaque  metallic  material "  (Poole).  The 
abundance  of  the  gold  issues  of  Tarentum  is  an  index  to  its  wealth  and 
commercial  importance.  "In  forming  an  estimate  of  the  relative  im- 
portance, wealth  and  refinement  of  these  cities,  coins  furnish  some 
valuable  evidence  in  supplement  to  the  scanty  notices  in  ancient 
history.  Thus  we  learn  from  the  catalogue  of  the  Museum  that  of  gold 
coins  Tarentum  has  thirty-two,  Metapontum  one  ;  but  the  catalogue 
assigns  no  gold  coins  to  any  other  city  in  Magna  Graecia.  We  know 
that  Tarentum  and  Metapontum  were  cities  of  great  power  and  wealth 
from  the  first,  and  that  they  retained  their  political  importance  after 
most  of  the  other  cities  of  Magna  Graecia  had  succumbed  either  to  the 
Sicilian  Dionysius  or  to  the  inroads  of  ruder  Italian  races.  The  gold 
coinage  of  Tarentum  is  evidence  of  its  wealth,  which  it  owed  partly  to 
the  richness  of  its  products,  both  terrestrial  and  marine,  but  still  more 
to  the  excellence  of  its  landlocked  harbour,  and  to  the  convenience  of 
its  situation  as  an  entrepot  for  the  commerce  of  Greece  and  Egypt" 
(Newton's  Essays,  p.  408).  The  types  on  the  coins  of  Tarentum  are, 
as  will  be  seen,  very  various  :  the  head  on  No.  1 3  is  obviously  borrowed 
from  that  on  the  money  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which  at  this  time 
circulated  widely. 

Hercules  and  the  lion  on  a  coin  of  Heraclea  (IV.  C  16)  form  a 
characteristic  group.    The  tension  of  the  hero's  frame  is  rendered  with 


528  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


spirit,  but  there  is  no  agony  of  contest  (see  on  this  subject,  p.  519).  The 
composition  is  also  a  good  instance  of  accommodation  to  the  shape  of  the 
coin. 

The  fine  style  survives  longest  in  the  coins  of  the  West,  and  among 
this  group  of  coins  several  heads,  not  perhaps  of  marked  nobility  or  of 
the  highest  beauty,  but  of  dignity  in  conception  and  of  fine  workmanship, 
may  still  be  seen.  We  may  instance  the  Zeus  of  Metapontum  (IV.  C  17, 
18)  ;  and  the  Demeter  (20) — notice  in  this  last  the  elaborately  wrought 
ear-ring  ;  and  the  Apollo  of  Croton  (25) — a  beautiful  head. 

The  coins  of  Syracuse  of  this  period  (IV.  C  27-31)  belong  to  the 
time  of  Agathocles,  who  ruled  over  the  city  with  ruthless  tyranny  for 
twenty-eight  years  (317-289)  and  won  many  victories  both  in  Sicily  and 
in  Africa,  before  his  army  mutinied  and  he  fled  back  to  Europe  for  his 
life.  His  African  victories  are  recorded,  we  may  suppose,  on  the  reverse 
of  No.  29,  where  Victory  is  nailing  a  conical  (Carthaginian)  helmet  to 
a  trophy-stand.  At  the  side  of  the  stand,  and  above  the  chariot  on 
No.  28,  is  a  three-legged  figure  (triskelion) — a  badge  of  Sicily,  the 
triangular  island,  the  land  of  three  capes  (Trinacria).  On  the  reverse 
of  No.  30  is  a  thunderbolt,  and  the  name  of  Agathocles  is  inscribed 
as  ' 'king."  No  earlier  rulers  of  Sicily  put  their  names  on  coins. 
Agathocles  assumed  the  kingly  title  in  imitation  of  the  Macedonian 
successor  of  Alexander,  with  whom  the  Sicilian  tyrant  was  in  personal 
relations  ;  he  married  in  old  age  a  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Soter  ;  he  gave 
his  own  daughter  in  marriage  to  Pyrrhus,  the  Epirote  conqueror  ;  and 
he  was  in  treaty  with  Demetrius  the  Besieger.  The  next  coins  (32- 
34)  belong  to  the  reign  of  the  successor  of  Agathocles,  Hicetsa  (287- 
278  B.C.).  These  Syracusan  coins  are  far  inferior  in  beauty  to  the 
earlier  issues,  but  are  still  not  without  artistic  merit. 

Among  the  Carthaginian  coins  (IV.  C  35-38)  we  may  notice  once 
more  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  "Alexander"  type:  see  the  head  on 
No.  36.  The  heads  on  Nos.  37  and  38  are  obvious  imitations  of 
Syracusan  coins. 

Case  V.— The  Decline  of  Art  (280-190  b.c.) 

The  distinguishing  character  of  the  coins  in  this  case  will  at 
once  strike  the  visitor.  We  are  in  the  age  of  portraits.  The 
coinage  is  almost  entirely  regal  :  the  period  is  that  of 
the  kings,  the  later  successors  of  Alexander  (the  Epigoni). 
The  series  of  royal  portraits  on  the  coins  of  Egypt,  Syria, 
Bactria,  and  other  kingdoms  are  of  great  historical  interest. 
They  are  also  remarkable,  from  an  artistic  point  of  view,  as 
revealing  an  aspect  of  the  talent  of  Greek  artists,  with  which 
otherwise  we  should  not  be  acquainted.  The  vigour  and 
realism  of  many  of  the  portrait  heads  are  very  striking,  and 
are  comparable  with  the  best  work  of  the  Italian  medallists 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


529 


of  the  Renaissance.  There  are,  however,  several  cities  which 
retain  an  independent  coinage,  and  in  these  cases  the  old  ideal 
heads  of  divinities  continue  to  appear.  We  notice  at  once  a 
Demeter  on  a  coin  of  Chalcedon  (A  6) — a  somewhat  prosaic 
head,  but  not  lacking  in  dignity  ;  Artemis  on  a  coin  of  Ephesus 
(A  10)  ;  the  sun-god  on  a  coin  of  Rhodes  (A  1 1).  This  latter 
is  one  of  the  finest  coins  of  the  time,  but,  on  a  comparison  with 
its  predecessor  (IV.  A  33),  the  style  will  be  seen  to  be  some- 
what coarser.  A  similar  remark  applies  to  the  four  tetra- 
drachms  with  Alexander's  types,  which  come  first"  in  our 
present  series  (A  1-4).  Some  of  the  ideal  heads  in  this 
period  are  still  fine,  and  show  careful  workmanship,  but 
intensity  of  expression  rather  than  majestic  calm  is  aimed 
at  (e.g.  V.  C  27).  In  the  treatment  of  the  human  form,  the 
tendency  to  slightness  becomes  more  marked  (A  24),  and 
there  is  often  marked  effeminacy  of  style  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  muscular  development  is  exaggerated  (e.g.  V.  A  24). 
The  archaism  occasionally  found  is  affected  (B  5)  or  copied 
(B  27).  The  designs  on  the  reverses  of  the  coins  tend,  during 
this  period,  to  become  mere  heraldic  repetitions.  A  new 
development,  on  the  other  hand,  appears  in  the  popularity  of 
personifications  and  allegorical  groups  (e.g.  B  16,  C  23). 

Two  very  realistic  portraits  of  commonplace  persons  meet  us  at 
once  (V.  A  5,  7).  No.  5  shows  the  head  of  Mithradates  II.,  of 
Pontus  (240-190  B.C.) — the  kingdom  of  Cappadocia  on  the  Pontus, 
or  simply  Pontus,  which  formed  a  satrapy  under  the  Persian  Empire, 
and  afterwards  became  an  independent  monarchy.  The  portrait  is  a 
striking  piece  of  realistic  work.  The  star  and  crescent  which  are 
inserted  on  the  reverse  of  this  coin  are  emblems  of  the  sun  and  moon  ; 
the  reference  being  to  the  religion  of  the  Persians,  from  whom  the 
kings  of  Pontus  were  descended.  No.  7  bears  the  head  of  Prusias  I., 
of  Bithynia  (228-180  B.C. ) — the  kingdom  adjacent  to  Pontus.  The 
short  beard  and  the  whiskers  on  these  portraits  are  characteristic 
touches  of  realism,  and  give  them  a  very  modern  look.  In  earlier 
works,  where  idealism  was  aimed  at,  the  face  is  close-shaved,  or  the 
beard  is  treated  so  as  to  give  dignity. 

The  fine  head  on  the  next  coin  (V.  A  8)  is  that  of  Seleucus,  the 
suzerain  of  Philetserus  of  Pergamum  (284-263  B.C.),  whose  name  is 
inscribed  on  the  reverse.  The  hill  city  of  Pergamum  ( =  summit  ;  cf. 
the  Italian  Bergamo)  acquired  importance  under  Lysimachus.  He 
had  deposited  his  treasures  there  in  charge  of  a  eunuch,  Philetperus, 
who  rebelled  and  succeeded  in  making  Pergamum  the  capital  of  a 
little  principality.  It  is  this  man  whose  head — powerful,  if  somewhat 
repulsive — is  on  the  next  coin  (No.  9),  which  was  issued  by  his 

9.  M 


53o 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


nephew  and  successor,  Eumenes  I.  (263-241  B.C.).  Partly  by  clever 
diplomacy,  partly  through  the  dissensions  among  surrounding  poten- 
tates, these  early  kings  of  Pergamum  consolidated  their  power  and 
prepared  for  the  prosperous  and  artistic  period  which  was  to  follow 
(see  below,  p.  534). 

The  portraits  of  the  Seleucid  kings  of  Syria  (V.  A  12-19)  form  an 
interesting  series.  The  head  of  Antiochus  I.  (280-261  B.C.)  is  very 
striking  in  its  realism  (No.  13)  ;  the  deep  recession  of  the  eye  is 
characteristic  of  the  artist  methods  introduced  by  Lysippus.  The 
designs  on  the  reverse  of  these  coins  are  monotonous  and  not  very 
interesting  :  Hercules  seated  on  the  omphalos  is  the  prevailing  type. 
Antiochus  III.,  called  the  Great  (222-187  B.C.),  has  a  striking 
head  (No.  19),  which  tells  of  his  activity  and  ambition. 

None  of  the  series  of  royal  portraits  is  more  remarkable  than  that  of 
the  Bactriail  kings.  About  the  year  250  B.C.,  Diodotus  (No.  21), 
satrap  of  Bactria,  revolted  against  Antiochus  II.  of  Syria,  and  estab- 
lished an  independent  Graeco- Roman  kingdom  which  lasted  for  two 
hundred  years.  Of  its  •  history  little  is  known,  except  what  may  be 
gathered  from  the  coins  which  have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  remark- 
able that  these  ancient  Bactrian  coins  are  still,  or  were  lately,  circulating 
as  money  in  Central  Asia  (see  Mr.  John  Ward's  Greek  Coins  and  their 
Parent  Cities,  1902).  In  the  second  century,  Euthydemus  and 
Demetrius  extended  their  rule  across  the  Indian  Caucasus,  and  wrested 
from  native  Indian  princes  the  districts  of  Kabul  and  Panjab.  Even 
thus  far  did  the  arts  and  influence  of  Greece  extend  under  the  Mace- 
donian expansion.  The  succession  of  the  kings,  and  various  facts 
about  the  extension  of  the  kingdom,  have  been  made  out  from  the 
coins  ;  and  of  Bactrian  art  we  shall  see  some  specimens  presently 
(Ch.  xxv.  p.  601).  Occasionally  the  coins  supply  other  historical 
data.  Thus,  on  the  reverse  of  No.  25  (a  coin  of  King  Antimachus)  we 
see  Poseidon  holding  a  trident  and  palm-branch,  clearly  with  reference 
to  a  naval  victory  won  by  the  king  : — "  It  might  seem  at  first  sight  that 
this  victory  must  have  been  won  on  the  open  sea.  But  Antimachus' 
rule  never  extended  to  the  sea  ;  his  coins  are  found  both  on  the  north 
and  the  south  of  the  Caucasus,  but  never  south  of  the  Panjab.  We 
must  therefore  suppose  that  the  naval  victory  was  won  on  the  Indus, 
or  one  of  its  great  tributaries,  and  indeed  it  may  easily  be  understood 
that  the  Greeks  would  place  so  large  a  river  as  the  Indus  under  the 
sway  of  Poseidon  "  (British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Indian  Coins  :  Greek 
and  Scythian  Kings  of  Bactria  and  India,  p.  xxix.). 

The  portrait  of  Antimachus,  on  the  other  side  of  this  coin,  is  of 
striking  and  even  startling  realism,  the  effect  of  which  is  enhanced  by 
the  distinctive  head-dress.  (For  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  por- 
traiture on  Greek  coins  of  this  period,  see  Gardner's  Types,  p.  211.) 

Another  interesting  series  of  portraits  is  on  the  gold  coins  of  Egypt 
(V.  A  28-34).  On  the  first  coin  (No.  28)  are  the  heads,  on  one  side, 
of  Ptolemy  II.  and  his  queen,  Arsinoe  ;  on  the  other,  of  Ptolemy  I. 
(whose  portrait  we  have  already  seen,  IV.  A  22)  and  his  queen, 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OP  THE  ANCIENTS 


531 


Berenice  :  the  latter  were  deified  after  their  death.  No.  29  shows 
Arsinoe  again  ;  No.  30,  Ptolemy  III.  On  No.  31  is  Berenice  II., 
wife  of  Ptolemy  III.  (Euergetes) — a  princess  of  Cyrene,  a  lady  of  great 
spirit  and  of  many  adventures.  It  was  she,  too,  who  had  vowed,  in 
case  of  the  safe  return  of  her  husband  from  his  Asiatic  campaign,  a 
lock  of  her  hair,  which  was  afterwards  seen  in  the  skies,  as  told  in  the 
poem  of  Callimachus,  translated  by  Catullus  {De  Coma  Berenices). 
In  the  head  of  Ptolemy  IV.  (Philopator  :  222-205  B.C.),  on  No.  32, 
there  is  a  coarseness  of  expression  natural  in  a  king  who  lived  a  life  of 
pleasure  and  vice.  On  No.  33  is  his  consort,  Arsinoe.  On  No.  34 
Ptolemy  V.  (Epiphanes  :  205-181  B.C.),  a  man  of  no  better  character, 
though  of  greater  vigour  than  his  father. 

On  the  coin  (V.  B  5)  of  Antigonus  GrOnatas,  King  of  Macedonia 
(b.  319,  d.  239),  is  a  Macedonian  shield,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
head  of  Pan ;  on  the  reverse,  Athena  hurls  a  thunderbolt.  The 
allusion  is  to  the  great  defeat  of  the  Gauls  by  Antigonus  in  277  B.C. 
They  fled  in  panic — a  word  which  preserves  the  cult  of  Pan,  at  whose 
voice  men  trembled,  and  who  produced  sudden  terror  among  crowds. 

The  next  coin  (No.  6)  is  also  attributed  to  Antigonus  Gonatas  or 
Antigonus  Doson  :  on  one  side  a  head  of  Poseidon  ;  on  the  other  a 
very  attenuated  Apollo,  seated  on  the  prow  of  a  galley.  To  Anti- 
gonus Doson  succeeded  his  nephew,  Philip  V.  (b.  237,  d.  179),  the 
last  but  one  of  the  kings  of  Macedon.  He  was  successful  against  the 
yEtolians  and  their  allies,  and  was  a  man  of  equal  energy  and  ambition  ; 
but  he  sided  with  Carthage  against  Rome,  and  was  driven  out  of 
Greece  by  Flaminius.  His  character  was  compounded  of  good  and 
evil,  as  was  his  career  of  success  and  failure.  "It  is  not  easy  to 
find,"  says  Polybius,  "  a  king  endowed  with  more  natural  advantages 
for  the  control  of  affairs.  For  he  had  both  smartness  and  a  good 
memory,  and  exceptional  grace  of  manner,  and  besides  a  royal  pre- 
sence and  dignity  ;  but,  what  is  most  important  of  all,  resource  and 
daring  in  war.  And  what  it  was  that  overcame  all  these  advantages 
and  turned  a  king  by  nature  into  a  brutal  tyrant  is  not  easy  to  explain 
in  a  few  words"  (iv.  77).  The  head  of  Philip,  in  the  character  of 
Perseus  on  a  shield,  on  No.  7,  shows  him  as  the  strong  man  of  arms  ; 
the  portrait  on  No.  8  might  well  suggest  a  cruel  and  vicious  character. 

Among  the  coins  which  follow  in  Compartment  B  are  several  recal- 
ling the  various  leagues  which  secured  to  parts  of  Greece  some  degree 
of  freedom  between  the  break-up  of  the  Macedonian  empire  and  the 
subjection  to  Rome. 

On  a  coin  of  the  Acarnanian  League  (V.  B  13)  is  a  strongly- 
rendered  head  of  the  river-god  Achelous.  The  iEtolian  League 
struck  some  interesting  coins  (V.  B  14-18)  during  the  years  279-168 
B.C.  The  heads  on  the  obverse  are  imitated  from  coins  of  Alexander. 
On  the  reverse  is  a  woman,  roughly  clad  and  armed,  who  personifies 
^Etolia — an  appropriate  figure  for  the  rugged  mountaineers.  Among 
the  trophies  set  up  at  Delphi,  Pausanias  (x.  18,  7)  mentions  ' 4  an  image 
of  an  armed  woman,  no  doubt  representing  iEtolia,"  erected  by  the 


532 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


yEtolians  to  commemorate  the  defeat  of  the  Gauls  (in  279  B.C.)-  The 
device  on  the  coin  refers  to  the  same  event.  ^Etolia  armed  with  sword 
and  spear  sits  on  a  pile  of  oblong  Gaulish,  and  round  Macedonian, 
shields.  The  coins  of  the  Achsean  League  (V.  B  23-25)  bear  on  the 
obverse  the  head  of  Zeus  Homagyrius  (Zeus  who  brings  men  together)  ; 
on  the  reverse,  the  monogram  of  the  Achoeans,  enclosed  in  an  olive- 
wreath  :  lesser  symbols  are  those  of  local  magistrates  or  of  particular 
towns,  for  each  of  the  confederate  towns — giving  up  their  own  types 
which  they  had  used  for  centuries — issued  a  portion  of  the  League's 
coinage. 

Later  Athenian  coinage  (V.  B  20-22). — The  Macedonian  Empire 
had  put  an  end  to  the  independence  of  x\thens,  and  her  coins  had  been 
superseded  by  Alexander's.  But  by  the  time  of  Philip  V.  (220  B.C.), 
whose  power  was  restricted  by  the  Romans,  Athens  again  became  the 
principal  place  of  mintage  in  Greece.  Her  coins  were  once  more 
widely  dispersed,  and  the  series  continues  until  the  capture  of  the  city 
by  Sulla  (86  B.C.).  The  abundance  of  the  money  and  its  wide  circula- 
tion testify  to  her  commercial  importance.  The  types,  as  in  the  earlier 
series  and  for  the  same  reason,  remain  constant.  But  in  this  new 
series  a  new  style  is  adopted.  On  the  obverse  is  a  head  of  Athena 
with  a  richly-adorned  helmet  ;  on  the  reverse,  an  owl  standing  on  an 
amphora  within  an  olive-wreath,  with  the  names  of  the  issuing  magis- 
trates. The  accessory  symbol,  such  as  the  Dioscuri  on  No.  21,  is  the 
seal  of  the  first-named  magistrate.  It  cannot  be  said  that  this  crowded 
reverse  shows  artistic  merit.  The  helmeted  head  of  Pallas  was  no 
doubt  copied,  though  at  a  long  distance  in  point  of  style,  from  the  gold 
and  ivory  statue  of  Phidias.  On  the  coins  before  us,  there  is  some 
dignity  and  decision  in  the  art.  If  we  compare  the  later  coins  of  like 
design  (VI.  B  23,  24,  and  VII.  B  14,  15)  we  shall  see  that  the  style 
becomes  less  dignified,  and  the  workmanship  looser  and  more  careless. 

Turning  now  to  the  coins  of  the  West,  we  shall  find  among  them 
several  of  historical  interest  and  some  of  beauty  also.  The  Roman 
coins  (V.  C  2-6)  are  amongst  the  first  in  gold  and  silver  issued  by 
Rome.  The  indigenous  races  of  Italy  used  copper  (aes),  which 
abounded  in  their  soil,  for  their  medium  of  exchange  (hence  the  word 
aestimo  originally  expressed  the  worth  of  anything  in  copper).  Origin- 
ally, irregular  lumps  were  used  (aes  rude)  ;  these  were  weighed  by 
the  pound  and  ounce.  Afterwards  round  or  oblong  pieces  were  intro- 
duced, of  specific  weight  and  stamped  (aes  grave)  ;  these  were  cast  in 
moulds,  not  struck.  Specimens  of  this  cumbrous  bronze  currency  may 
be  seen  in  the  corridor  of  the  Coin  Room  (Wall-case  IX.).  "As 
instruments  of  traffic  nothing  can  be  clumsier  than  these  great  lumps 
of  metal,  and  as  works  of  art  they  present  a  painful  contrast  to  the 
beautiful  coinage  of  Magna  Grsecia."  Not  until  268  B.C.  was  silver 
money  coined  at  Rome.  The  three  silver  coins  here  shown  (3-5)  have 
the  value  inscribed  on  the  obverse  :  X  (=  10  asses)  on  the  denarius  ; 
V  (5  asses)  on  the  quinarius  ;  IIS  (2  asses  and  half)  on  the  sestertius. 
The  type  is  uniform  :  on  the  obverse,  a  head  of  Rome  in  winged 


XXIII 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  533 


helmet ;  on  the  reverse,  the  Dioscuri,  charging,  as  they  appeared  at  the 
battle  of  the  lake  Regillus.  The  next  coin  (5),  known  as  a  "  victoriate," 
was  a  companion  coin,  afterwards  transferred  to  Rome  and  coined  for 
use  in  the  provinces.  It  was  three-fourths  the  weight  of  the  denarius. 
The  gold  piece  (6)  is  marked  as  worth  sixty  sesterces.  4 'The  high 
value  is  a  proof  that  such  coins  were  struck  on  some  exceptional 
occasion.    They  are  in  fact  coins  of  necessity  "  (Head). 

The  meteoric  career  of  Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus,  is  brought  before 
us  in  a  series  of  coins.  He  was  invited  into  Italy  by  Tarentum,  then 
at  war  with  Rome;  he  crossed  over  in  280  B.C.,  and  defeated  the 
Romans  at  Heraclea  ;  the  Roman  horses  were  frightened,  as  every 
schoolboy  remembers,  at  the  sight  of  some  elephants  which  Pyrrhus 
had  brought  with  him.  His  connection  with  Tarentum  is  recorded  by 
the  elephant  which  figures  on  a  coin  of  that  city  (No.  15).  Pyrrhus 
remained  in  Italy  and  Sicily  for  six  years,  being  finally  beaten  by  the 
Romans  at  Beneventum  in  275  B.C.  Most  of  his  coins  were  struck 
in  Italy.  No.  28  is  an  interesting  specimen.  On  one  side  is  a  head 
of  Achilles,  in  which  one  may  readily  detect  the  influence  of  the 
idealised  head  of  Alexander  ;  on  the  other  is  Thetis  bearing  to  her 
son  the  arms  of  Hephaestus. 

Another  fine  coin  (No.  27)  has  the  head  of  the  great  Epirote  deity, 
Zeus  of  Dodona,  crowned  with  an  oak  wreath.  This  wreath  and  the 
hair  are  very  carefully  worked,  and  the  head  is  vigorous  and  full  of 
expression.  The  obverse  of  this  coin  very  much  resembles  that  of  Locri 
(No.  23),  where  those  of  Pyrrhus  are  supposed  to  have  been  struck. 
On  the  reverse  of  the  Locrian  coin  is  an  allegorical  group,  very 
characteristic  of  the  art  of  the  time.  "  The  seated  figure  is  armed 
with  a  sword,  and  rests  her  arm  on  a  shield.  An  inscription  behind 
shows  that  she  is  an  impersonation  of  Rome,  one  of  the  earliest 
impersonations  of  the  great  conquering  city.  In  front  of  Rome 
stands  a  draped  female  figure  who  places  a  wreath  on  her  head,  and 
who  is  shown  by  the  inscription  to  be  Good  Faith  (iricms).  This  is  a 
fair  specimen  of  a  class  of  allegorical  groups,  which  was  exceedingly 
common  in  all  cities  in  the  later  days  of  Greece,  and  it  is  a  good  and 
dignified  composition.  It  is  evidently  to  the  Greeks  that  the  Romans 
were  indebted  for  the  artistic  embodiment  of  their  city  which  after- 
wards became  so  common,  and  has  prevailed  in  sculpture  down  to 
our  own  day"  {Types  of  Greek  Coins,  p.  199).  The  reference  in  the 
allegory  is  to  the  conduct  of  the  Romans  in  allowing  the  Locrians  to 
retain  their  autonomy  after  the  defeat  of  Pyrrhus. 

The  coins  of  Sicily  are  again  of  special  interest.  The  best  are  those 
of  Hiero  II.  of  Syracuse,  who,  on  the  departure  of  Pyrrhus  from  the 
island,  restored  the  ancient  prosperity  of  the  city  and  ruled  it  wisely 
during  a  long  reign  (276-216  B.C.),  made  memorable  by  the  presence 
of  Archimedes  at  his  court.  Of  this  upright  and  judicious  ruler  there 
is  an  admirable  portrait  on  the  large  coin  (V.  C  32).  On  another 
coin  (No.  33)  is  the  veiled  head  of  his  consort,  Queen  Philistis. 
"  Of  all  the  beautiful  heads  which  we  find  upon  the  gold  and  silver 


534 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


coins  of  Sicily,  and  there  are  many,  none  can  compare  with  that  of 
Hiero's  queen.  One  may  fancy  that  Helen  of  Troy  had  such  a  face, 
or  Semiramis,  or  divine  Athena  herself,  but  it  is  hard  to  believe  that 
so  fair  a  woman  ever  lived  ;  and  if  such  little  history  of  her  as  has 
come  down  to  us  be  true,  she  was  as  good  and  wise  as  she  was 
beautiful "  (Marion  Crawford,  The  Rulers  of  the  South,  i.  230).  On 
one  of  the  stones  of  the  magnificent  Greek  theatre  at  Syracuse,  the 
name  of  Queen  Philistis  may  still  be  seen  inscribed.  The  chariot- 
group  on  the  reverse  of  the  Philistis  coin  is  somewhat  tame  ;  on  the 
larger  coin  of  Hiero  it  is  more  spirited.  The  coins  of  the  short  reign 
(216-215  B.C.)  of  Hieronymus  (whose  portrait  appears  on  V.  C  35),  and 
of  the  short-lived  Republic  which  went  down  before  the  Romans  under 
Marcellus  in  212  B.C.,  bring  to  a  close  the  grand  series  from  Syracuse, 
the  Athens  of  the  West.  The  coins  V.  C  36-39  belong  to  this  last 
period  ;  there  is  still  a  certain  grace  and  dignity  in  them. 

The  Carthaginian  coins  (V.  C  41-43)  with  the  head  of  Demeter  are 
adopted  from  the  beautiful  Syracusan  heads  of  which,  however,  the 
characteristics  are  here  absurdly  exaggerated.  Note,  especially,  the 
straight  pillar  of  the  neck,  the  great  heaviness  of  chin,  and  the  straight 
line  of  the  eyebrow.  But  there  is  a  pride  and  dignity  which  pleases 
some,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  head  of  the  Republic  on  the 
French  coins  of  1848  is  copied  from  the  Carthaginian  type.  The 
same  type  appears  with  some  modifications  on  the  postage  stamps  of 
1848  and  those  of  the  earlier  issues  of  the  present  Republic. 

Case  VI. — Continued  Decline  of  Art  (190-100  b.c.) 

The  first  coins  that  will  arrest  the  reader's  attention  in  this 
Case  are  some  remarkable  portraits.  That  of  Pharnaces  I. 
(VI.  A  5),  King  of  Pontus,  uncle  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  is  an 
effective  piece  of  realism  ;  on  the  reverse  of  this  coin  is  one  of 
those  pantheistic  figures  which  were  becoming  popular  ;  a  male 
divinity  holds  various  emblems. 

The  fine  head  on  a  coin  of  Cyzicus  (VI.  A  6)  is  probably  a 
portrait  of  Apollonis,  a  Cyzicene  who  was  married  to  Attalus  I. 
of  Pergamus.  Her  son  was  Eumenes  II.  (197-159  B.C.). 
These  two  kings  were  the  great  patrons  in  the  later  period  of 
Greek  art.  Under  the  reign  of  Attalus,  Pergamum  became  a 
centre  of  art  and  regal  magnificence.  To  celebrate  his  victories 
over  the  Gauls,  he  summoned  from  Greece  a  body  of  sculptors, 
and  thus  arose  the  Pergamene  School  (see  above,  p.  53). 
Under  Eumenes  II.  other  great  works  were  undertaken. 
Very  striking  is  the  portrait  on  our  coin  (VI.  A  7)  of  the 
great  king  who  thus  adorned  his  city.  Comparing  his  refined 
and  intellectual  face  with  that  of  the  King  of  Pontus  (VI.  A  5), 


XXIII  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


535 


we  are  confirmed  in  the  generalisation  which  history  suggests, 
that  the  Attalids  of  Pergamum  were  more  truly  Hellenic  in 
their  characters  and  tastes  than  most  of  the  other  Hellenistic 
sovereigns. 

The  cistophori  of  Pergamum,  coins  of  wide  circulation,  were  so 
called  from  the  design  upon  them  (VI.  A  10),  a  representation  of  the 
mystic  chest  or  cista,  in  which  the  sacred  utensils  and  other  articles 
appertaining  to  the  rites  of  Bacchus  were  enclosed,  in  order  to  conceal 
them  from  the  eyes  of  profane  beholders.  The  design  reveals  the 
presence  of  a  serpent.  The  whole  is  surrounded  with  an  ivy- 
wreath.  On  the  reverse,  two  serpents  turned  round  a  bow -case. 
"  The  coinage  (of  these  cistophori)  originated  in  Ephesus  shortly 
before  200  B.C.,  and  its  use  rapidly  extended  throughout  the  dominions 
of  Attalus  of  Pergamum.  Henceforth  the  cistophorus  'became  a  sort 
of  Pan -Asiatic  coin,  its  general  acceptance  being  secured  by  the 
uniformity  of  its  types  ;  the  local  mint  letters  and  magistrates'  symbols 
being  merely  subordinate  adjuncts.  The  institution  of  this  quasi- 
federal  coinage  in  Asia  Minor  may  have  been  suggested  by  the 
popularity  of  the  federal  money  of  the  Achaean  League  in  Peloponnesus, 
as  well  as  by  the  eager  adoption  by  so  many  Asiatic  cities  of 
Alexandrine  tetradrachms.  The  manifold  advantages  of  a  uniform 
currency  were  evidently  beginning  to  be  understood  and  widely 
appreciated  in  the  ancient  world  about  this  time,  and  the  cistophorus, 
whether  intentionally  coined  for  the  purpose  or  not,  met  the  popular 
demand  and  was  issued  in  vast  quantities  from  numerous  Asiatic 
mints"  (Head's  Historia  Ntimmcntm^  p.  461). 

The  restored  independence  of  various  Greek  cities  under  Roman 
protection  is  illustrated  by  the  coin  of  Tenedos  (VI.  A  13),  which 
after  a  century  and  a  half  resumes  the  issuing  of  money.  The  designs 
are  the  same  as  on  the  older  coinage  (III.  A  13).  The  workmanship 
here  is  in  some  respects  more  accomplished.  It  is  more  regular,  more 
elaborate  ;  but  the  heads  have  lost  all  their  grace. 

More  favourable  specimens  of  the  art  of  the  period  are  the  coins  of 
Lebedus,  Magnesia,  and  Smyrna  respectively  (VI.  A  18-20).  The 
design  on  the  reverse  of  No.  18 — an  owl  between  two  horns  of  plenty, 
enclosed  in  a  laurel  -  wreath  —  is  carefully  composed  for  decorative 
effect.  The  heac!  of  Artemis  on  No.  19  is  good  ;  on  the  reverse 
is  Apollo  beside  a  tripod.  On  No.  20  is  the  head  of  the  city  of 
Smyrna,  with  mural  crown  :  cf.  the  heads  of  the  cities  of  Marathus  and 
of  Aradus  (VI.  A  20,  30).  The  impersonation  of  cities  was  in  favour 
with  the  sculptors  of  the  Hellenistic  age;  the  "Antioch''  of  Euty- 
chides,  in  the  Vatican,  is  the  best -known  instance  (see  also  some 
silver  statuettes  in  our  Museum,  p.  597  ).  Another  good  head  is  that 
of  Artemis  on  a  cpin  of  Perga  (VI.  A  22). 

The  coin  (VI.  A  23)  of  Orophemes,  king  of  Cappadocia,  is  of 
special  interest  in  connection  with  the  antiquities  from  Priene  (see  Ch. 
xii.  p.  223).    With  other  coins  and  some  gold  ornaments  it  was  found 


536  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


(by  Mr.  A.  O.  Clarke  in  April  1870)  beneath  the  stones  forming  the 
pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Athena  Polias  at  Priene  (N.  C. ,  new  ser. , 
xi.  19). 

The  interesting  series  of  portraits  of  the  Seleucid  kings  of  Syria  is 
continued  in  VI.  A  24-28.  Specially  noticeable  is  the  portrait,  on 
No.  25,  of  the  young  Antiochus  VI.  (145-142  B.C.) — "The  most  care- 
fully executed  portrait  in  the  whole  series,  which,  despite  its  weakness, 
has  a  certain  charm  of  sweetness  that  marks  it  as  a  new  type  in  art. 
The  same  artist:s  hand  seems  apparent  in  the  fine  portrait  (No.  26)  of 
the  cruel  usurper  Tryphon  (142-139  B.C.),  whose  features  have  a 
beauty  of  expression  that  must  surely  be  ideal  ;  and  also  in  the 
picturesque  spiked  Macedonian  helmet,  with  a  goat's  horn  and  cheek- 
piece,  which  occupies  the  reverse,  on  which  is  written,  after  *  King 
Tryphon,5  the  strange  title,  'autocrat'"  (Poole  in  EncycL  Brit. 
xvii.  649). 

The  history  of  the  later  Seleucid  kings  is  mixed  up  with  that  of 
the  Jews.  Antiochus  VII.  of  Syria  (138-129  B.C.)  conferred  the 
right  of  coining  money  upon  Simon  Maccabseus,  high  priest  and  prince 
of  the  Jews.  A  shekel  of  this  period  is  here  before  us  (VI.  A  31). 
On  the  obverse  is  a  chalice,  usually  called  the  pot  of  manna,  and  the 
inscription,  in  Hebrew  letters,  "shekel  of  Israel"  ;  on  the  reverse,  a 
triple  lily,  or  possibly  Aaron's  rod  that  budded,  and  the  inscription, 
"Jerusalem  the  Holy." 

The  Bactrian  coins,  which  follow,  show  again  most  striking  por- 
traits. Eucratides,  whose  head  in  a  helmet,  which  gives  so  modern  an 
appearance  to  the  king,  appears  on  VI.  A  32,  reigned  from  about  180 
to  150  B.C.  He  describes  himself  on  the  reverse  of  our  coin  as  "the 
great  king. "  Of  him  it  is  said  by  Justin  that  he  was  a  valiant  prince 
who  once,  with  300  men,  held  out  during  five  months,  though  besieged 
by  60,000,  and  then,  receiving  succours,  subdued  India.  The  wide 
field  over  which  his  coins  are  found — Bokhara,  the  Kabul  valley,  the 
Panjab — and  their  commonness  are  numismatic  testimonies  to  his  great 
power.  On  his  way  back  from  India,  Eucratides  is  said  to  have  been 
murdered  by  his  son  and  co-regent,  Heliocles,  whose  ill-favoured  features 
appear  on  the  next  coin  (VI.  A  33). 

The  power  of  the  Bactrians  was  considerably  curtailed  by  the  con- 
quest of  Parthia,  under  Mithradates  I.  (174-136  B.C.),  who  first  made 
that  country  a  great  power.  He  was  at  once  conqueror  and  admini- 
strator. "He  is  praised  as  a  just  and  humane  ruler,  who,  having 
become  lord  of  all  the  lands  from  the  Indian  Caucasus  to  the 
Euphrates,  introduced  among  the  Parthians  the  best  institutions  of  each 
country  and  so  became  the  legislator  of  his  nation."  This  character  is 
not  belied  by  his  portrait  (VI.  A  34),  which  shows  us  a  man  of  thought 
as  well  as  determination.  On  the  reverse  of  the  coin  is  Hercules 
holding  a  wine-cup  and  club,  and  an  inscription  which  describes  the 
great  king  as  a  "  Philhellene." 

Passing  to  the  coins  of  Greece,  etc. ,  we  may  notice  first  a  curious 
illustration  of  the  difference  between  Greek  and  barbarian  coinage. 


xxin  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  537 


A  coin  of  Thasos  here  shown  (VI.  B  6)  is  a  good  specimen  of  the 
style  of  the  period.  On  the  obverse  is  a  head  of  the  young  Dionysus, 
with  the  vine-leaves  in  his  hair  ;  on  the  reverse  is  Hercules  standing. 
The  next  coin  (7)  is  an  imitation  of  the  last,  struck  by  the  Thracians 
when  left  to  their  own  resources.  The  blurred  and  barbarous  execu- 
tion is  instructive. 

The  last  king  of  Macedon  was  Perseus  (179-168  B.C.),  who  had 
striven  to  revive  the  past  glories  of  Greece  under  the  Macedonian 
leadership,  and  who,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  under  L.  y^milius  Paulus  and  taken  prisoner  to  Rome.  It 
is  his  portrait — an  admirable  piece  of  work — that  we  see  on  the  coin 
VI.  B  9.  After  the  Roman  conquest  Macedonia  was  divided  into 
four  petty  republics.  No.  10  is  a  coin  of  the  first  of  these  four 
Macedonias.  This  arrangement  caused  confusion  and  disorder,  and 
in  146  B.C.  Macedonia  became  a  Roman  province  under  a  Legate 
(Nos.  11  and  12). 

The  degeneration  of  art  in  the  period  now  under  review  is  illus- 
trated by  two  coins  of  Epirus  (VI.  B  16,  17).  They  are  divided  by 
about  half  a  century  in  time.  The  types  are  identical ;  but  all  the 
vigour  and  sharpness  of  the  earlier  are  lost  in  the  later.  As  a  speci- 
men of  the  best  art  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  period,  we  may 
notice  the  coin  of  Corcyra  (VI.  B  19),  with  a  capital  head  of  the 
young  Dionysus. 

On  one  of  the  Athenian  coins  (VI.  B  23)  there  is  an  animal  which 
is  incongruous  enough  beside  Athene's  owl — it  is  an  elephant.  It  is 
placed  there  as  a  symbol  of  one  of  the  magistrates — Antiochus, 
afterwards  fourth  king  of  that  name  in  Syria,  who  was  in  Athens  in 
176  B.C. 

Among  the  Cretan  coins  (VI.  B  28-34)  it  will  be  observed  that 
several  are  of  the  Attic  type — adopted  by  Cretan  cities  at  this  period 
for  commercial  convenience :  thus,  on  the  reverse  of  No.  30,  the 
labyrinth  is  placed  in  the  field  beside  the  Athenian  owl.  On  No.  29 
the  labyrinth  appears  in  a  new  circular  form. 

The  section  (C)  devoted  to  coins  of  Italy,  etc.,  which  in  the  earlier 
cases  was  so  full  of  artistic  interest  and  variety,  now  tells  only  of  the 
Roman  dominion.  The  silver  denarius,  issued  by  the  Republic,  was 
the  only  coin  widely  current  in  Italy  at  this  time.  It  was  originally 
equal  to  ten  asses,  subsequently  increased  to  sixteen  when  the  weight 
of  the  as  had  been  reduced.  It  was  worth  about  8^d.  of  our  money. 
On  the  front  of  nearly  all  these  coins  (VI.  C  3-28)  is  the  helmeted 
head  of  Rome.  The  commonest  types  on  the  reverse  are  the  Dioscuri 
and  Victory  drawn  in  a  chariot.  On  No.  10  is  Hercules  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  Centaurs.  On  No.  1 3  is  the  legend  of  Romulus — the  wolf 
and  the  twins,  the  shepherd  P'austulus,  and  the  fig-tree  with  birds  in 
the  branches.  A  new  type  appears  on  Nos.  14  and  17  —  a  column 
surmounted  by  a  statue.  "To  the  capital  of  the  column  are  attached 
two  bells  ;  at  its  base  are  ears  of  corn.  On  one  side  stands  an  augur  ; 
on  the  other,  a  man  holding  a  loaf  and  a  patara.    This  type  repre- 


538  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


sents  the  monuments  erected  before  the  Porta  Trigeniina,  439  B.C.,  to 
L.  Minucius,  to  commemorate  his  successful  attempt  to  reduce  the 
price  of  corn"  (Head's  Coins  of  the  Ancients,  p.  101). 

The  Carthaginian  coins  (VI.  B  33-39)  cover  the  time  from  the 
interval  between  the  first  and  second  Punic  wars  and  the  conquest  and 
destruction  of  Carthage  by  Rome  in  146  B.C.  The  head  of  Persephone, 
originally  borrowed  from  the  Sicilian  coinage,  survives.  The  head  on 
the  very  large  coin  (No.  35)  resembling  V.  C  40,  is  still  effective. 


Case  VII. — Late  Decline  of  Art :  100-1  b.c. 

The  decline  of  art  in  this  period  is  very  marked ;  yet  the  head 
on  the  second  coin  here  (VII.  A  2)  is  one  of  the  most  striking  in 
the  collection.  It  is  the  portrait  of  Mithradates  the  Great,  the 
sixth  King  of  Pontus  of  that  name  (121-63  RC-) — one  of  those 
remarkable  conquerors  who  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the  East. 
For  nearly  twenty  years  he  withstood  the  might  of  Rome  ;  his 
indomitable  character  and  wonderful  adventures  make  him  one 
of  the  most  romantic  figures  in  history.  "  By  the  pomp  with 
which  he  loved  to  surround  himself,  by  his  harem,  and  by  his 
contempt  for  human  life,  he  was  an  Asiatic  king  ;  by  his  taste 
for  letters,  sciences,  precious  vases  and  engraved  gems,  he  was 
a  Greek  prince.;'  The  vigour  of  character  which  distinguished 
Mithradates  seems  to  have  inspired  the  artist  of  his  coins. 
The  movement  of  the  hair,  blown  back  by  the  wind,  has  sug- 
gested to  some  writers  that  the  coin  may  have  been  copied 
from  an  equestrian  statue.  At  any  rate  the  head  is  full  of 
animation,  verging  almost  upon  frenzy ;  the  beautiful  face 
speaks  at  once  of  intellectual  power  and  of  passionate  determina- 
tion. But,  though  eminently  picturesque,  this  coin  misses  the 
perfection  of  the  finest  art.  "  You  may  observe/'  says  Ruskin, 
"  that  the  features  are  finished  with  great  care  and  subtlety, 
but  at  the  cost  of  simplicity  and  breadth.  But  the  essential 
difference  between  it  and  the  central  art  is  its  disorder  in 
design — -you  see  the  locks  of  hair  cannot  be  counted  any 
longer  :  they  are  entirely  dishevelled  and  irregular.  Now  the 
individual  character  may,  or  may  not,  be  a  sign  of  decline  ; 
but  the  licentiousness,  the  casting  loose  of  the  masses  in  the 
design,  is  an  infallible  one"  [Aratra  Pe?itelici,  §  120).  The 
gold  stater  (VII.  A  1)  of  Mithradates  is  also  a  fine  coin.  It 
was  struck  at  Pergamum  which,  with  all  Asia  Minor  as  far  as 
the  Meander,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Mithradates  in  88  B.C.  The 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  539 


ivy-wreath  on  the  reverse  of  his  coin  may  refer  to  the  title  of  "  the 
new  Dionysus/5  by  which  he  was  hailed  in  Asia  as  deliverer 
from  Rome. 

Among  the  neighbouring  princes  overthrown  by  Mithradates  was 
Nicomedes  III.  the  last  King  of  Bithynia  (91-74  B.C.).  He  was 
restored  to  his  throne  by  the  interposition  of  the  Romans,  to  whom  on 
his  death  he  bequeathed  his  kingdom.  His  head,  a  striking  piece  of 
portraiture,  is  on  a  coin  (VII.  A  3)  which  was  coined  in  84  B.C. 

The  defeat  of  Mithradates  by  Pompey  left  Rome  supreme  in  Asia. 
She  continued  the  cistophori  (see  VI.  A  10)  in  circulation,  but  the 
name  of  the  Roman  Pro-consul  of  Asia  now  appears  on  the  coins. 
On  VII.  A  4,  struck  at  Ephesus,  is  the  name  of  T.  Ampius  Balbus  ; 
on  No.  5,  struck  at  Pergamum,  is  that  of  Q.  Caecilius  Metellus  as 
"  imperator." 

The  series  of  coins  of  Syria  comes  to  an  end  in  69  B.C.,  when 
Tigranes  the  Armenian  was  deprived  of  his  Syrian  dominions  by 
Lucullus.  On  VII.  A  13  is  the  portrait  of  Tigranes,  with  the 
lofty  native  tiara  ;  on  the  reverse  is  the  city  of  Antioch  seated  on  a 
rock,  with  the  river  Orontes  swimming  at  her  feet.  This  design  is  no 
doubt  a  reminiscence,  very  crude,  however,  and  blurred,  of  the 
celebrated  statue  of  Antioch  by  Eutychides.  The  last  of  the  Syrian 
coins  show,  like  the  earlier,  very  interesting  portraits.  The  heads  of 
Antiochus  VIII.  (on  Nos.  8  and  11),  and  of  Seleucus  VI.  are  especially 
striking. 

Two  coins — of  Antioch  and  Ascalon  respectively  (VII.  A  14,  19) 
— are  of  interest  for  their  portraits  of  the  celebrated  Cleopatra,  Queen 
of  Egypt  (52-30  B.C.).  On  the  former,  Cleopatra's  head  is  on  one 
side  of  the  coin,  and  on  the  other  that  of  Antony,  her  Roman  lover. 
The  second  coin  is  dated  50  B.C.,  in  which  year  Cleopatra  was  nineteen 
years  of  age.  There  is  cleverness  in  the  face  of  the  "rare  Egyptian, 
Eastern  Star "  ;  but  the  personal  charm,  and  power  of  fascination 
which  overcame  Caesar,  and  enslaved  Antony,  are  not  suggested  on 
any  of  the  ancient  portraits  of  Cleopatra.  Unless  the  portraits  belie 
her,  it  cannot  have  been  her  beauty  for  the  sake  of  which  a  world  was 
"well  lost." 

On  the  coins  of  the  last  Greek  Kings  of  Bactria  and  India  (VII. 
A  20,  21)  it  is  interesting  to  observe  a  Greek  inscription  on  the  one 
side,  and  an  Arian  on  the  other. 

The  late  Parthian  coins  (VII.  A  22-25)  are  more  barbarous  and 
Eastern  in  style  than  the  earlier.  The  head  of  the  king  on  No.  24 
(Tiridates  II.  33-32  B.C.)  is,  however,  well  executed. 

The  Roman  conquest  of  Asia  and  events  in  that  region,  which 
immediately  preceded  the  Empire,  are  brought  before  us  in  the  last 
coins  of  division  A.  No.  28  is  a  coin  of  Sulla  ;  No.  29  of  Brutus. 
The  latter  is  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  envious  Casca,  one  of 
Caesar's  assassins,  who  was  a  lieutenant  of  Brutus  in  Asia.  No.  30  is 
a  coin  of  Labienus,  the  renegade,  who  describes  himself  as  "  Parthicus 


540  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  chap. 


Imp. "  No.  3 1  is  a  coin  of  Mark  Antony  ;  on  the  reverse,  the  head  of 
Octavia,  his  wife,  and  the  mystic  chest. 

Finally  we  come  to  coins  of  Augustus.  On  No.  32,  struck  in  28 
B.  c.j  he  is  still  Octavianus.  On  the  reverse  is  Peace,  trampling  on  the 
torch  of  war.  On  No.  33,  the  inscriptions  are  Imp.  Caesar  Augustus. 
The  portrait-head  here  is  good,  but  we  shall  see  many  better  among 
the  gems.  On  the  reverse  is  a  sphinx  ;  this  was  used  by  Augustus  as 
a  signet  (see  p.  629).  On  the  reverse  of  No.  34,  struck  in  19  B.C.,  is 
a  representation  of  the  temple  of  Rome  and  Augustus  at  Pergamum, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Asia.  On  No.  25  the  legend  is  Armenia 
Recepta ;  the  coin  was  struck  to  commemorate  the  resumption  of 
Armenia  under  the  protection  of  Augustus  in  19  B.C. 

In  division  B  we  see  first  coins  of  Thrace  and  Macedon.  On  the 
gold  coin  (VII.  B  1)  the  type  is  of  Brutus,  consul,  between  two  lictors. 
The  silver  tetradrachms  (2-4)  are  barbarous  copies  of  the  old  Alex- 
andrians. The  ideal  head  of  Alexander  with  flowing  hair  on  No.  7  is 
fine  ;  on  the  reverse  is  the  name  of  the  Roman  quaestor,  with  a  club, 
money-chest,  and  chain  of  office. 

The  Athenian  coins  (VII.  B  14,  15)  still  present  the  old  types; 
the  inscriptions  show  that  they  were  struck  at  the  time  when  Athens 
joined  Mithradates  the  Great  against  Rome. 

The  Roman  coins  struck  in  Macedonia  and  Greece  need  not  detain 
us.  They  are  of  interest  chiefly  for  historical  and  chronological  pur- 
poses. The  coins  Nos.  17  and  18  are  said  to  have  been  struck  by 
Julius  Caesar  in  Greece  for  the  payment  of  his  troops  who  fought  at 
Pharsalia,  48  B.C.  There  is  a  good  portrait  of  Augustus  on  No.  26, 
struck  in  27  B.C. 

In  division  C  we  begin  with  the  Celtiberians  and  the  Gauls.  With 
the  Gaulish  coins  here  (VII.  C  3-5)  the  visitor  should  compare  the 
earlier  one,  VI.  C  1.  They  are  all  imitations  of  the  gold  staters  of 
Philip  of  Macedon  (III.  B  17).  The  coinage  of  the  Gauls  clearly  had 
its  origin  in  their  raids  into  Greece,  where  they  found  the  money  of 
Philip  and  Alexander  still  widely  current.  This  they  took  as  their 
model,  and  in  this  case  the  better  the  coins,  the  earlier  in  all 
probability  is  their  date.  Thus  VI.  C  1  shows  a  very  intelligent 
imitation  of  the  original.  Those  before  us  here  are  more  distant  from 
it  and  not  so  good.  In  No.  4  the  charioteer  and  horse  are  just 
distinguishable  ;  in  No.  5  they  almost  disappear  into  indecipherable 
ornament. 

British  Coins  (VII.  C  6-9). — From  Gaul  a  similar  coinage  spread 
into  Britain.  Of  the  ruder  British  coinage,  which  shows  yet  further 
degradation  from  the  original  model,  specimens  are  not  here  exhibited  ; 
though,  indeed,  No.  5  may  be  either  British  or  Gaulish,  for  coins  of 
the  kind  are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel.  The  distinctively 
British  coins,  here  shown,  belong  to  a  later  period,  when  Roman 
influence  is  apparent.  The  inscriptions  are  in  Roman  letters,  and  the 
designs  on  the  coins  are  adopted  from  Roman  or  Grseco- Italian 
examples.    When  the  British  chiefs  began  to  mint  money,  they  adopted 


XXiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  541 


the  figure  on  foreign  coins  which  would  have  been  brought  as  models 
by  the  coiners  they  employed.  The  first  of  the  British  coins  (VII. 
B  6)  is  inscribed  TINC(ommius) ;  the  second  (7)  VERI(ca).  On  the 
reverses  each  king  is  described  as  CO(mmii)  F(ilius).  Tincommius 
and  Verica,  sons  of  King  Commius,  are  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
temporary rulers  in  Hampshire  and  Sussex,  in  which  counties  alone 
their  coins  have  been  found.  The  armed  horseman  on  No.  6  is  not 
at  all  badly  done  ;  foreign  aid  may  have  been  called  in  to  assist  native 
art  at  the  British  mints.  The  coin  of  Verica  (No.  7),  found  at  Romsey, 
in  Hampshire,  is  of  "extremely  fine  work,  the  leaf  on  the  obverse 
being  engraved  with  the  highest  skill,  and  great  spirit  combined  with 
delicacy  of  execution  in  the  horseman."  The  leaf  appears  to  be  of  the 
vine.  The  permission  of  the  Emperor  Probus  (272-286  A.D.)  for 
Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain  to  cultivate  the  vine  and  make  wine  implies 
its  existence  and  use  in  all  three  countries  at  that  time  (John  Evans, 
The  Coins  of  the  Ancient  Brito7is,  p.  227).  The  next  coin  (VII.  C  8) 
is  of  Tasciovanus,  whose  capital  was  Verulamium  (St.  Albans)  and 
who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  from  about  30  B.C.  to  5  A.D.  This 
coin  was  found  at  High  Wycombe  with  ten  others  in  an  oblong  hollow 
flint.  The  other  British  coin  (VII.  C  9)  is  of  Cunobelinus  (the  Cym- 
beline  of  Shakespeare)  who  ruled  over  the  Trinobantes  from  5  B.C.  to 
about  43  A.D.  Essex  is  most  prolific  in  his  coins,  but  they  are  also 
found  in  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Notts,  Herts,  Beds,  Bucks, 
Oxon,  Middlesex,  and  Kent.  His  capital  was  Camulodunum  (Col- 
chester) ;  the  name  in  an  abbreviated  form  (CAMV)  is  inscribed  on 
this  coin.    He  was  the  son  of  Tasciovanus. 

The  series  of  Roman  coins  which  occupies  the  rest  of  this  case 
illustrates  many  points  in  the  history  of  the  period.  For  example,  on 
one  coin  (VII.  C  15)  we  see  a  Samnite  bull  goring  the  Roman  wolf : 
it  is  a  coin  struck  by  the  confederate  Italian  peoples  during  the  Social 
War,  90-89  B.C.  On  other  of  the  coins,  we  see  soldiers  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  This  they  did  by  touching  with  the  points  of  their 
swords  a  pig  held  in  the  arms  of  a  kneeling  man  (VII.  C  13,  14).  On 
another  coin  (VII.  C  18),  struck  by  Faustus  Sulla,  son  of  the  dictator, 
there  is  a  reference  to  the  war  against  Jugurtha.  The  scene  described 
is  the  betrayal,  in  106  B.C.,  of  Jugurtha  (who  kneels  as  a  captive)  to 
Sulla  (seated)  by  Bocchus  (who  kneels  and  holds  up  an  olive  branch). 
On  the  next  coin  (VII.  C  19),  struck  in  58  B.C.,  is  an  allusion  to  a 
more  nearly  contemporary  event — the  submission  of  King  Aretas  to 
Scaurus,  Roman  governor  of  Syria.  On  VII.  C  21  is  a  globe, 
surrounded  by  wreaths  ;  on  either  side  an  aplustre  (ornament  of  a 
ship's  stern)  and  ear  of  corn,  symbolising  Pompey's  victories  by  sea 
and  land.  The  gold  coin,  or  aureus,  numbered  22,  was  struck  by 
Julius  Caesar  in  49  B.C.,  when  he  had  made  himself  master  of  Rome. 
On  the  obverse,  head  of  Venus  ;  on  the  reverse,  a  trophy  of  Gaulish 
arms.  The  remarkably  realistic  portrait  on  No.  25  is  of  C.  Antius 
Restio,  tribune  of  the  people  about  74  B.C.  The  portrait  of  Pompey 
is  on  the  gold  piece,  No.  27.     Several  heads  of  Augustus  bring  the 


542 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS 


CHAP. 


Roman  series  to  a  close  :  on  No.  36  is  the  inscription  Pater  Patrice,  a 
title  conferred  upon  him  in  2  B.C. 

Among  the  African  coins  at  the  end  of  this  case,  the  portrait-head 
of  Juba  I.  is  interesting  (VII.  C  38).  "Juba  is  called  by  Cicero 
adolescens  bene  capillaHis,  and  Suetonius  relates  how  Caesar  on  one 
occasion,  in  62  B.C.,  pulled  him  by  the  beard.  This  coin  presents  us, 
therefore,  with  a  characteristic  portrait  "  (Guide  to  the  Principal  Coins 
of  the  Ancients ,  p.  120). 


Case  VIII. — Greek  Portraiture 

The  coins  here  exhibited  are  arranged  chronologically  to 
illustrate  the  portraiture  of  the  Greeks.  The  portrait  sides 
only  of  the  specimens  are  shown.  Most  of  the  coins,  with 
both  obverse  and  reverse,  are  included  in  Cases  I. -VI I.,  and 
we  have  already  noticed  many  of  the  more  remarkable  portraits. 
Here,  therefore,  a  few  general  remarks  will  suffice  to  suggest 
some  of  the  points  of  interest  which  the  visitor  may  find  in 
examining  this  series  arranged  so  conveniently  for  comparison 
and  study. 

An  exhibition  such  as  this  brings  very  vividly  before  one 
the  value  of  a  collection  of  coins  as  a  portrait  gallery  : — 

"  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  manner,"  says  Mr.  Poole,  "in  which 
coins  and  medals  illustrate  history  is  in  their  being  contemporary,  or 
nearly  contemporary,  portraits  of  the  most  famous  kings  and  captains 
from  the  time  of  the  first  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the 
present  age,  whereas  pictures  do  not  afford  portraits  in  any  number 
before  the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  ;  and  works  of  sculpture, 
although  occupying  in  this  respect  the  same  place  as  coins  in  the  last- 
mentioned  period  and  under  the  Roman  Empire,  are  neither  so 
numerous  nor  so  authentic.  There  is  no  more  delightful  companion 
in  historical  reading  than  a  cabinet  of  coins  and  medals.  The  strength 
and  energy  of  Alexander,  the  ferocity  of  Mithradates,  the  philosophic 
calmness  of  Antoninus,  the  obstinate  ferocity  of  Nero,  and  the  brutality 
of  Caracalla,  are  as  plain  on  the  coins  as  in  the  pages  of  history " 
(<c  Numismatics  "  in  Ency.  Brit.). 

Our  series  of  portraits  begins  with  two  coins  (VIII.  1,  2) 
issued  by  Persian  satraps  with  the  authority  of  the  Great 
King.  The  first  has  been  conjectured  to  be  the  portrait  of 
Tissaphernes  (412-408  B.C.) ;  the  second  head  has  written 
beside  it  the  name  Pharnabazus  (411-394  B.C.).  The  first 
coins  bearing  indisputable  portraits  did  not  appear  till  a 
century  later,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  satrapal  coins  present 


xxiii  THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS  543 


only  idealised  representations  of  the  Great  King.  "  I  cannot 
think  it  possible,"  says  Prof.  P.  Gardner,  "  that  at  a  time  when 
not  even  Dionysius  of  Sicily  or  the  Macedonian  kings  ventured 
to  put  their  portraits  on  coins,  such  a  liberty  would  be 
taken  in  Asia  by  a  mere  satrap.  Surely  such  a  venture  would 
have  cost  him  his  post  and  his  life.  Nor  indeed  do  we 
find  in  the  present  effigy  (No.  1)  anything  individual;  the 
type,  though  marked,  is  general  and  impersonal.  On  the 
reverse  (for  which  see  III.  A  27)  is  the  inscription  BA2I,  and 
this  legend  appears  conclusively  to  show  that  the  head  on  the 
obverse  is  meant  to  represent  the  Great  King.  The  Greek 
artist  who  executed  the  type  having  probably  small  idea  what 
the  king  really  was  like,  simply  tried  to  express  his  idea  as  to 
what  a  Persian  king  ought  to  be  "  (Types  of  Greek  Coins,  p.  144). 
From  this  point  of  view  the  head  is  admirable.  The  treatment 
is  simple  ;  the  features  are  regular.  The  habit  of  command 
and  regal  dignity  are  strongly  expressed.  The  head-dress  is 
the  mitra  of  the  Persians. 

In  the  case  of  Greek  coins,  portraits  do  not  begin  to  appear 
till  a  comparatively  late  date.  On  the  early  Greek  coins  the 
heads  were  ideal  representations  of  patron  deities.  When  the 
heads  of  rulers  begin  to  appear  on  coins,  they  figure  there 
rather  as  gods  than  as  men.  We  begin  with  Alexander  the 
Great  (VIII.  5,  and  IV.  B  20).  Alexander  himself  never 
placed  his  own  portrait  on  coins.  This  coin  was  issued  by 
one  of  his  successors,  Lysimachus.  It  is  placed  on  the  coin, 
not  as  the  portrait  of  a  reigning  monarch,  but  as  a  representa- 
tion of  the  deified  Alexander.  The  ram's  horn  denotes  that 
he  is  considered  as  son  of  Zeus-Ammon.  The  portraiture 
itself  is  probably  idealised  also.  The  next  stage  is  reached 
when  the  successors  of  Alexander  found  it  agreeable  to  their 
ambitions  to  assume  equal  divinity  for  themselves,  and  placed 
their  own  heads  on  their  coins.  Thus  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
appears  with  the  bull's  head  of  Bacchus  (No.  8  and  IV.  B  16). 
The  style  of  portraiture  here  also  is  idealised. 

The  earliest  portrait  which  strikes  one  as  full  of  individual 
character  is  that  of  Ptolemy  I.  of  Egypt  (B.C.  305-284)  on 
No.  6  (IV.  A  14).  In  the  next  age  the  engravers  of  coins 
show  us  an  unsparing  realism.  See,  for  instance,  the  bull- 
headed  Philetserus  (No.  16,  and  V.  A  9),  and  the  thick-lipped, 
sharp-nosed  Pharnaces  (No.  43,  and  VI.  A  5).  Nowhere  is 
the  realism  more  striking  than  among  the  portraits  of  the 


544 


THE  COINS  OF  THE  ANCIENTS    chap,  xxiii 


Bactrian  kings,  to  which  we  have  already  called  attention. 
In  the  best  portraits  the  relief  is  high,  and  every  wrinkle  is 
minutely  wrought.  In  the  latest  period  the  relief  is  lower  and 
the  workmanship  less  careful.  In  the  portraits  of  some  of 
the  later  Seleucid  kings,  the  spirit  of  idealism  seems  to  revive 
(Nos.  6 1  and  62,  VI.  A  25,  26).  To  the  portrait  of  Mithra- 
dates  the  Great  (No.  67,  VII.  A  2)  we  have  already  called 
particular  attention  for  its  striking  effect. 

Jewish  coins. — In  the  lower  portion  of  Case  VIII.  is  a 
selection  of  Jewish  and  other  coins  illustrating  the  Bible — such 
as  the  shekel,  the  "  penny "  {i.e.  denarius  or  shilling),  the 
"pieces  of  silver"  (tetradrachms),  the  "widow's  mite,"  and 
the  "farthing"  (No.  6).  (For  an  account  of  these  coins, 
see  Guide  to  the  Department  of  Coins  and  Medals,  1901,  p. 
17).  By  ringing  the  bell  at  the  entrance  to  the  coin  room 
and  signing  his  name  in  a  book,  the  visitor  obtains  admission 
to  a  corridor  where  later  Roman  coins  and  some  other  collec- 
tions are  exhibited. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  remaining  Cases  in  the  Etruscan  Saloon, 
in  zvhich  miscellaneous  antiquities  are  exhibited. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES,  CHIEFLY  ROMAN 

"  To  attempt  to  classify  miscellaneous  antiquities  would  be  as  difficult 
as  the  classification  of  the  various  objects  which  formed  part  of 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  Wherever  man  has  left  the  stamp 
of  mind  on  brute  matter  ;  whether  we  designate  his  work  as 
structure,  texture,  or  mixture,  mechanical  or  chymical ;  whether 
the  result  be  a  house,  a  ship,  a  garment,  a  piece  of  glass,  or  a 
metallic  implement,  these  memorials  of  economy  and  invention 
will  always  be  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  archaeologist.  Our 
true  motto  should  be  :  Homo  sum,  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum 
pzito  "  (C.  T.  Newton). 

Attempting,  then,  no  general  classification,  we  may  proceed 
at  once  to  examine  the  miscellaneous  antiquities  here  arranged. 
Many  of  them  are  full,  as  we  shall  see,  of  a  very  human 
interest,  and  all  are  of  a  certain  value  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  arts,  industries,  and  customs  of  the  ancients.  We 
begin  with  the  Table -case  lettered  M.  Above  this  case 
are  : — 

(1)  Objects  in  glazed  porcelain,  including  the  portrait- 
head  of  an  Egyptian  queen  (from  Naucratis)  and  a  Cupid 
riding  on  a  goose  (from  Tanagra).  "  Objects  in  this  ware  are 
rare,  especially  of  the  size  and  elaboration  of  the  present 
specimen." 

(2)  A  case  of  Roman  steelyards,  weights  and  measures. 

The  steelyard  {stalerd)  was  a  Roman  invention  ;  the  equipoise 
was  generally  adorned  with  a  head  or  other  figure  (see  some 
other  specimens  in  the  Anglo -Roman  collection,  p.  763). 
There  is  also  a  collection  of  Greek  weights,  chiefly  from 
Athens,  containing  specimens  of  the  more  ancient  and  heavier 
Attic  mina  (roughly  =1  lb.),  called  the  emporic,  and  of  the 
lighter  minay  introduced  by  Solon  as  the  standard  of  coins, 

2  N 


546  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


these  two  systems  of  weights  having  been  retained,  one  for 
the  use  of  commerce,  the  other  for  the  mint,  just  as  we  now 
find  it  convenient  to  use  both  troy  and  avoirdupois  weight. 
One  of  the  Greek  weights  is  in  the  form  of  a  bronze  box,  with 
a  head  of  Hercules  ;  on  one  side  is  a  knob  for  suspension 
(No.  2997  in  the  Catalogue  of  Bronzes). 

(3)  A  remarkable  leaden  cup  from  the  Blacas  collection: — 

4 'This  is  ornamented  round  the  body  with  a  frieze  representing 
Bacchus  and  Silenus  and  the  Seasons,  personified  as  four  boys. 
Below  the  relief,  the  cup  is  encircled  by  a  row  of  circular  vitreous 
pastes  set  to  imitate  gems.  On  each  handle  is  a  paste  with  a  Gorgon's 
head  in  relief.  The  vase  was  probably  an  imitation  of  the  gemmata 
pocula  described  by  Pliny — cups  of  gold  or  silver  set  with  precious 
stones.  Round  the  foot  the  vase  is  inscribed  with  letters  signifying 
the  workshop  from  which  it  came.  It  is  inscribed  on  one  side, 
Domitilbe  Statilio  conjugi ;  on  the  other,  Salus  gen(eris)  hum(ani). 
It  has  been  thought  that  the  Domitilla,  whose  name  is  inscribed  on 
the  cup,  is  the  lady  who,  after  having  cohabited  with  Statilius,  a 
Roman  Eques,  subsequently  married  the  Emperor  Vespasian.  The 
coincidence  of  the  names  is  certainly  remarkable  ;  at  the  same  time 
there  is  no  positive  proof  of  the  identity  of  the  persons  to  whom  the 
cup  is  dedicated  with  the  Roman  Empress  and  her  paramour.  It  may 
be  remarked  that  the  inscription,  Salus  humani  generis,  occurs  on 
the  coins  of  Galba  "  {Guide  to  the  Blacas  Collection,  1867,  p.  31). 

This  cup  may  have  contained  the  ashes  of  the  persons 
whose  names  are  inscribed  on  it. 

Of  the  objects  exhibited  in  the  Table-case  itself,  the  most 
interesting  are  a  collection  of  curses  inscribed  on  thin  tablets 
of  lead.  These  imprecatory  tablets  take  us  back  to  a  curious 
chapter  in  human  credulity.  Maledictory  inscriptions  (called 
defixiones  or  /<aTacW/xoi)  formed  part  of  the  system  of  ancient 
magic  and  were  probably  in  use  among  the  Greeks  from  an 
early  period.  Plato  in  the  Republic  speaks  of  "  quacks  and 
soothsayers  who  flock  to  the  rich  man's  doors  and  try  to 
persuade  him  that  should  he  desire  to  do  a  mischief  to  any  one, 
it  may  be  done  at  a  trifling  expense,  whether  the  object  of  his 
hostility  be  a  just  or  an  unjust  man  ;  for  they  profess  that  by 
certain  invocations  and  spells  they  can  prevail  upon  the  gods 
to  do  their  bidding."  A  later  and  well-known  instance  of  the 
use  of  such  magical  devices  occurs  in  Roman  history.  It  is 
recorded  by  Tacitus  in  his  A?mals  (ii.  69).  In  describing  the 
last  illness  and  death  of  Germanicus,  he  says  that  "  there  were 
found  hidden  in  the  floor  and  in  the  walls  disinterred  remains 


xxiv  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  547 


of  human  bodies,  incantations  and  spells,  and  the  name  of 
Germanicus  inscribed  on  leaden  tablets,  half- burnt  cinders 
smeared  with  blood,  and  other  horrors  by  which  in  popular 
belief  souls  are  devoted  to  the  infernal  deities."  It  was 
thought  that  these  magical  instruments  were  employed  by 
Piso  to  compass  the  death  of  his  enemy.  The  use  of 
maledictory  inscriptions  is  thus  made  known  to  us  by  classical 
literature  ;  but  the  evidence  of  archaeology  brings  home  the 
fact  in  a  very  striking  way.  Papyri  have  been  discovered,  and 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum,  giving  recipes  for  the  magic 
rites  ;  and  here,  before  our  eyes,  are  actual  leaden  tablets, 
inscribed,  as  we  shall  see,  in  accordance  with  the  recipes. 

Some  of  the  tablets  were  found  in  1858  by  Sir  Charles 
Newton  at  Cnidus  in  the  Temple  of  Demeter  : — 

"  Near  the  marbles  I  found  in  several  places  portions  of  thin  sheets 
of  lead,  broken  and  doubled  up.  On  being  unrolled,  these  sheets 
proved  to  be  tablets,  inscribed  with  imprecations  in  the  name  of 
Demeter,  Persephone,  Pluto,  and  other  infernal  deities.  In  each 
inscription  are  specified  the  name  of  the  person  on  whose  head  the 
imprecation  is  invoked,  and  the  cause  of  the  offence  which  had  drawn 
it  forth.  Most  of  these  tablets  appear  to  have  been  dedicated  by 
Cnidian  women.  The  grievous  offences  which  called  forth  such 
tremendous  comminations  are  of  several  kinds.  One  lady  denounces 
the  person  who  had  stolen  her  bracelet,  and  adds,  by  way  of  post- 
script, an  imprecation  on  any  one  who  may  have  defrauded  her  with 
false  weights.  The  non-restoration  of  garments  lost  or  left  in  deposit 
is  made  the  subject  of  another  imprecation.  Other  accusations  are  of 
a  more  serious  nature.  A  certain  Nakon,  husband  of  a  lady  called 
Prosodion,  seems  to  have  been  seduced  from  his  domestic  allegiance 
by  some  Cnidian  Lais,  who  is  duly  devoted  to  the  infernal  deities  in 
consequence.  Another  injured  matron  invokes  a  curse  on  the  head  of 
the  person  who  has  accused  her  of  administering  poison  to  her  husband  " 
{Travels  and  Discoveries,  ii.  178). 

The  curses  for  these  offences,  grave  or  trifling,  are,  in  the 
case  of  the  Cnidian  tablets,  of  a  religious  character.  They  were 
deposited  in  a  temple  ;  just  as  our  Commination  Service — the 
curses  in  which,  however,  are  general,  and  not  specific — is 
said  in  church.  The  gods  invoked  by  the  ladies  of  Cnidus  are 
solemnly  appealed  to  in  their  character  of  final  avengers  of 
human  wrong. 

The  second  batch  of  leaden  curses  are  yet  more  curious,  as 
introducing  us  rather  into  the  secrets  of  ancient  sorcery.  They 
come  from  Curium,  a  place  in  the  S.W.  corner  of  the  island  of 


54§ 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


Cyprus,  near  Paphos.  Probably  sorcery  was  especially  com- 
mon in  an  island  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  goddess  of 
love,  for  love  rejected  has  ever  turned  in  hope  to  the  magic 
arts.  In  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  we  come  across  numerous 
illustrations  of  the  trade  of  sorcerers,  and  one  of  this  tribe, 
Elymas,  practised,  it  will  be  remembered,  at  Paphos.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  the  tablets  in  this  case  were  part  of  the 
stock-in-trade  of  Elymas  himself,  or  of  his  successor  in  the 
business.  They  were  found  a  few  years  ago  by  some  peasants 
who  were  digging  for  a  well.  They  came  upon  them  at  the 
bottom  of  a  disused  shaft,  lying  under  a  quantity  of  human 
bones.  They  were  rolled  up,  not  unlike  worn  fragments  of 
gas -piping,  and  the  writing  was  fortunately  inside,  so  that  they 
have  now  been  almost  completely  deciphered.  They  are  all 
very  much  alike  and  might  well  be  the  work  of  one  school  of 
magicians,  paid  by  different  people  in  the  same  village  to 
avenge  their  real  or  imaginary  wrongs.  Village  life  is  much 
the  same  in  all  ages,  and  if  modern  curses  and  feuds  were  com- 
mitted to  leaden  tablets,  the  tale  of  wrong  would  be  as  eloquent, 
we  doubt  not,  as  one  before  us  in  which  a  certain  Alexander 
curses  his  neighbours  at  large,  or  another  in  which  the  wrath 
of  heaven  is  invoked  on  one  Demetrius.  The  machinery  of 
the  black  art  was  elaborately  ridiculous.  Among  the  papyri 
in  the  Museum  is  one  which  gives  the  following  recipe  ; — 

Take  a  sacred  sheet  or  a  leaf  of  lead  and  an  iron  ring.  Put  the 
ring  upon  the  sheet,  and  within  and  without  leave  the  mark  of  the  ring 
with  the  pen.  Then  rub  the  circumference  with  myrrh,  and  write  on 
the  circle  left  by  the  ring  on  the  sheet,  writing  on  it  the  name  and  the 
character  without  and  whatever  it  is  that  you  wish  not  to  happen,  and 
that  the  man's  purpose  may  be  spell-bound  so  as  not  to  do  such  and 
such  a  thing.  Then  put  the  ring  on  the  circle  you  have  drawn,  and  taking 
up  what  is  without  the  circle,  fasten  down  the  ring  till  it  has  covered  the 
part  of  the  sheet  whereon  the  characters  are  written,  and  binding  it  to- 
gether say,  "  I  bind  by  spells  such  an  one  as  regards  such  a  deed,  that 
he  may  not  speak,  nor  resist,  nor  reply,  nor  be  able  to  look  me  in  the 
face,  or  to  speak  against  me.  Let  him  be  made  subject  to  me  as  long 
as  this  ring  is  buried.  I  bind  by  spells  his  wisdom,  his  thought,  his 
desire,  his  acts."  Then  carry  it  out  to  the  tomb  of  one  who  has  died 
untimely,  and  dig,  having  put  thy  seal  upon  it,  and  say,  ' '  Spirit  of  the 
dead,  whoever  thou  art  in  this  place,  I  give  over  to  thee  such  an  one 
that  he  may  not  do  such  a  deed."  Then,  having  piled  the  earth  above 
it,  go  thy  way.  These  are  the  things  written  in  the  circle,  "  Let  not 
such  a  deed  be  done  for  as  long  as  this  ring  is  buried."  Having  made 
a  cord,  bind  it  with  knots,  and  so  put  it  down.    The  ring  may  be 


xxiv  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES 


549 


thrown  into  an  artificial  well,  on  a  day  when  no  business  is  done,  or 
into  the  tomb  of  one  who  has  died  untimely. 

This  recipe  seems  to  have  been  carefully  followed  in  these 
leaden  curses  from  Cyprus.  In  one  of  them  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  are  adjured  by  "  him  who  is  the  only  god  upon  the  earth, 
Osiris,  and  by  all  the  gods  of  the  world  below,  to  silence  my 
adversary  Ariston."  Another  tablet  is  intended  to  restore  a 
faithless  girl  to  the  arms  of  her  lover,  "  I  adjure  thee  by  the 
fearful  name,  the  name  that  makes  all  things  tremble,  which 
the  earth  when  she  hears  shall  open,  and  the  spirits  when  they 
hear  shall  be  dismayed  for  fear,  and  the  rivers  and  the  rocks 
when  they  hear  it  shall  shiver."1  The  operative  portion  of  the 
curse  is  followed  in  many  cases  by  a  long  string  of  magic 
jargon — full  of  sound  and  fury  signifying  nothing.  Several 
bronze  nails  (3192-4)  are  also  exhibited,  inscribed  with 
magic  formulas  ;  nails  from  a  wreck  were  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  an  ancient  witch.  We  may  doubt  whether  these 
magical  imprecations,  however  terrible  their  sound,  had  much 
effect  on  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  persons  against  whom 
they  were  directed  ;  though,  no  doubt,  they  were  some  comfort 
to  those  who  fired  them  off,  for  a  good  swear,  even  in  our  own 
enlightened  days,  is  often  found  to  relieve  the  feelings.  But 
at  any  rate  the  spell  has  been  broken  now  ;  for,  as  the  magic 
formula  shows,  the  curse  endures  only  so  long  as  the  magic 
ring  remains  buried. 

Among  other  objects  in  this  Case  (M),  we  may  notice  : — 

A  collection  of  slate  stamps  used  by  Koman  oculists  for  their 
medicines  ;  for  some  other  specimens,  and  a  discussion  of  them,  see  the 
Anglo- Roman  collection,  ch.  xxviii.  p.  752. 

A  pair  of  jumping  weights  (halteres)  used  by  athletes  to  give  an 
additional  impulse  to  their  spring  ;  some  children's  toys  in  lead  ;  a 
collection  of  sling  bolts,  usually  with  an  inscription,  such  as  "take 
this." 

Specimens  of  calcined  food  from  Pompeii,  including  corn,  walnuts 
and  other  fruits.  In  the  Naples  Museum  is  a  large  collection  of  food 
which  had  been  left  in  the  ovens  or  store-rooms  when  the  city  was 
overwhelmed  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  79  a.d.,  and  which  was 
discovered  in  a  more  or  less  calcined  condition  when  the  ruins  were 


1  The  above  account  of  the  Cypriote  tablets  is  taken  from  a  very  inter- 
esting article  by  Miss  L.  Macdonald  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Archeology,  xiii.  160. 


55o 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


unearthed.  In  the  corresponding  corner  of  this  case  is  a  fictile  cup  of 
about  400  B.C.,  in  which  are  some  eggs  and  knuckle-bones,  lying  just  as 
they  were  found  in  a  tomb  at  Rhodes  :  for  the  symbolical  meaning  of 
eggs  thus  buried  with  the  dead,  see  above,  p.  477. 

A  collection  of  objects  in  ivory  is  contained  in  Table- 
case  N.  The  tusk  of  the  elephant  and  other  huge  animals  is 
the  material  on  which  the  most  ancient  records  of  human  art 
have  come  down  to  us.  In  the  British  Museum  the  reader  may 
see  specimens  of  carving  on  elephants'  tusks  and  reindeer-horn 
which  date  back  to  the  remotest  prehistoric  races  of  man 
("  Prehistoric  Saloon  ,;).  Coming  to  historic  times,  we  may 
see  in  the  Museum  examples  of  Egyptian  skill  in  ivory  work 
which  are  as  old  as  Moses  ("  Fourth  Egyptian  Room 
King  Solomon,  it  will  be  remembered,  made  a  great  throne 
of  ivory,  overlaid  with  the  best  gold  ;  the  "  ivory  palaces 55  of 
which  the  Psalmist  sings  were  probably  inlaid  wardrobes. 
From  Nineveh  Layard  brought  back  carved  ivories  which  may 
be  dated  about  950  B.C.  ("  Nimroud  Gallery55).  Some  very  fine 
ivories  of  "  Mycenaean 55  times  from  Cyprus  are  in  the  Room 
of  Gold  Ornaments  (p.  565).  The  Greeks  of  classical  times 
made,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  188),  statues  of  gold  and  ivory, 
but  none  of  these  have  come  down  to  us.  Some  of  the 
Roman  ivories  (about  300  B.C.)  are  of  great  beauty;  one  of 
the  finest  extant  specimens  is  the  "  consular  diptych 55  in  the 
collection  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  In  the  British 
Museum  there  are  collections  of  Roman  ivories  of  Christian 
time  (Room  V.,  North  Gallery)  and  of  mediaeval  ivories 
("Mediaeval  Room55). 

Of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Etruscan  ivories  a  few  specimens 
may  be  seen  here.  Specially  remarkable  is  the  plaque  (in 
Compartment  9),  with  a  subject  exquisitely  drawn  in  incised 
lines  : — 

"  A  nymph  is  kneeling  to  wash  at  a  pool  of  water  which  flows  from 
a  lion's  head  fountain.  A  young  satyr  looks  at  her  over  a  rock,  and 
snatches  at  her  drapery.  The  green  tint  is  due  to  the  accidental 
nearness  of  bronze  while  the  object  was  buried  in  a  tomb.  But  the 
pool  of  water,  the  lion's  head,  and  part  of  the  drapery  retain  the 
original  white  colour  of  the  ivory,  showing  that  they  had  been 
protected  by  colouring  substance.  Apparently  the  rest  of  the  design 
had  not  been  coloured,  as  it  may  conceivably  have  been  in  other 
designs  on  ivory.  The  drawing  has  been  incised  with  a  fine  tool,  such 
as  an  engraver  would  now  use  "  (see  Murray's  Archeology,  p.  396). 


xxiv  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  551 


Among  the  other  objects  in  ivory,  etc.,  we  may  notice  (in 
Compartment  1 )  an  ivory  stylus  ;  at  one  end  it  has  a  sharp 
point  for  writing  on  a  wax  tablet,  at  the  other  a  broad  edge 
for  erasure  ;  handles  of  knives  ;  a  small  fragment  of  an  "  Iliac 
table  "  (a  compilation  from  the  Epic  stories  for  use  in  schools) ; 
and  (Compartment  8)  a  collection  of  ivory  tickets  for  the 
theatres,  etc.  A  generation  or  two  ago  our  own  tickets 
for  the  opera  were  known  as  "  ivories  "  (see  Sir  Algernon 
West's  Recollectio?ts,  i.  95). 

"The  most  interesting  of  the  oblong  tickets  or  tesserae  are  those 
which  were  the  property  of  gladiators.  They  are  inscribed  (1)  with 
the  gladiator's  name  ;  (2)  with  the  name  of  his  master,  in  the  genitive; 
(3)  with  the  letters  SP  and  a  date  of  the  day  and  month  ;  (4)  with  the 
consuls  of  the  year.  The  tickets  certify  that  the  gladiators  had  reached 
a  certain  point  in  their  career,  the  SP  being  taken  to  represent  either 
Spectatus  (approved),  Spectator  or  Spectavit  (one  who  watched  instead 
of  fighting),  or  Spectavit  (intransitively  'made  his  trial')"  {Guide  to  the 
Department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  1899,  p.  10 1). 

We  may  also  notice  (Compartments  4-7)  some  specimens  of 
work  in  ivory  and  wood,  and  of  flutes  and  lyres,  of  which  the 
music  has  been  mute  for  so  many  centuries. 

Materials  used  by  painters  and  specimens  of  encaustic 
painting  on  wooden  panels  (Table-case  O). — In  this  con- 
nection the  visitor  should  also  refer  to  the  mummy  of  a  boy 
which  is  exhibited  in  Wall- case  4.  This  mummy  is  one  of 
several  showing  the  same  kind  of  work  which  were  unearthed 
by  Professor  Flinders  Petrie  in  his  excavations  at  Hawara  in 
the  Fayoum  (Middle  Egypt).  Some  more  of  the  mummies 
are  in  the  Egyptian  collection  here  (see  Guide  to  the  First  and 
Second  Egyptian  Rooms,  p.  79)  ;  a  collection  of  painted  heads 
removed  from  the  mummies  is  in  the  National  Gallery  (see 
my  Handbook  thereto,  vol.  i.  Nos.  1260- 12 70).  The  place  of 
these  painted  mummy  panels  in  the  evolution  of  the  portrait  is 
interesting  : — 

' 'They  are  developed  by  a  clearly- traced  process  of  evolution  from 
the  portrait -heads  first  modelled  in  stucco  upon  Egyptian  mummy-cases, 
and  then  painted.  From  coloured  portraiture  in  high  relief  to  coloured 
portraiture  on  flexible  canvas,  where  a  certain  amount  of  relief  was 
obtained  by  the  prominence  of  the  bandaged  face  beneath,  was  one 
step  ;  from  the  flexible  canvas  to  the  panel  upon  which  the  semblance 
of  relief  was  given  by  light  and  shadow  and  foreshortening  was  another 
and  far  more  important  step.  It  marked  the  transition  from  the 
Eastern  to  the  Western  school  of  painting  "  (Amelia  B.  Edwards). 


552  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


The  "  find  "  from  which  the  mummy  of  the  boy  was  derived 
illustrates  the  development  very  clearly  : — 

"The  head  of  a  woman  painted  on  canvas  (now  in  the  Bulak 
Museum)  was,"  says  Prof.  Petrie,  "found  with  three  little  children  in 
one  grave.  Two  little  girls  had  the  gilt  bust  with  arms  beautifully 
modelled,  one  with  small  curls  all  over  the  head,  the  other  with  wavy 
hair,  all  gilt  ;  the  eyes  of  the  latter  were  of  polished  stone,  and  stones 
were  inlaid  in  the  jewellery  ;  the  lower  part  of  this  one  is  in  a  canvas 
wrapper  painted  with  scenes  in  gold  on  pink,  and  the  other  girl  has 
scenes  of  natural  colours  on  white.  The  little  boy  found  with  them 
has  a  similar  wrapper  to  the  last,  but  his  face  is  painted  on  canvas  like 
his  mother's.  Here,  then,  we  find  in  one  grave  the  latest  gilt  busts 
and  the  earliest  of  the  portraits  on  canvas  "  (W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie, 
Haivara^  Biahmu  and  Arsinoe,  1889,  p.  17). 

These  Egyptian  panel  paintings  are  of  further  interest, 
and  are  here  exhibited  as  illustrating  the  Greek  and  Roman 
method  of  encaustic  work,  in  which  coloured  wax  was  painted 
on  to  wooden  panels,  the  tools  employed  being  the  brush  and 
the  hard  point. 

Turning  near  to  the  Table-case,  we  may  mark  a  further 
stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  portrait.  One  painted  face  was 
found  by  Professor  Petrie,  not  fixed  over  the  face  of  the 
mummy,  but  framed  (and  probably  once  glazed)  for  hanging 
on  the  wall  of  a  tomb.  This  framed  portrait  is  here  exhibited  ; 
the  frame  is  the  only  example  extant  of  an  ancient  picture- 
frame.  Verily  there  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun  ;  the  frame, 
unearthed  from  an  Egyptian  cemetery,  where  it  had  been 
buried  for  some  seventeen  centuries,  is  found  to  resemble 
closely  "  the  Oxford  frames  55  of  modern  English  make  : — 

"One  of  the  most  remarkable  objects  found  [in  the  cemetery  of 
Hawara]  is  the  picture  frame,  containing  a  portrait.  It  is  made  of 
wood,  painted  brown.  Each  side  has  two  grooves  along  it,  the  back 
one  holding  the  edge  of  the  border  to  the  panel,  which  pieces  are 
halved  past  one  another  at  the  corners.  The  front  groove  is  cut 
through  in  the  top  side  as  an  open  slit,  evidently  to  let  a  sliding  cover 
pass  over  the  picture  ;  if  this  had  been  of  wood,  it  would  surely  have 
been  kept  in,  and  buried  on  the  picture  in  order  to  preserve  it ;  it  is 
therefore  more  likely  to  have  been  of  glass,  which  would  allow  of  the 
picture  being  seen  when  hung  up  by  the  cord,  and  would  be  very 
likely  to  be  broken  by  accident  and  not  replaced.  A  sheet  of  clear 
glass  as  large  as  this,  and  of  just  the  same  period,  was  found  by  me  at 
Tanis.  The  frame,  with  remains  of  the  wax  portrait  on  the  panel, 
was  found  lying  on  its  edge,  with  its  face  turned  against  a  mummy,  in 
a  grave  at  the  south-west  end  of  the  region  of  tomb  chambers.  The 


xxiv  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  553 


cord  tied  on  to  it  was  clearly  for  the  purpose  of  hanging  it  up  in  a 
room"  {Hawara,  Biahmu  and  Arsinoe,  1889,  p.  10). 

In  another  grave  Mr.  Petrie  found  a  set  of  paint  saucers, 
containing  dark-red,  yellow-ochre,  white,  pink-madder,  blue, 
and  red  colours.  These,  with  two  pots,  probably  used  for 
water,  were  piled  up  together  at  the  side  of  the  painter's  head. 
The  paints  in  this  case  are  water-colours,  and  were  probably 
intended  for  tomb-paintings  on  the  walls  (Petrie,  ibid.  p.  11). 
The  saucers  are  here  before  us  in  this  case  ;  their  owner's 
skull  is  in  the  Natural  History  Museum. 

The  specimens  of  glazed  ware  (O)  include  several  Roman 
lamps  in  green  glaze.  One  of  these  is  in  the  shape  of  a 
gladiator's  helmet.  There  are  also  several  figures  and  orna- 
ments in  gypsum,  with  painted  decoration. 

Mural  decorations,  in  stucco,  fresco,  and  mosaic,  are  ex- 
hibited in  Wall-cases  136-139.  Most  of  the  specimens  come 
from  houses  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  From  a  villa 
recently  unearthed  at  Boscoreale,  near  Pompeii,  come  "two 
marine  pieces,  each  with  a  small  villa  in  the  background,  a 
bay,  and  in  the  distance  the  farther  shore,  with  buildings.  In 
one  there  are  two  ships  in  the  bay.  Pliny  alludes  to  marine 
views  of  this  kind  as  popular  in  the  time  of  Augustus  "  {British 
Museum  Return  for  1899,  p.  66)  : — 

"  Ludius,  too,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  late  Emperor  Augustus, 
must  not  be  allowed  to  pass  without  some  notice  ;  for  he  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  fashion  of  covering  the  walls  of  our  houses  with  most 
pleasing  landscapes,  representing  villas,  porticos,  ornamental  gardening, 
woods,  groves,  hills,  fish-ponds,  canals,  rivers,  sea-shores,  and  any- 
thing else  one  could  desire.  It  was  this  artist,  too,  who  first  decorated 
our  uncovered  edifices  with  representations  of  maritime  cities — a  subject 
which  produces  a  most  pleasing  effect,  and  at  a  very  trifling  expense  " 
{Natural  History xxxv.  ch.  37). 

Terra-cotta  slabs  with  moulded  relief  are  arranged  in 
the  wall-cases  on  the  other  side  of  the  door  (1-3),  and  are  con- 
tinued on  the  wall  past  the  entrance  into  the  Gem  Room. 
These  slabs  were  impressed  from  a  mould  and  afterwards  re- 
touched. They  were  used  as  panels  for  the  decoration  of 
walls  of  houses  ;  in  many  of  them  holes  may  be  observed  for 
the  nails  by  which  the  panels  were  fixed.  It  is  clear  that 
they  often  formed  friezes.  A  frieze  may  be  seen  in  the  upper 
row  of  panels  in  Cases  5-10.  The  reliefs  are  probably  the 
work  of  Greek  artists  working  in  Italy  about  the  time  of  the 


554  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


close  of  the  Roman  Republic.  Many  of  the  slabs  were  found 
at  Pompeii,  and  several  are  inscribed  with  the  names  of 
Roman  artists.  The  following  are  among  the  most  interesting 
of  the  panels  : — 

A  Chariot  Race  (Case  i). — This  slab  is  of  interest  as  illustrating 
several  points  in  the  races  of  the  circus.  The  goal  or  turning-post  in 
a  race-course  consisted  of  a  group  of  three  conical-shaped  columns 
(meta)  placed  upon  a  raised  basement  and  situated  at  the  end  of  the 
barrier  {spina).  Round  the  metse  the  chariots  turned,  each  race  com- 
prising seven  circuits.  The  back  of  a  horseman  is  seen  to  the  right, 
who  has  just  turned.  The  driver,  in  turning,  always  kept  the  metae 
on  his  near  side.  We  see  the  chariot  here  so  near  to  the  metse  that 
the  charioteer  is  on  the  point  of  turning  his  horses  round  them.  This 
was  the  most  difficult  point  in  the  race.  If  he  made  too  sharp  a  turn 
he  endangered  his  car  ;  if  he  overshot  the  mark  and  made  too  wide  a 
turn,  a  rival  might  cut  in  and  obtain  the  lead  ;  as  Nestor  describes  : — 

So  drive  as  only  not  to  graze  the  post ; 

And  leaning  o'er  the  wicker  body,  leave 

Close  on  the  left  the  stones  ;  thine  off-side  horse 

Then  urge  with  voice  and  whip,  and  slack  his  rein, 

And  let  the  near-side  horse  so  closely  graze, 

As  that  thy  nave  may  seem  to  touch,  the  goal : 

But  yet  beware,  lest,  striking  on  the  stone, 

Thy  steed  thou  injure,  and  thy  chariot  break, 

A  source  of  triumph  to  thy  rivals  all. 

{Iliad,  xxiii.  335,  and  cf.  Hor.  Od.  i.  1.  5,  "the  goal  by  hot  wheels 
shunned  "  ).  Notice  that  the  charioteer  has  the  reins  round  him,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  in  less  danger  of  being  thrown  out  of  the  car  in 
case  of  any  accident. 

Perseus  and  Medusa  (1). — There  is  considerable  spirit  in  the  figure 
of  Perseus,  as  he  stands  with  Medusa's  head,  which  he  is  in  the  act  of 
cutting  off.  On  another  slab  (Case  2)  is  Athena  holding  up  her 
shield,  on  which  is  reflected  Medusa's  head. 

Vintage  Scenes  (I  and  13). — In  the  first,  satyrs  are  kneeling  and 
gathering  the  grapes.  In  the  other,  two  satyrs  are  treading  grapes  in 
a  wine-press.  On  the  left  a  youthful  faun  is  cheering  their  labour  ; 
he  is  playing  upon  the  double-pipe  and  at  the  same  time  treading  the 
scabellum,  an  instrument  which  made  a  noise  like  the  castanets.  On 
the  other  side,  an  older  faun  is  bringing  in  a,  basket  of  grapes  to  add 
to  the  heap  which  is  being  trodden. 

Dacian  Prisoners  (2). — Two  captives  seated  in  a  car  drawn  by  two 
horses  : — "  The  horses  are  led,  and  the  car,  which  consists  simply  of 
a  raised  platform  mounted  on  a  carriage,  is  perfectly  open,  so  as  to 
exhibit  the  captives  in  the  most  conspicuous  manner.  The  captives 
have  chains  fastened  round  their  necks  and  their  ankles,  and  the  ends 
of  the  chains  are  held  by  two  guards.    From  the  character  of  the 


xxiv  MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  555 


countenances,  and  the  particular  style  of  the  hair  and  dress  of  these 
captives,  it  is  evident  that  they  are  Dacians.  They  are  here  represented 
as  gracing  the  triumph  of  Trajan,  who,  after  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Decebalus,  entered  Rome  in  triumph.  One  of  the  captives  appears  to 
be  in  a  dejected  state  of  mind,  and  is  resting  his  head  upon  his  left 
arm  ;  the  other  captive  seems  in  the  act  of  making  an  appeal  to  the 
populace,  as  if  to  excite  their  commiseration  "  (Combe's  Ancient  Terra- 
cottas in  the  British  Museum,  p.  33). 

Prisoner  and  a  Roman  Trophy  (2). — A  Dacian  prisoner  is  led 
captive  by  a  chain  fastened  round  his  right  wrist.  The  trophy,  com- 
memorating the  Dacian  defeat,  is  erected  on  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  over 
which  a  Dacian  cloak  is  thrown,  while  a  shield  and  standard  are 
suspended  from  a  bough.  The  standard  consists  of  a  pole  ornamented 
at  the  top  with  the  head  of  a  dragon.  It  is  introduced  among  the 
warlike  instruments  of  the  Dacians  which  are  engraved  round  the 
pedestal  of  Trajan's  column.  The  arms  of  the  Sarmatians  who  assisted 
the  Dacians  against  the  Romans  are  represented  by  the  hexagonal 
shield  (Combe's  Ancient  Terra-cottas,  p.  19  ;  Ellis's  Townley  Gallery, 
i.  117). 

The  woman  seated  beside  a  tree  is  Medea  feeding  the  serpent  (3). 
— Notice  that  on  one  of  the  branches  two  cast-skins  of  the  serpent  are 
suspended. 

Frieze  of  the  Seasons  (5  and  6). — Spring,  with  fruits,  flowers,  and 
a  kid  ;  Summer,  with  corn  and  poppies  ;  Autumn  (whose  head  is  still 
uncovered  and  shoulder  bare)  carries  grapes  and  apples  ;  Winter  (whose 
head  and  shoulders  are  draped)  carries  game  suspended  on  a  stick,  and 
drags  a  boar  by  one  of  its  hind-legs.  Allegorical  figures  of  the  Seasons 
have  been  a  favourite  motive  with  artists  in  all  ages  and  all  materials 
{Ancient  Terra-cottas  in  the  British  Museum,  p.  15). 

The  Curetes  (6). — An  illustration  of  the  myth  of  the  infancy  of 
Jupiter,  who  was  born  in  Crete  and  hidden  by  his  mother,  Rhea,  in 
order  to  save  him  from  his  father,  Saturn  ("  all-devouring  Time  "),  who 
used  to  devour  his  sons  as  soon  as  they  were  born,  from  fear  of  the 
prophecy  that  one  of  them  would  dethrone  him.  Here  we  see  the 
Curetes  "  who,  as  the  story  is,  erst  drowned  in  Crete  the  infant  cry  of 
Jove,  when  the  young  band  about  the  babe  in  rapid  dance,  arms  in 
hand,  to  measured  tread,  beat  brass  on  brass,  that  Saturn  might  not 
get  him  to  consign  to  his  devouring  jaws"  (Lucretius,  ii.  629). 

Machaon  and  Nestor  (6). — A  scene  from  the  Iliad  (book  xi.). 
Machaon,  the  Greek  physician,  having  been  wounded,  is  tended  in  the 
tent  of  Nestor.  Machaon  is  seated,  and  to  him  Nestor  administers 
a  draught.  Hecamede,  who  had  prepared  the  potion,  stands  behind  ; 
she  holds  in  her  left  hand  the  patera  upon  which  she  had  presented  the 
cup  to  Nestor.    Two  slaves  are  in  attendance. 

The  building  Of  the  "  ArgO  "  (9). — Jason,  King  of  Iolchos,  having 
come  to  man's  estate,  demanded  of  Pelias  his  father's  kingdom,  which 
he  held  wrongfully.  But  Pelias  answered,  that  if  he  would  bring  from 
Colchis  the  golden  fleece  of  the  ram  that  had  carried  Phryxus  thither, 


556 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES  chap. 


he  would  yield  him  his  right.  So  Jason  called  on  all  the  heroes  to  join 
him  in  the  quest  of  the  golden  fleece,  and  Argus,  the  famed  shipbuilder, 
came  down  to  Iolchos  and  taught  them  to  build  a  galley.  And  the 
goddess  Athena  helped  them  with  many  a  secret  of  the  craft.  In  one 
bas-relief,  the  man  using  the  chisel  and  hammer  is  Argus  ;  the  other, 
who  is  assisted  by  Athena  to  fix  the  sail  to  the  yard,  is  Tiphys,  the 
pilot.  The  tree  may  be  introduced  to  symbolise  the  forests  of  Pelion, 
from  which  timber  for  the  Argo  was  procured.  This  slab  was  found 
in  the  old  wall  of  a  vineyard,  near  the  Porta  Latina  at  Rome,  where 
it  had  been  made  use  of  in  place  of  bricks. 

Visit  of  Dionysus  to  Icarius  (10). — Another  stock  subject.  We 
have  seen  already  a  relief  of  it  in  stone  (p.  62). 

The  infant  Dionysus  in  a  basket  (11). — The  baby  god  is  being 
swung  in  a  wicker  basket  such  as  was  used  for  winnowing 

corn  and  cradling  children.  The  satyr  holds  a  thyrsus,  the  nymph 
a  torch,  both  inverted  over  the  child's  head.  Winckelmann  refers  to 
this  bas-relief  as  explaining  the  epithet  \ixvirr}s  as  applied  to  Bacchus  : 
Bacchus  carried  in  a  cradle.  A  basket  or  cradle  of  the  same  kind  was 
used  in  the  ceremonials  of  the  god  to  carry  the  sacrificial  utensils  and 
first-fruit  offerings. 

"Warrior  consulting  an  oracle  (12). — Apollo  is  represented  resting 
his  right  hand  upon  a  lyre  of  square  form,  through  which  is  seen  a  raven. 
This  bas-relief,  which  was  in  the  Townley  Gallery,  was  restored  by 
Nollekens. 

Very  curious  is  a  representation  of  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (15). 

— Combe  suggests  that  this  should  be  ascribed  to  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
when  the  Egyptianising  proclivities  of  that  Emperor  had  brought 
Egyptian  subjects  into  favour.  It  seems  more  probable,  however, 
that  this  is  a  burlesque.  Another  comic  Egyptian  scene  with  pygmies 
and  Nile  animals  and  plants  may  be  noticed  (Case  18).  In  the  fore- 
ground, a  hippopotamus,  two  crocodiles,  some  birds,  and  plants  of  the 
nymphcea  lotus  ;  in  the  distance,  two  buildings  on  which  three  ibises 
are  seen. 

Victory  sacrificing  a  bull  (Cases  15,  18). — This  stock  subject  (see 
p.  82)  appears  on  several  panels. 

Venus  riding  on  a  swan  (16). — A  subject  which  we  have  seen 
already  on  a  painted  vase  (p.  373)  ;  on  a  Sicilian  coin  (II.  C.  18)  the 
nymph  Camarina  is  similarly  represented. 

The  "bearded  Bacchus  appears  on  another  slab  (16),  with  a  Bacchante 
in  frenzy;  each  bears  a  thyrsus,  the  nature  of  which  is  here  well  seen. 
It  was  a  long  pole  with  an  ornamental  head  formed  with  a  fir-cone. 
On  another  slab  (9)  is  the  youthful  Bacchus,  carrying  a  similar  pole  ; 
by  his  side  is  a  faun  who  bears  an  inverted  torch  in  his  right  hand, 
and  with  his  left  supports  an  amphora  upon  his  shoulder.  On  another 
slab  (14),  the  youthful  Bacchus  leans  on  the  shoulder  of  a  faun  who 
carries  a  similar  torch.  Bacchus  is  pouring  wine  into  the  mouth  of  a 
panther  placed  at  his  feet.  On  the  other  side  is  a  Bacchante  holding 
a  thyrsus  decorated  with  fillets.     On  another  slab  (13)  a  panther  rears 


XXIV 


MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES 


557 


beside  a  wine-vase,  of  which  the  projecting  handles  terminate  in  leaves 
of  ivy.  £<  They  say,"  records  an  ancient  explanation  of  the  Bacchanalian 
rites,  * 4  that  even  panthers  delight  in  wine."  A  graceful  composition 
(in  Case  14)  is  formed  of  two  young  fauns  supporting  a  tazza  and  lean- 
ing over  it,  as  if  to  see  their  faces  reflected  on  the  surface  of  its  contents. 

63f  We  now  leave  the  Etruscan  Saloon  by  the  side-door,  and  en,ter 
the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  and  Gems. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 

[In  this  room  much  treasure  is  exhibited  in  a  little,  space.  Objects  of 
small  size  and  special  value  are  here  collected  from  various  de- 
partments for  better  security.  The  collections  may  roughly  be 
classed  tinder  two  heads,  and  we  divide  our  descriptions  into 
two  chapters ,  dealing,  as  their  main  subjects,  with  ( I )  Gold  Or7ta- 
ments  (Ch.  xxv. )  artd  (2)  Engraved  Gems  (Ch.  xxvi. )  respectively. 
In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  exa?nine  (a)  the  historical  collec- 
tion of  ancient  jeivellery ;  (b)  Roman  frescoes  ;  (c)  British  and 
Mediceval  jewellery ;  (d)  Roman  silver-plate ;  (e)  the  Franks 
Bequest.  In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  deal  with  (a)  ancient 
intaglios  ;  (b)  ancient  cameos  ;  (c)  the  Portland  vase  ;  (d)  pastes  ; 
(e)  Renaissance  gems  and  other  gold  ornaments,  including  if) 
the  gold  cup  of  the  Kings  of  France.  ] 

"  The  history  of  Greek  art  begins,  as  some  have  fancied  general  history 
to  begin,  in  a  golden  age,  but  in  an  age,  so  to  speak,  of  real  gold, 
the  period  of  those  first  twisters  and  hammerers  of  the  precious 
metals — men  who  had  already  discovered  the  flexibility  of  silver 
and  the  ductility  of  gold,  the  capacity  of  both  for  infinite  delicacy 
of  handling  and  who  enjoyed,  with  complete  freshness,  a  sense  of 
beauty  and  fitness  in  their  work — a  period  of  which  that  flower  of 
gold  on  a  silver  stalk,  picked  up  lately  in  one  of  the  graves  of 
Mycenae,  or  the  legendary  golden  honeycomb  of  Daedalus,  might 
serve  as  the  symbol "  (Pater,  Greek  Studies,  p.  200). 

MYCENAEAN  ORNAMENTS 

Of  this  earliest  Greek  work  in  gold,  of  which  Mr.  Pater 
speaks,  the  British  Museum  now  possesses  a  rich  collection. 
It  is  of  great  interest  both  historically  and  artistically.  His- 
torically it  takes  us  back  to  that  remote  civilisation  of  which 
the  tradition  lingered  in  the  Homeric  poems,  and  which  has 
opened  up  in  the  field  of  Greece  a  vista  of  civilisation  perhaps 

558 


chap,  xxv     THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


559 


not  less  extensive  than  that  which  has  long  been  known  to  us 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  To  this  period  and  phase  of  culture 
the  term  "  ^Egean "  is  sometimes  given,  because  the  remains 
of  it  have  mostly  been  found  on  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the 
^Egean  sea.  Artistically  the  collection  here  before  us  is  of 
interest  as  showing  considerable  skill  and  delicacy  in  the 
goldsmith's  craft.  It  is  described  as  "  Mycensean,"  because 
remains  of  this  homogeneous  prehistoric  civilisation,  which 
in  the  last  twenty  years  have  been  yielded  sporadically  by 
the  whole  ^Egean  district,  were  first  discovered  at  Mycenae.1 
It  was  in  November  1876  that  Schliemann  discovered  in  the 
so-called  "  tomb  of  Agamemnon  55  one  of  "the  most  wonderful 
hoards  that  have  ever  met  a  treasure -seeker's  eye.  Gold 
appeared  in  abundance  never  before  seen  in  Greek  tombs,  or 
indeed  in  any  but  Scythian,  beaten  into  face-marks,  head- 
bands, heart  -  pieces,  and  innumerable  stamped  plaques,  into 
bracejets,  necklaces,  rings,  baldrics,  trinkets,  dagger  and  sword 
hilts.  Ivory,  silver,  bronze,  alabaster  were  there  as  well  and 
in  profusion,  the  whole  treasure  in  mere  money  being  worth 
thousands  sterling."  This  wonderful  treasure-trove  is  now  in 
the  National  Museum  at  Athens. 

Here  in  Table-case  T  (Compartments  1  and  2,  and  37  and 
38  on  the  reverse  slope  of  the  same  case)  we  have  the  result 
of  another  "  find  ;;  which  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  Schlie- 
mann's.  The  objects  were  found  together  in  a  tomb  in  one  of 
the  Greek  islands.  The  exact  provenance  of  this  valuable  and 
interesting  collection  had  to  be  kept  secret,  owing  to  the  Greek 
law  forbidding  exportation,2  but  the  island  is  believed  to  have 
been  iEgina,    The  find  includes  the  following  objects  : — 

A  cup,  of  very  pure  gold,  ornamented  with  a  repousse  design  of  a 
central  rosette  surrounded  by  four  returning  spirals. — These  spirals  are 
very  characteristic  of  Mycenaean  work  ;  Newton  suggests  that  they  may 
have  been  first  suggested  by  the  facility  with  which  gold  wire  can  be 
worked  into  such  a  pattern  (Essays  on  Archeology p.  276). 

GrOld  rosettes,  stamped. — Each  of  these  is  pierced  with  a  hole, 
and  they  were  probably  fastened  on  the  garments  in  which  the  dead 
were  buried.  The  general  character  of  the  ornaments  shows  that  the 
tomb  was  that  of  a  woman. 

1  For  other  references  to  the  "  My censean  question,"  see  pp.  87,  285,  289. 

2  This  law  does  not  altogether  succeed  in  its  object.  There  is  an 
attraction,  stronger  than  restrictive  legislation,  that  still  draws  antiquities 
from  all  parts  to  our  shores.  But  the  law  inflicts  some  injury  on  science 
in  causing  the  provenance  of  antiquities  to  be  concealed. 


560  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap, 


Gold  pendant  of  two  open-work  plates,  from  which  are  suspended 
by  small  chains  five  gold  disks. — The  upper  plate  is  embossed  with  a 
design  of  a  man  holding  two  water  -  birds.  This  is  one  of  several 
Mycenaean  pieces  in  which  Egyptian  influence  is  strongly  marked. 
The  design  recalls  Egypt  alike  in  the  attitude,  in  the  proportions,  and 
in  the  costume,  and  it  may  perhaps  be  meant  to  represent  a  fowler  in 
a  Nile  boat  with  trophies  of  his  sport  (see  the  wall  -  painting  from 
Thebes  in  the  Northern  Egyptian  Gallery,  No.  170).  It  is  not 
believed  that  Mycenaean  art  was  Egyptian,  nor  that  the  influence  of 
the  East  was  brought  into  the  ^Egean  lands  by  Egyptians.  But  the 
Egyptian  character  of  much  Mycenaean  art  points  to  a  lively  inter- 
change between  the  two  peoples. 

Necklace  of  gold  and  carnelian  beads. — In  this  ornament  again 
Egyptian  influence  may  be  seen.  Notice  the  ornaments  in  the  shape 
of  a  hand  grasping  a  woman's  heart,  from  beneath  which  in  each  case 
hangs  a  small  acorn  of  an  olive-green  stone  in  a  gold  cup.  The  action 
is  that  seen  in  figures  of  Isis  giving  suck,  and  has  evident  reference 
to  fecundity.  Such  ornaments  were  doubtless  worn  as  charms  or 
talismans. 

GrOld  rings. — Six  of  these  equal  in  weight  the  gold  bracelet,  and 

it  is  probable,  therefore,  that  they  were  ring  money.  In  a  primitive 
state  of  society,  in  the  present  day,  a  woman  often  wears  her  dowry 
in  coins  as  ornaments  ;  and  these  ancient  rings  may  have  been  both 
ornaments  and  substitutes  for  money  (see,  for  fuller  descriptions  of 
these  ornaments,  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans's  article  on  this  find  in  the  Journal 
of  Hellenic  Studies ',  vol.  xiii.  p.  195). 

Of  the  same  "  Mycenaean "  character  are  the  objects  in 
Compartments  34  and  35.  These  come  from  the  cemetery  of 
lalysus  in  E-hodes  (see  285)  and  from  Crete.  From  the 
former  comes  a  porcelain  scarab  of  Amenophis  III.,  whose 
date  was  about  1450  B.C.  This  shows  that  the  tomb  cannot 
be  earlier  than  that  date,  but  it  may  have  been  much  later, 
for  the  royal  cartouches  were  used  long  after  the  time  of  the 
owner — just  as  the  discovery  of  a  coin  fixes  the  earliest  possible 
date,  but  not  the  latest,  of  objects  with  v/hich  it  may  be  found. 
Among  the  objects  from  Crete  are  an  ear-ring  in  the  form  of  a 
Cretan  goat  and  a  gold  bee — a  neat  specimen  of  early  granu- 
lated work  acquired  from  Crete  in  1875.  There  are  also  in 
the  Museum  collection  fourteen  bodies  of  bees  in  gold,  of  late 
Etruscan  work,  and  the  presence  of  the  bee  on  sepulchral 
jewellery  suggests  to  a  commentator  on  this  gold  bee  an 
interesting  chapter  in  zoological  mythology  : — 

The  bee  when  left  to  itself  chooses  as  its  abode  (1)  some  crevice 
in  a  cliff  or  stone  (thus  in  the  Psalms,  "With  honey  out  of  the  rock 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


56i 


should  I  have  satisfied  thee,"  and  in  the  Iliad,  "  They  swarmed  like 
bees  that  sally  from  some  hollow  cave  ")  ;  or  (2)  the  trunk  of  a  tree  ;  or 
(3)  the  carcase  of  some  animal  (thus  in  Judges,  "  He  turned  aside  to  see 
the  carcase  of  the  lion  ;  and,  behold,  there  was  a  swarm  of  bees  and 
honey  in  the  carcase  of  the  lion").  These  habits  of  the  bees  gave 
rise  under  each  head  to  a  complicated  symbolism.  Thus  (1)  cave-bees 
became  the  guardians  of  the  infant  Zeus  :  in  this  connection  we  have 
already  seen  a  curious  vase-painting  (B  177,  p.  326)  ;  the  (2)  trunk- 
bees  became  bee-nymphs  ;  and  (3)  the  swarming  of  bees  in  a  carcase 
suggested  the  idea  that  bees  represented  the  life  of  the  defunct  animal. 
Hence  gold  bees  which  have  been  found  in  tombs  were  probably 
intended  to  symbolise  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  In  a  Scandinavian 
grave  a  bronze  statue  has  been  found  of  a  youth  with  bees  arranged  on 
his  heart.  This  belief  is  not  extinct  in  modern  Europe.  In  the  Engadine 
it  is  still  thought  that  the  souls  of  men  revisit  the  world  in  the  form  of 
bees,  which  are  there  considered  messengers  of  death.  When  any  one 
dies,  the  bee  is  invoked  almost  as  if  it  were  the  soul  of  the  departed  : 
Bienchen,  unser  Herr  ist  todt  :  Verlass  mich  nicht  in  meiner  Noth 
(Gubernatis,  Zoological  Mythology,  ii.  218,  cited  by  A.  B.  Cook  in  his 
article  on  "  The  Bee  in  Greek  Mythology,"/- H.S,  xv.  1).  The  bee 
would  of  course  be  specially  appropriate  in  Cretan  jewellery,  as  Crete 
was  traditionally  the  original  home  of  that  insect. 

GOLD  ORNAMENTS  FROM  CYPRUS 

{Compartment  6  and  in  the  Table- cases  below  the  three 
windows} 

Another  and  a  more  remarkable  collection  of  Mycenaean 
gold  treasure,  rivalling  even  Dr.  Schliemann's  own,  is  the 
result  of  the  excavations  at  Enkomi,  Cyprus,  to  which  we  have 
already  referred  in  connection  with  the  pottery  there  discovered 
(p.  287).  The  objects  here  exhibited  from  this  "  find  "  number 
nearly  five  hundred.  We  shall  note  the  most  important  classes, 
and  single  out  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  specimens. 

Most  numerous  are  the  gold  plates  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  were  used  for  sepulchral  purposes  : — 

"  There  are  a  hundred-and-fifty-five  diadems  and  mouth-plates  of 
pure  gold  plates,  some  plain,  but  for  the  most  part  simply  and  charm- 
ingly ornamented  by  embossed  patterns  impressed  from  steatite  or 
other  hard  stone  moulds.  Although  the  ornamentation  is  so  primitive, 
the  variations  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  previous  finds,  and  re- 
markable taste  is  displayed  in  the  combinations  of  the  moulds  made 
use  of.  These  plaques  were  placed  on  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  the 
diadems,  six  to  eight  inches  long,  being  placed  on  the  forehead,  and 

2  O 


562 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


the  mouth-plates,  pointed  and  oval  in  shape,  over  the  lips.  Some  of 
the  smaller  were  armlets,  varying  from  four  to  six  inches,  and  ateut 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  broad.  The  general  form  of  the  ornamenta- 
tion is  a  coil  or  spiral  about  half  an  inch  across,  which  is  made  to 
do  duty  by  intertwining  in  various  ways,  or  by  being  implicated  in 
opposite  directions,  or  grouped  in  sets  of  three  or  six,  and  sometimes 
interwoven  with  lotus  leaves.  In  other  plates  the  ornamentation  is  in 
rosettes,  with  a  central  boss,  from  which  radiate  one  or  two  circular 
sets  of  linear  rays,  or  a  sort  of  figurative  sun.  In  others  the  ornamenta- 
tion is  formed  by  very  numerous  bulls'  heads.  In  one  there  is  a  pleas- 
ing mixture  of  lotus  and  volutes.  Another  has  a  very  rich  form  of 
double  palmette.  A  third  has  a  palmette  of  three  lobes,  and  a  fourth 
is  most  artistically  covered  with  impressions  of  small  sphinxes."  (I 
cite  this  and  some  of  the  following  descriptions  from  an  article  in  the 
Standard  of  December  19,  1896.) 

Another  feature  of  the  find  is  the  quantity  of  gold -wire 
rings  or  coils,  many  of  which  are  looped  together  in  chains. 
These  were  probably  intended  and  used  as  uncoined  money, 
and  this  means  of  making  payment  would  appear  to  have 
been  occasionally  carried  down  to  later  times,  if  we  may  trust 
a  passage  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Quentin  Durward. 

There  is  another  remarkable  feature  in  the  present  find — 
namely,  the  gold-wire  pins  (several  are  in  Compartment  6), 
varying  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  but  which,  perhaps,  we 
should  more  properly  have  called  fibulae.  At  the  top  of  the 
pin  is  a  boss  of  gold  wire  frosted  with  granulated  enamel  or 
gold.  Stout  gold  wire  is  twisted  together  to  form  the  shaft  of 
the  pin,  and  midway  a  loop  for  a  cord  to  fasten  the  dress  is 
formed  by  a  wire  ring  bound  on  to  the  shaft  of  the  pin  : — 

"  Pins  of  this  type  appear  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  the  fibula 
(or  safety-pin)  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  one  or  two  figures  on  the 
Francois  vase  (at  Florence)  appear  to  have  their  chitons  fastened  on 
the  shoulder  by  means  of  similar  pins,  although  of  course  this  vase  is 
not  earlier  in  date  than  600  B.C.  The  hole  was  intended  for  the  in- 
sertion of  a  piece  of  wire,  which  was  twisted  round  the  drapery  and 
held  it  in  place.  The  transition  from  this  to  the  safety-pin  type,  con- 
sisting of  pin  and  bow  ending  in  a  hook  to  catch  the  end  of  the  pin, 
can  easily  be  understood.  Similar  pins  with  holes  have  been  found  in 
Northern  and  Central  Europe"  (H.  B.  Walters,  Catalogue  of  Bronzes , 
p.  fix.). 

The  pins  have  a  long  sharp  point  like  a  stiletto.  Apart  from  their 
great  antiquity  and  their  interest  as  articles  of  dress,  they  on  one  occa- 
sion played  a  sufficiently  conspicuous  part  in  history  to  attract  the 
notice  of  Herodotus.     He  tells  us  (v.  87)  that  from  a  great  battle 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


563 


between  the  ^ginetans  and  the  Athenians  only  one  man  of  the  latter 
escaped  death  ;  this  individual,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  recounted  the 
disaster  which  had  overtaken  their  army.  "And  when  the  wives  of 
the  men  who  had  gone  on  the  expedition  against  ^Egina  heard  it," 
they,  "  enraged  that  he  alone  of  the  whole  number  should  be  saved, 
crowded  round  this  man,  and  piercing  him  with  the  pins  of  their 
garments  (rjcrt  irepovrjcn  tCov  tyuctnW),  each  asked  him  where  her 
own  husband  was  :  thus  he  died." 

We  may  next  notice  a  series  of  gold  ear-rings.  Some  are 
in  the  form  of  bulls'  heads,  about  an  inch  in  length  and  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  across  at  the  frontal  part.  There  are  other 
ear-rings  about  two  inches  in  length,  made  of  thick  gold  bar, 
the  ring  being  very  much  thickened  at  the  pendant  end.  The 
collection  of  ear-rings  is  interesting  as  showing  the  evolution 
of  a  pattern,  by  degradation,  from  animal  form  to  geometrical 
design.  The  original  is  the  bull's  head  ;  and  even  when  the 
pattern  is  at  its  completest  the  shape  can  be  traced,  and  in  the 
spirals  one  may  detect  horns  and  ears  and  eyes. 

One  very  large  pendant  (in  the  first  window-case)  is  of 
special  interest  from  another  point  of  view.  It  is  in  the 
globular  form  of  a  pomegranate,  and  is  covered  with  diagonal 
patterns  consisting  of  minute  globules  of  gold  soldered  down 
on  the  surface,  as  in  some  of  the  beautiful  objects  of  the 
Etruscan  period.  The  occurrence  of  this  technical  process  in 
the  Enkomi  finds  may  have  some  significance  for  the  dating  of 
these  Mycenaean  objects.  For  "  it  happens  that  precisely  the 
same  process  of  soldering  down  minute  globules  of  gold  and 
arranging  them  in  the  same  patterns  abounds  in  a  series  of 
gold  ornaments  in  the  British  Museum  which  were  found  at 
Camirus  in  Rhodes,  along  with  a  large  porcelain  scarab  of  the 
Egyptian  king  Psammetichos  I.  (666-612  B.C.).  Our  pendant 
is  doubtless  older,  but  hardly  seven  centuries  older"  {Excava- 
tions in  Cyprus,  p.  18). 

The  finger  rings  are  also  very  notable  ;  there  is  a  massive 
double  one  of  solid  gold,  or,  it  may  be  better  to  say,  two  single 
rings  joined  ;  it  has  two  large  and  very  long  oval  tablets,  as 
for  signets  ;  but  the  double  article  may  have  been  intended  as 
a  marriage  ring.  The  tablets  are  both  engraved  with  lions. 
There  is  another  fine  signet  (in  Compartment  6),  with  inscrip- 
tion in  hieroglyphics  indicating  the  Goddess  Mut.  This  is  of 
genuine  Egyptian  workmanship. 

Amongst  the  necklaces  are  two,  more  or  less  complete, 


564  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 
 %  


composed  of  long  gold  beads  of  seed-like  shape,  about  an  inch 
in  length  and  half  an  inch  across.  These  are  strung  together, 
with  small  disks  between  them,  most  elegant  in  design.  An 
immense  and  marvellously  fine  bracelet,  over  a  foot  in  length, 
and  fully  two  inches  deep,  constituted  of  link-plates  of 
Homeric  shields,  is  a  most  interesting  and  prominent  object, 
in  beautiful  preservation.  It  is  rivalled  in  interest,  but  not 
excelled,  by  the  far  larger  and  very  beautiful  Egyptian 
pectoral,  to  which  a  crowning  position  in  the  general  collec- 
tion may  be  assigned  : — 

"  It  consists  of  seven  rows  of  ornaments,  the  rows  being  more  or  less 
fragmentary.  As  it  is,  the  first  or  top  row  consists  of  thirty  cylindrical 
plain  gold  beads,  with  little  wire  eyes  at  top  and  at  bottom.  Into  the 
eyes  at  the  bottom  the  little  hooks  of  the  second  row  of  ornaments  fit. 
Of  this  second  row  fourteen  of  the  ornaments  remain.  These  are  in 
pairs,  the  one  smooth,  triangular,  with  point  downwards  ;  its  com- 
panion with  broad  end  down  and  point  uppermost — the  latter  being,  as 
it  were,  cut  open  and  enamelled.  The  third  row  has  twenty  plain 
gold  tooth-like  beads.  The  fourth  row  consists  of  purse-like  orna- 
ments, beautifully  made,  with  little  pockets  and  flaps,  brightly 
enamelled,  each  being  hung  on  two  beads  of  the  row  above.  The  fifth 
row  is  formed  of  a  series  of  two  purse-like  ornaments,  with  a  long- 
necked,  bottle-shaped  ornament  between  them.  There  are  twelve  of 
these  remaining.  The  sixth  row  has  ten  round  ornaments  of  geld,  and 
under  these  again  there  comes  a  finishing  row  of  cross^barred  gold 
pendants''  {Standard,  December  19,  1896). 

With  regard  to  the  date  of  this  piece,  Dr.  Murray  says  : — 

"  As  the  painted  pectorals  on  the  mummy-cases  extend  over  a  wide 
period  of  time,  and  do  not  appear  to  vary  considerably  in  form,  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  obtain  from  them  a  guide  as  to  the  date  of  our 
specimen.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  process  of 
inlaying  in  gold  with  coloured  pastes,  instead  of  with  precious  stones, 
occurs  in  the  so-called  Treasure  of  iEgina,  now  in  the  Museum,  which 
has  been  assigned  by  Mr.  Arthur  Evans,  with,  we  believe,  general  con- 
sent, to  about  800  B.C.  (/.U.S.  xiii.  224).  The  employment  of 
vitreous  pastes  in  Egypt  is  said  by  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie  to  have  been 
begun  between  1100  and  800  B.C.  (/.U.S.  xii.  201).  At  present  that 
seems  to  be  the  nearest  approach  that  can  be  made  to  the  date  of  our 
pectoral.  Whether  it  is  of  pure  Egyptian  fabric  or  a  Phoenician  imita- 
tion has  not  been  determined"  (Excavations  in  Cyprus,  p.  41). 

The  whole  collection  is  remarkable  for  so  distinctly  showing 
the  work  of  a  primitive  population  who  made  fine  gold  orna- 
ments from  the  native  gold  of  their  island,  and  imported  from 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


565 


traders  works  of  higher  art  than  the  native  industry  was  able 
to  produce.  Cyprus,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  famous  for 
its  metals — especially  copper,  our  name  for  which  is  derived 
from  aes  Cyftrium  (Cyprian  brass).  It  is  striking,  in  the  case 
of  the  native  ornaments,  to  find  representations  of  animal 
forms  of  remarkable  naturalism  side  by  side  with  primitive 
exhibitions  of  decorative  skill.  When,  later  on,  in  this  room, 
we  come  to  specimens  of  Celtic  gold  ornaments,  we  shall  be 
struck  by  the  identity  of  the  Celtic  spiral  with  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic motives  of  Mycenaean  decoration.  "  The  typical 
returning  spiral  seems  to  have  found  its  way,  perhaps  through 
intertribal  barter,  along  the  amber-trade  route  of  the  Moldau 
and  Elbe  valleys,  to  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  even  to 
primitive  Ireland"  (Authority  and  Archozology,  p.  252). 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  certainly  interesting  to  find  a  com- 
munity of  artistic  development,  or  instinct,  between  the  people 
of  the  Mycenaean  age  and  the  Celts  of  Europe. 


IVORIES  FROM  CYPRUS 

These  include  some  very  remarkable  specimens.  In  Com- 
partment 6  is  a  circular  bronze  mirror,  set  in  an  ivory  handle, 
carved  on  both  sides  with  a  lion  attacking  a  bull.  In  the 
small  shade  above  is  a  similar  mirror-handle  in  a  better  state 
of  preservation.  On  one  side  an  armed  warrior,  whom  later 
Greek  legend  more  definitely  specified  as  an  Arimasp,  is 
engaged  in  combat  with  a  Gryphon,  who  has  large  wings,  an 
eagle's  head,  and  a  lion's  body  and  legs.  On  the  reverse  is  a 
lion  attacking  a  bull  nearly  as  in  the  mirror-handle  already 
mentioned. 

The  subject  of  a  man  slaying  a  gryphon  occurs  frequently 
in  Phoenician  art ;  but  in  the  lion  and  bull  we  may  see  "  a 
largeness  and  breadth  of  style  quite  foreign  in  artistic  spirit  to 
anything  that  has  survived  from  Egypt,  Assyria,  or  Phoenicia." 
It  is  "  more  like  a  premonition,  of  Greek  genius."  There  is, 
too,  "  singular  ingenuity  in  the  composition.  There  is  hardly 
a  slab  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  on  which  the  background  of  the 
relief  is  more  fully  occupied  by  the  subject"  (Excavations  in 
Cyprus,  pp.  11,  31). 

The  ivory  draught-box  (in  a  shade  above  Compartments  10 
and  1 1 )  is  the  most  remarkable  specimen  of  its  kind  that  has 


566 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


yet  been  found.  .  The  lid  is  divided  into  squares  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  game.  The  central  row  has  twelve  squares,  and 
on  each  side  are  two  rows  of  only  four  squares  each,  grouped 
at  one  end.  Draught-boards  similarly  divided  may  be  seen  in 
the  Fourth  Egyptian  Room.  The  game  is  of  extreme  an- 
tiquity; the  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  by  Plato  to  the  Egyptian 
god,  Thoth  {Phcedrus,  274  C).  Professor  Ridgeway  identifies 
the  game  as  that  known  to  the  Greeks  of  Plato's  time  as  Polis, 
in  which  the  pieces  were  called  "  dogs "  (/.U.S.  xvi.  290). 
In  one  box,  five  of  the  squares  are  occupied  by  rosettes,  which 
may  represent  the  pieces  ;  some  of  the  ivory  disks  found  at 
Enkomi  and  similarly  decorated  may  have  been  used  in  the 
game.  In  that  case  the  box  would  not  have  been  intended 
for  actual  use,  but  rather  as  an  imitation  of  a  draught-box. 
The  sides  of  the  box  are  ornamented  in  relief.  On  the  long 
sides  are  hunting  scenes,  which  are  like  Assyrian  friezes  in 
miniature.  A  man  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  galloping  horses 
pursues  a  herd  of  deer  and  ibex.  He  is  drawing  his  bow,  but 
most  of  the  deer  are  already  transfixed  with  his  arrows.  At 
the  closed  end  of  the  box  is  a  group  of  two  bulls,  in  which 
naturalism  prevails  over  conventionalism  in  the  forms.  At  the 
other  end  is  a  smaller  relief  of  a  pair  of  ibex  standing  on  each 
side  of  a  sacred  tree.  This  group  is  conspicuously  conventional 
in  treatment.  An  equal  mixture  of  styles  is  observable  on  the 
long  sides.  The  general  conception  is  Assyrian,  but  it  is 
carried  out  with  "a  rough,  free  treatment,  which  shows  no  sign 
of  either  Assyrian  or  Egyptian  influence."  In  this  respect  it 
diners  from  the  ivories  from  Nimroud  which  are  shown  in  the 
Nimroud  Gallery  downstairs  (see  Excavations  in  Cyprus,  pp. 
9-14,  30- 

Gold  ornaments  from  Rhodes. — Gold  ornaments  of  a 
period  immediately  subsequent  to  those  already  described  are 
exhibited  in  Compartments  4  and  5  of  Case  T.  They  were 
mostly  acquired  by  the  Museum  in  1861  from  the  excavations 
of  M.  Salzmann  and  Mr.  (now  Sir  Alfred)  Biliotti  among  the 
tombs  of  Camirus.  Their  date  is  approximately  fixed  by  a 
porcelain  scarab  found  in  one  of  the  graves.  This  contains 
the  name  of  the  Egyptian  king,  Psammetichus  I.  (666-612  B.C.). 
Some  of  the  ornaments  exhibit  the  process  of  soldering  minute 
globules  of  gold  which  has  been  referred  to  above  (p.  563). 
A  pair  of  pendants  for  ear-rings  with  winged  bulls  is  very 
Assyrian  in  style.    The  types  generally  are  still  semi-Oriental 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


567 


in  character.  Notice  the  rings  above  the  plaques,  showing 
that  the  ornaments  were  worn  threaded  on  a  string,  probably 
about  the  girdle. 

Compartment  5  also  contains  a  gold  bowl,  for  making 
libations,  with  figures  of  bulls  in  repousse  work.  This  was 
found  at  Girgenti  in  Sicily. 

[For  a  description  of  the  Portland  vase  which  stands  above  Table-case 
T,  see  next  chapter  {p.  654).  The  historical  collection  of  ancient 
jewellery  is  continued  in  the  wall-cases  behind  us  {A-O),  to  which 
we  must  now  turn.] 

EARLY  PHCENICIAN  JEWELLERY 

The  ancient  jewellery  of  ages  later  than  the  Mycenaean 
is  arranged  in  chronological  order,  beginning  (Case  A)  with 
objects  of  a  Phoenician  character  (i.e.  free  imitation  of  Egyp- 
tian work),  found  chiefly  in  Cyprus  and  at  the  Phoenician 
settlement  of  Tharros  in  Sardinia  (see  p.  705).  Personal  orna- 
ments were,  as  is  well  known,  among  the  very  first  objects  on 
which  the  invention  and  ingenuity  of  man  were  exercised. 
There  is  no  record  of  any  people  so  rude  as  not  to  employ 
some  kind  of  personal  decoration,  and  in  all  the  early  civilisa- 
tions the  art  of  jewellery  reached  a  high  degree  of  skill. 
We  have  seen  this  already  in  the  case  of  "^Egean"  and 
"  Mycenaean  *  ornaments.  The  visitor  to  the  British  Museum 
can  study  the  same  thing  in  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Collec- 
tions, while  a  walk  through  the  Ethnographical  Galleries  will 
remind  him  how  far,  among  the  most  backward  and  savage 
races,  the  use  of  natural  objects,  such  as  small  shells,  dried 
berries,  and  feathers,  is  carried  for  purposes  of  personal 
adornment. 

Some  of  the  necklaces  in  Case  A  approach  to  this  primitive 
type  ;  they  are  mere  strings  of  stones  and  beads.  Others  are 
more  elaborately  worked,  and  have  little  idols  suspended  from 
them.  The  bangles  with  heavy  gold  ends  are  of  a  barbaric 
type  ;  but  many  of  the  objects  here  exhibited  show  a  high 
standard  of  skill.  We  may  note  a  silver  vase  from  Camirus,  on 
which  are  Phoenician  imitations  of  Egyptian  cartouches,  and  part 
of  a  silver  girdle  from  Cyprus,  with  plaques  in  relief  and  a  frieze 
of  flower-bells.  But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  piece  is  the 
silver  ring  from  Cyprus,  on  which,  in  place  of  the  bezel,  a 


568 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


golden  fly  has  alighted- — "  a  fly  of  such  wonderful  truth  to 
nature,"  says  Mr.  Cecil  Smith,  "and  yet  such  cunning  skill, 
that  even  that  prince  of  goldsmiths,  Signor  Giuliano,  to  whom 
I  showed  it,  pronounces  it  a  marvel  of  his  art"  {Classical 
Review,  i.  25).  This  finger  ring  was  found  in  the  same  tomb 
as  a  charming  perfume  vase  already  described,  B  668,  p.  322 
(see /.U.S.  viii.  291,  318)0 

ORNAMENTS   IN  AMBER 

These  archaic  ornaments  in  amber  (Case  B),  with  accessories 
in  gold  and  silver,  are  from  various  sites  in  Italy,  especially 
Etruria.  Amber,  now  chiefly  used  among  Western  nations  for 
the  mouthpieces  of  pipes  and  cigarette-holders,  was  among  the 
ancients  greatly  esteemed  for  purposes  of  ornamentation.  It 
was  indeed  the  gem  par  excellence  of  the  ancient  civilised 
world,  and  as  such  "  it  was  for  ages  the  important  and  prin- 
cipal factor  in  the  intercourse  of  various  and  widely  separated 
peoples,  thereby  promoting  trade  ventures  and  commercial 
rivalry,  and  extending  some  of  the  arts  of  peace  and  culture  to 
distant  and  savage  lands 55  (W.  A.  Buffum,  The  Tears  of  the 
He  Hades,  or  Amber  as  a  Gem).  The  property  of  developing 
electrical  phenomena  by  friction  doubtless  drew  early  attention 
to  it,  and  invested  it  with  the  romantic  interest  which  attached 
to  it  in  ancient  times,  and  is  preserved  in  the  legend  of  the 
daughters  of  the  sun,  turned  into  poplar-trees,  whose  tears 
became  amber  as  they  fell. 

Milton  refers  to  the  legend  in  his  reference  to  the  river 
Eridanus  : — 

where  weep 
Even  now  the  sister  trees  their  amber  tears 
O'er  Phaethon,  untimely  dead. 

The  legend  is  faithful  as  well  as  fanciful,  for  amber  was  in 
very  truth  "distilled  by  pines  that  were  dead  before  the  days 
of  Adam.55  It  is  the  fossilised  resin  of  an  extinct  species  of 
pine  which  flourished  in  the  Lower  Tertiary  Period.  The  yellow 
amber  with  which  we  are  most  familiar  comes  from  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic.  In  the  ornaments  here  exhibited  it  is  of  a  dark- 
red  hue,  and  came  not  improbably  from  Sicily,  where  it  is  still 
found  in  various  brilliantly  coloured  varieties.  The  earliest 
reference  to  amber  as  a  material  for  jewellery  occurs  in  the 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  569 


Odyssey  (xv.  460),  in  a  passage  which  is  also  of  interest  as 
illustrating  the  Phoenician  trade  in  jewels.  The  passage 
occurs  in  the  account  given  by  Eumasus  of  his  home  and 
adventures  in  the  island  of  "  Syria  "  : — 

"  Thither  came  the  Phoenicians,  mariners  renowned,  greedy 
merchantmen,  with  all  manner  of  gauds  in  a  black  ship.  .  .  .  There 
came  a  man  versed  in  craft  to  my  father's  house,  with  a  golden  chain 
strung  here  and  there  with  amber  beads,  and  the  maidens  in  the  hall 
and  my  lady  mother  handled  the  chain  and  gazed  on  it,  offering  him 
their  price." 

Amber  necklaces,  such  as  we  may  see  in  this  case,  were 
even  more  popular  in  Italy,  for  amber  was  invested  with 
magical  qualities.  Figures  in  amber  were  in  such  repute  in 
Rome  in  Pliny's  time  that  he  sarcastically  remarks  {N.H. 
xxxvii.  12),  "The  price  of  a  small  figure  in  it,  however  diminu- 
tive, exceeds  that  of  a  living  healthy  slave."  "True  it  is," 
says  Pliny,  further,  "  that  a  collar  of  amber  beads  worn  about 
the  necks  of  young  infants  is  a  singular  preservative  to  them 
against  secret  poison,  and  a  countercharm  for  witchcraft  and 
sorceries." 

The  objects  in  this  case,  wrought  with  little  gold,  more 
silver,  and  an  abundance  of  amber,  belong  to  the  most  ancient 
jewellery  of  Italy.  "  To  this  style  belong  necklaces  and  brace- 
lets of  the  three  materials  mixed,  or  of  coloured  glass,  often 
with  pendants  in  the  shape  of  axes,  vases,  or  other  utensils  ; 
fibulae  of  eccentric  forms  in  gold,  silver,  or  bronze,  adorned 
with  amber  or  variegated  glass ;  and  thin  plates  of  gold 
marked  with  straight  or  hatched  lines.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  articles  of  jewellery  of  similar  character  and  style 
have  been  discovered  also  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  even 
in  Mexico"  (Dennis's  Etrnria^  i.  lxxxi.).  There  are  also 
several  pendant  masks,  animals,  and  other  carvings  in  amber. 

EARLY  ETRUSCAN  ORNAMENTS 

Case  C. — The  Etruscans,  as  we  have  seen,  had  a  passion 
for  jewellery,  and  the  skill  of  the  Etruscan  goldsmiths  was 
exquisite.  We  must,  however,  distinguish  between  the  later 
and  the  earlier  style.  The  later  (Cases  E  and  F)  is  much 
coarser  ;  the  former  has  been  described  by  a  modern  expert 
as  "  the  perfection  of  jewellery,  far  transcending  all  that  the 


57o  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


most  expert  artists  of  subsequent  ages  have  been  able  to 
produce."  "It  must,"  says  Signor  Castellani,  "with  humility 
be  confessed  that  we  see  at  present,  arising  as  if  by  enchant- 
ment from  the  forgotten  cemeteries  of  Etruria  and  of  Greece, 
objects  in  gold  of  a  workmanship  so  perfect  that  not  only  all 
the  refinements  of  our  civilisation  cannot  imitate  it,  but  cannot 
even  explain  theoretically  the  process  of  its  execution  "  : — 

The  style  (of  this  early  Etruscan  work)  is  easily  recognised  by  its 
elegant  forms,  the  harmony  of  its  parts,  and  the  purity  of  its  design, 
but  chiefly  by  the  marvellous  fineness  and  elaboration  of  its  workman- 
ship. The  patterns,  which  are  always  simple  yet  most  elegant  and 
admirably  harmonious,  are  wrought  by  soldering  together  globules  or 
particles  of  gold,  so  minute  as  hardly  to  be  perceptible  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  by  the  interweaving  of  extremely  delicate  threads  of  gold5 
and  are  sometimes,  but  sparingly,  interspersed  with  enamels.  Tiny 
figures  of  men,  animals,  or  chimaeras,  exquisitely  chased  in  relief  or  in 
the  round,  form  another  and  favourite  feature  in  the  ornamentation. 
On  a  close  inspection  this  jewellery  astonishes  and  confounds  by  its 
wonderful  elaboration,  and  at  a  little  distance  it  charms  the  eye  by  its 
exquisite  taste,  and  the  graceful  character  and  harmony  of  its  outlines. 

As  examples  of  globular  work,  in  which  the  globules  are 
almost  as  fine  as  gold-dust,  we  may  especially  notice  a  large 
brooch  along  the  back  of  which  are  small  figures  of  animals, 
and  another  smaller  brooch,  in  the  shape  of  a  safety  pin,  on 
which  the  minutest  patterns  are  executed  by  means  of  globules. 
The  date  of  this  early  Etruscan  work  is  seventh  to  sixth  century 
B.C.  It  is  curious  that  the  secret  of  the  old  Etruscan  gold- 
smiths has  never  been  wholly  recovered,  though  the  Hindoo 
jewellery  of  the  present  day  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
old  Etruscan  style.  The  great  goldsmith  of  the  Renaissance, 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  abstained  from  attempting  to  imitate  it. 
He  relates  in  his  memoirs  that  Pope  Clement  VII.  showed 
him  one  day  a  gold  Etruscan  necklace  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship which  had  just  been  discovered  in  the  ground.  Cellini 
examined  it  intently  and  exclaimed  :  "  Alas,  it  is  better  not  to 
imitate  these  Etruscans,  for  we  should  be  nothing  but  their 
humble  servants."  A  famous  jeweller  of  our  own  time, 
deploring  the  decadence  of  modern  taste,  did,  however,  set 
himself  to  revive  the  Etruscan  art.  This  was  the  elder 
Castellani,  the  father  of  Augusto  and  Alessandro  (the  famous 
connoisseur),  who  succeeded  after  many  attempts  in  imitating 
the  tiny  golden  grains  with  which  Etruscan  jewels  are  usually 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


571 


ornamented,  but,  though  he  found  out  how  to  solder  these 
grains  on  to  the  surface  of  the  jewel,  he  was  unable  to  make 
the  little  balls  as  small  as  those  of  the  Etruscans — at  least  as 
the  ones  on  the  finest  specimens,  for  the  Etruscan  goldsmiths 
put  larger  grains  on  the  coarser  and  more  pretentious  jewellery. 
The  younger  Castellani's  account  of  his  father's  experiments 
is  very  interesting.  Their  success  was  due,  it  will  be  seen,  to 
the  survival  in  an  out-of-the-way  part  of  Italy  of  the  traditional 
Etruscan  skill,  and  to  the  delicacy  of  women's  fingers  : — 

"  The  first  problem  that  offered  itself  to  our  attention  was  to  find  the 
means  of  soldering  together,  with  the  utmost  neatness  and  delicacy, 
so  many  pieces  of  extraordinary  thinness.  Among  others,  those 
almost  invisible  grains,  like  little  pearls,  which  play  so  important  a 
part  in  the  ornamentation  of  antique  jewellery,  presented  difficulties 
nearly  insurmountable.  We  made  innumerable  essays,  employing  all 
possible  agents  and  the  most  powerful  dissolvents  to  compose  proper 
solder.  We  consulted  the  writings  of  Pliny,  Theophilus,  and  Benvenuto 
Cellini ;  we  neglected  no  other  source  of  instruction  which  tradition 
could  furnish  us.  We  studied  the  works  of  Indian  jewellers,  and  those 
of  the  Maltese  and  Genoese  ;  but  it  was  only  in  a  remote  corner  of  the 
Marches,  at  St.  Angelo  in  Vado,  a  little  district  hidden  in  the  recesses 
of  the  Apennines,  far  from  every  centre  of  civilisation,  that  we  found 
still  in  use  some  of  the  processes  employed  by  the  Etruscans.  There 
still  exists,  in  fact,  in  this  region  of  Italy,  a  special  school  of  tradi- 
tional jewellery,  somewhat  similar — not,  certainly,  in  taste  or  elegance 
of  design,  but  at  least  in  method  and  workmanship — to  the  ancient 
art.  The  beautiful  peasant  girls  of  these  districts,  when  at  their 
wedding  feasts,  wear  necklaces  and  long  ear-rings  called  navicelle^ 
much  resembling  in  workmanship  the  antique.  We  procured,  then, 
from  St.  Angelo  in  Vado  a  few  workmen  to  whom  we  taught  the  art  of 
imitating  Etruscan  jewellery.  Inheriting  the  patience  of  their  fore- 
fathers, and  caring  nothing  for  those  mechanical  contrivances  by  which 
geometrical  exactness  is  attained  in  modern  jewellery,  these  men 
succeeded  better  than  all  whom  we  had  previously  employed  in  the 
imitation  of  that  freedom  of  style  which  is  the  peculiar  characteristic 
of  the  art  among  the  ancients.  .  .  .  Having  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  certain  works  of  the  ancients,  very  delicately  executed,  must  have 
been  done  by  women,  we  confided  to  intelligent  workwomen  that 
which  required  the  most  delicacy.  The  result  was  excellent,  especially 
in  the  placing  and  soldering  of  that  little  granulation  which  is  carried 
over  the  face  of  most  Etruscan  jewellery.  Nevertheless  we  are  con- 
vinced that  the  ancients  had  some  special  chemical  process  for  fixing 
these  strings  of  small  grains,  of  which  we  are  ignorant ;  for,  in  spite  of 
all  our  efforts,  we  have  been  unable  to  reproduce  some  exquisitely  fine 
workmanship,  and  despair  of  being  able  to  do  so,  unless  aided  by 
some  new  scientific  discoveries." 


572 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


This  process  of  ornamentation  by  means  of  soldering 
globules  of  gold,  which  is  the  characteristic  of  Etruscan  work, 
gives  to  it  a  charm  of  artistic  individuality  never  attainable 
by  the  uniform  punching  and  casting  of  modern  work.  Collec- 
tors should,  by  the  way,  be  on  their  guard  against  spurious 
imitations  of  the  antique,  which  are  often  sold  as  real  old 
Etruscan.  This  remark  does  not  apply  to  the  professed  imita- 
tions manufactured  by  M.  Melillo  of  Naples  {Memoirs  of  an 
C.\:  d  \  by  Count  Tyszkiewicz.  p.  159  :  Aug.  Castellanrs 
Orificeria  Italiana.  cited  by  Dennis,  i.  lxxxi.  :  and  Castellani 
in  the  Archceological  Journal \  1861,  p.  367). 

In  this  same  Case  C  we  may  further  notice  a  curious 
Etruscan  brooch  for  fastening  the  dress  on  the  shoulder;  a 
very  pretty*  gold  ornament  in  the  form  of  a  pomegranate,  from 
Locri  .  S  5  7  ;  and  a  pendant  ornament  with  a  figure  of  the 
winged  Medusa  decapitated;  two  Pegasi  are  springing  from 
her  neck, 

GREEK  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 

Case  D  (Greek  gold  ornaments  of  the  finest  period,  420- 
28c  i.e.). — In  passing  to  Greek  workmanship  we  may  notice 
generally  that "  the  guiding  principle  of  Greek  artists  seems  to 
have  been  to  regard  workmanship  as  of  far  greater  importance 
than  the  materials  employed.  Thus  it  was  not  the  intrinsic 
worth  of  precious  metals  that  gave  to  Greek  jewels  their  high 
value  ;  it  was  the  exquisite  work  upon  the  metal,  and  the  fancy 
exercised  in  the  ornamentation.  The  elements  of  ornamenta- 
tion are  taken  from  nature  ;  they  include  fruits,  flowers,  and 
foliage,  with  which  is  joined  imitation  of  the  human  body. 
All  these  motives  are  treated  with  an  art  that  is  rich 
in  resources,  the  sole  law  in  which  is  the  artist's  fancy " 
(Collignon,  Manual  of  Greek  Archeology,  p.  567).  It  should, 
however,  be  noticed  that  the  use  to  which  the  jewels  were  to 
be  put  imposed  certain  limitations  upon  the  artist.  Thus 
fancy  was  freer  in  the  decoration  of  pendants,  ear-rings,  and 
necklaces,  than  in  that  of  bracelets  or  crowns,  where  custom 
required  that  the  art  should  be  more  severe,  Further,  it  is 
necessary  here,  as  also  in  the  case  of  the  earlier  "  Mycenaean  *; 
jewellery,  to  distinguish  those  ornaments  that  were  intended 
to  be  worn  by  the  living  from  those  that  were  made  to  be 
buried  with  the  dead.  The  latter,  as  we  have  seen  p.  451), 
were  often  thin  and  shoddy. 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


The  gold  crowns,  found  in  many  Greek  tombs  and  well 
illustrated  in  the  collection  before  us,  often  belong  to  this 
sepulchral  class.  In  many  specimens  the  extreme  thinness 
of  the  gold  leaves,  beaten  where  they  had  been  cut,  shows 
that  they  were  made  only  for  transient  use.  Some  of  these 
diadems  show  good  workmanship,  but  naturally  the  jeweller's 
art  reserved  its  best  resources  and  its  highest  skill  for  the 
ornaments  destined  to  be  permanently  worn.  Many  of  the 
gold  crowns,  it  will  be  seen,  imitate  the  foliage  of  the  oak, 
the  laurel,  etc.  Crowns  of  flowers  and  leaves  were,  it  will  be 
remembered,  freely  used  among  the  Greeks  both  for  ornament 
and  in  the  serious  business  of  life.  They  were  worn  by  the 
orator  while  speaking  from  the  tribune,  and  by  the  magistrate 
as  the  sign  of  his  official  dignity,  and  they  were  awarded  to 
the  victors  in  the  games.  So,  too,  the  head  and  bier  of  the 
dead  were  crowned  with  fresh  wreaths  of  myrtle  and  ivy. 
But  in  the  case  of  kingly  persons  in  early  times,  and  in  that 
of  the  richer  class  in  the  luxury  of  later  times,  the  crowns  of 
flowers  or  wild  olive — "  type  of  grey  honour  and  sweet  rest ,; — 
were  changed  for  golden  ones,  such  as  we  see  here  before  us 
rescued  from  Greek  tombs. 

In  examining  the  other  gold  ornaments  of  Greek  work- 
manship, and  comparing  them  with  the  choicest  products  of 
Etruscan  art,  the  visitor  will  notice  a  difference  of  technique. 
Instead  of  the  Etruscan  globules,  we  now  find  that  fine  threads 
of  gold  (filigree)  are  employed  with  very  delicate  effect.  In 
the  case  of  figures,  these  were  made  by  pressing  thin  gold 
plates  into  stone  moulds  :  one  such  mould  for  an  ear-ring  is 
shown  in  this  case.  The  jeweller  then  finished  the  work  no 
doubt  by  hand.  The  process  of  enamelling  also  occurs  in 
many  of  the  specimens,  but  the  enamel  is  always  used  in  very 
small  quantities.  With  regard  to  the  general  characteristics 
of  Greek  jewellery  of  the  best  period,  Sir  Charles  Newton 
says : — 

"The  gold  is  wrought  with  a  delicacy  which  shows  how  well  the 
artist  understood  its  distinctive  qualities  of  ductility,  malleability,  and 
incorruptibility  ;  it  is  constantly  inlaid  with  vitreous  pastes  or  enamels 
of  various  colours  ;  but  it  is  not  so  much  the  exquisite  taste  in  the 
ornaments  or  the  delicate  manipulation  and  incredible  minuteness  of 
the  work  which  call  for  our  admiration,  as  the  consummate  mastery  of 
the  modelling  whenever  repousse  work,  the  toreutike  of  the  Greeks, 
is  used.  .  .  .  The  Melos  necklace  and  the  sceptre  from  a  tomb  at 
Tarentum  [both  in  Case  D]  are  admirable  specimens  of  that  fine  com- 


574 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


bination  of  filigree  and  vitreous  enamels  which  characterises  the  Greek 
goldsmith's  art  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  and  the  bracelet 
and  ear-rings  from  Capua,  ornamented  with  lions'  heads,  are  still  more 
precious  as  examples  of  repousse  work  in  its  perfection  "  (Essays  on  Art 
and  ArchcEology,  p.  393). 

The  sceptre  from  Tarentum,  just  referred  to,  is  very 
beautiful,  and  shows  the  most  elaborate  workmanship.  It  is 
a  good  illustration  of  what  we  have  said  about  artistry  and 
material  in  Greek  jewellery  : — 

"  It  has  its  top  formed  in  the  shape  of  a  flower,  with  outer  gold  petals 
and  a  central  boss,  which  consists  of  a  large  rounded  emerald,  or  per- 
haps a  paste — not  fine  in  quality,  but  very  beautiful  and  magnificent  in 
effect.  Most  of  the  emeralds  used  by  the  Greeks  are  very  full  of  flaws, 
and  would  be  despised  by  a  tasteless  modern  jeweller,  but,  used  with 
the  wonderful  skill  and  good  taste  of  an  ancient  gold-worker,  they  are 
as  decorative  in  effect  as  if  they  were  of  the  most  flawless  and  costly 
kind.  The  same  remark  may  be  made  with  regard  to  all  the  jewellery 
of  the  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  other  classical  races  :  the  most  beautiful 
results  were  gained  by  the  old  goldsmiths  even  when  they  had  to  use 
gems  which  would  now  be  rejected  as  valueless.  A  stone  pale  in 
colour  and  full  of  flaws,  which  would  have  little  beauty  if  cut  in  facets, 
when  cut  in  the  old  cabochon 1  form  and  set  in  the  exquisitely  delicate 
pure  gold-work  of  the  ancient  jewellers  becomes  a  gem  of  the  highest 
decorative  value.  No  modern  art  is  in  a  more  hopelessly  degraded 
state  than  that  of  the  jeweller  "  (J.  H.  Middleton,  Ancient  Gems, 
p.  136). 

The  beautiful  necklace  from  Melos  (also  referred  to  above), 
of  vases  pendent  from  a  chain  on  which  are  rosettes,  disks, 
and  enamelled  leaves,  is  certainly  a  miracle  of  minuteness. 
"  Extremely  delicate  and  refined  in  workmanship  is  a  small 
pendant  from  Cyprus,  showing  two  winged  genii  engaged  in 
cock-fighting." 

A  gold  diadem  from  Eretria  may  be  noticed  ;  it  is  stamped 
with  combats  of  Centaurs  and  Lapithsy  and  in  the  centre  is 
Caeneus  about  to  be  crushed  under  a  rock — a  subject  which 
we  have  seen  already  (Phigalian  Room,  No.  530):  it  is 
interesting  to  notice  how  the  same  subjects  recur  in  all 
materials  and  on  all  scales. 

The  collection  of  ear-rings,  here  and  elsewhere  in  the 
room,  is  worth  some  attention.    We  have  seen  on  Greek 

1  En  cabochon  is  the  modern  name  for  the  rounded  form  of  cutting 
stones.     "  Cabochon  "  is  derived  from  the  Portuguese  "  cabo,"  a  head. 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


575 


coins  how  elaborate  they  often  were,  and  the  inventiveness 
of  the  Greek  jeweller  is  in  nothing  shown  more  clearly.  Two 
kinds  occur  more  commonly  than  the  rest.  One  kind  is 
formed  of  twisted  wire,  terminating  at  one  end  in  the  head 
of  a  lion  or  other  animal ;  the  other  is  attached  to  the  ear  by 
a  hook,  which  is  masked  by  a  round  disk  (bearing  some 
device)  ;  from  the  disk  hang  one  or  more  little  figures,  which 
form  the  pendants.  The  ear-rings  terminating  in  lions'  heads 
seem  rather  earlier  than  those  with  disks  and  pendants  (New- 
ton's Essays,  p.  394). 

In  the  middle  of  the  case  (upper  part)  is  a  portion  of  a 
treasure  found  in  1865  at  Sta.  Eufemia  in  Calabria:  notice 
the  diadem  ornamented  with  filigree  work.  The  bronze  coin 
here  exhibited,  which  was  found  with  the  treasure,  was  issued 
by  Hiketas  of  Syracuse,  287-278  B.C. 

But  perhaps  the  finest  piece  of  jewellery  in  the  case  is  the 
hairpin  from  Cyprus  : — 

"  The  pin  is  seven  inches  long  and  is  made  of  bronze  overlaid  with 
thin  gold  plate.  A  detailed  description  will  perhaps  assist  the  visitor 
to  realise  the  elaboration  of  the  work.  The  head  resembles  a  very 
ornate  capital  of  a  column.  It  is  ornamented  at  the  four  corners  by 
four  heads  of  bulls  (as  in  the  bull  capital  from  Salamis,  Ephesus  Room, 
p.  135).  Between  these  are  open  cups  or  flowers  like  water-lilies 
forming  the  ends  of  tubes  which  run  down  to  the  acanthus  leaves  at 
the  base  of  the  capital.  Above  the  bulls'  heads  are  four  doves  with 
outstretched  wings,  bending  down  to  drink  from  the  cups.  Above  and 
below  each  cup  is  a  rosette  of  fine  granulated  work.  The  whole  is 
surmounted  by  a  large  bead  of  Egyptian  porcelain,  which  was  found 
separately  but  seems  to  belong  to  the  pin.  It  is  held  in  between  two 
cups  of  thin  gold  with  foliated  lines.  A  smaller  bead,  which  is  a 
pearl,  is  attached  to  the  top  {Classical  Reviezv,  ii.  329;  /.U.S.  ix. 
222).  On  the  stem  is  an  inscription,  in  letters  of  the  Ptolemaic  age, 
recording  the  name  of  its  former  owner,  who  dedicated  her  exquisite 
hairpin  to  Aphrodite  of  Paphos.  This  beautiful  example  of  the  best 
Greek  work  was  one  of  the  treasures  which  rewarded  the  excavations 
on  the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Paphos  in  1888 — excavations 
carried  on,  it  is  interesting  to  know,  under  unusually  pleasant  condi- 
tions* <£  Our  workmen  were  so  many  unsophisticated  children.  None 
of  our  personal  belongings,  leave  them  about  as  we  might,  were 
ever  stolen  ;  and  the  gold  pin,  now  one  of  the  glories  of  the  jewel 
room  in  the  British  Museum,  was  found  by  a  man  working  alone,  out 
of  sight  of  his  fellows  or  ourselves,  in  the  last  inch  of  soil  above 
the  rock "  (D.  G.  Hogarth,  A  Wandering  Scholar  in  the  Levant^ 
p.  189). 


576 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


LATER  ETRUSCAN  ORNAMENTS 

In  these  specimens  (Cases  E-F)  the  visitor  will  notice  that 
the  taste  of  the  time  takes  the  form  of  largeness  and  display. 
Instead  of  admiring  the  exquisite  minuteness  of  golden  globules 
and  the  dainty  taste  with  which  they  are  worked  into  designs, 
we  are  here  struck  by  the  size  and  weight  of  the  ornaments. 
The  rings  are  like  fetters  ;  the  ear-rings  are  unusually  large  ; 
from  the  necklaces  heavy  bullae  are  suspended  ;  the  patterns 
are  coarse  and  heavy.  The  jeweller's  art,  in  this  age  of 
decadence,  reverts  in  some  measure  to  those  barbaric  types 
of  ornament  which  we  shall  presently  examine.  It  should  be 
noticed,  however,  that  in  Case  E  there  are  several  gold  wreaths 
of  real  beauty  and  one  very  delicate  globule  necklace. 

LATER  GREEK  ORNAMENTS 

The  later  Greek  ornaments  (Case  G)  exhibit  a  greater 
delicacy  of  taste,  though  the  simplicity  of  the  earlier  work  is 
to  some  extent  superseded  by  over-elaboration.  Highly  ornate 
is  the  gold  crown  in  filigree  and  enamel  found  in  South  Italy, 
and  recently  acquired  for  the  Museum  from  the  Tyszkiewicz 
collection.  In  the  centre  is  the  figure  of  a  boy  wearing  a  wreath 
and  chain,  holding  a  jug  and  vase  ;  the  rest  is  ornamented 
with  rosettes  and  palmettes  in  filigree,  partly  inlaid  with  blue 
enamel.  The  date  is  the  third  century  B.C.  This  diadem 
must  certainly  have  been  made  to  be  worn  by  some  reigning 
lady  of  position  or  beauty,  and  may  be  contrasted  with  the 
diamond  tiaras  of  to-day. 

In  addition  to  the  gold  ornaments,  there  is  here  a  series  in 
terra-cotta  gilt.  These  were  made  for  funeral  purposes  from 
the  same  moulds  as  served  for  the  real  jewellery — another 
instance  of  that  economical  piety  to  which  we  referred  above. 

ROMAN  ORNAMENTS 

In  the  ornaments  of  the  Roman  period  (Case  H)  the  work 
is  less  refined.  "  I  have  not  seen  a  single  work  in  gold,"  says 
Signor  Castellani,  "  dating  from  a  well -determined  Roman 
epoch,  even  including  the  most  artistic  periods,  which  can  in 
any  degree  whatever  be  compared  for  elegance  of  form  or  skill 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


577 


of  workmanship  with  the  archaic  period  of  Greek  or  Etruscan 
art."  The  Roman  work  is  less  minute,  the  designs  become 
more  commonplace,  and  there  is  a  strong  tendency  towards 
the  use  of  precious  stones  and  pearls.  This  tendency  is 
specially  noticeable  in  the  ear-rings,  which  are  now  merely 
precious  stones  in  a  setting  of  gold.  "  Two  pearls  beside  each 
other,"  Seneca  complains,  "  with  a  third  on  the  top  now  go  to 
a  single  pendant.  The  extravagant  fools  probably  think  their 
husbands  are  not  sufficiently  plagued  without  their  having  two 
or  three  heritages  hanging  down  from  their  ears." 

Many  of  the  gold  chains  worn  by  the  Romans  had  a  little 
case  attached  to  them,  containing  some  kind  of  charm — a 
custom  derived  from  the  superstitious  Etruscans.  There  are 
here  several  of  these  gold  amulets  with  magical  inscriptions, 
and  among  them  is  one  of  the  most  curious  pieces  in  the 
collection.  This  is  a  gold  cylinder  suspended  from  a  chain, 
and  once  containing  the  small  inscribed  plate  of  gold  now 
exhibited  beside  it.  The  inscription  gives  instructions  in 
Greek  -for  finding  the  way  in  the  lower  world  ;  the  tablet  was 
worn  as  a  charm,  and  buried  doubtless  with  its  owner.  This 
curious  relic  formerly  belonged  to  the  well-known  antiquary, 
Mr.  Millingen,  by  whom  the  inscription  was  published  in  1836. 
After  his  death  it  was  supposed  to  have  been  lost,  but  the 
British  Museum  acquired  it  in  1882.  It  was  originally  found 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Petelia  (the  modern  Strongoli) 
in  South  Italy.     The  inscription,  being  translated,  says  : — 

"And  thou  wilt  find  to  the  left  of  the  house  of  Hades  a  well,  and 
beside  it  a  pale  cypress.  Approach  not  even  near  this  well,  and  thou 
wilt  find  another,  cold  water  flowing  forth  from  the  lake  of  Memory. 
Before  it  are  warders.  Say  to  them,  '  I  am  child  of  earth  and  heaven, 
but  my  race  is  of  heaven.  I  am  parched  with  thirst,  I  perish.  Give 
me  quickly  cold  water  flowing  from  the  lake  of  Memory. '  And  they 
will  give  you  drink."  .  .  . 

This  inscription  is  doubtless  an  abstract  from  a  poem  contain- 
ing the  mystic  belief  of  the  ancient  Orphics,  whose  teachers 
are  referred  to  by  Plato  {Rep.  ii.  364  B)  : — 

"  They  produce  a  host  of  books  written  by  Musseus  and  Orpheus, 
which  form  their  ritual — persuading  not  individuals  merely,  but  whole 
cities  also,  that  men  may  be  absolved  and  purified  from  crimes,  both 
while  they  are  still  alive  and  even  after  their  decease,  by  means  of  the 
mysteries,  which  deliver  us  from  the  torments  of  the  other  world,  while 
the  neglect  of  them  is  punished  by  an  awful  doom." 

2  P 


578  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


Other  gold  tablets  similar  to  ours  have  been  found  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  and  luxurious  city  of  Sybaris  ;  one  of  them 
was  close  to  the  skull  of  the  skeleton  whose  soul  was  to  be 
sped  on  its  way  by  this  mystic  charm  to  the  bourne  from 
which  no  traveller  returns.  According  to  the  Orphic  doctrine, 
earthly  life  was  only  a  punishment  to  the  soul,  whose  origin 
was  divine  ;  the  human  body  was  the  tomb  of  the  soul,  and 
death,  a  happy  release.  Bearing  this  doctrine  in  mind,  we 
can  interpret  the  inscription  given  above  : — 

"  The  well  whose  name  is  not  mentioned  is  Lethe,  the  fountain  of 
forgetfulness.  The  soul  of  the  initiated  must  avoid  this  spring,  leaving 
it  to  the  crowd  of  souls  who  lived  and  must  still  live  in  oblivion  of 
their  divine  nature.  But  there  is  another  spring  kept  by  watching 
guards,  and  reserved  for  the  privileged  souls  of  the  initiated.  These 
obtain  admission  to  it  by  pronouncing  the  prescribed  words.  In 
opposition  to  the  other,  this  infernal  spring  peculiar  to  the  Orphic 
doctrine  is  called  the  spring  of  Memory,  because  it  renders  the  soul 
fully  conscious  of  her  divine  Nature,  and  opens  to  her  the  blessings  of 
immortal  existence"  (D.  Comparetti  in J.H.S.  hi.  in). 

These  Orphic  doctrines  were  especially  popular  in  Southern 
Italy,  where,  as  we  know  from  an  inscription  still  extant,  they 
were  suppressed  by  an  Act  of  the  Roman  Senate  in  186  B.C. 
Our  gold  tablet  therefore  may  be  ascribed  to  some  earlier  date. 

Some  centuries  later  is  the  complete  gold  bar,  and  a 
fragment  of  a  second,  which  were  found  in  a  hoard  of  sixteen 
such  bars  at  Kronstadt  in  Transylvania.  The  inscriptions 
record  that  the  metal  was  stamped  as  being  according  to 
sample  by  the  authorities  of  the  mint.  From  evidence 
furnished  by  inscriptions  on  other  of  the  bars,  the  date  of  this 
gold  reserve  is  fixed  between  367  and  383  a.d. 

ANCIENT  BRITISH,   IRISH,  AND  ANCIENT 
BARBARIC  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 

The  gold  ornaments  here  collected  are  interesting  evidence 
of  the  use  of  that  metal  among  our  Celtic  forefathers  (J  to  L, 
lower  cases  ;  the  upper  cases  contain  Roman  silver  plate,  see 
p.  594).  Diodorus  in  his  account  of  Gaul  says  that  not  only 
the  women,  but  the  men,  used  gold  for  ornament ;  "  for  round 
their  wrists  and  arms  they  wear  bracelets,  round  their  necks 
thick  collars  of  pure  gold  and  rings  of  great  value,  and  even 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


579 


golden  breastplates."  Of  the  British  Queen  Boadicea  it  is 
recorded  that  she  wore  tores  of  gold,  and  these  tores  were, 
says  Strabo,  imported  in  great  numbers  from  Gaul  to  Britain. 
The  numerous  specimens  here  before  us,  found  in  various  parts 
of  England,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  make  it  easy  to  believe  the 
geographer's  statement.  Celtic  literature  and  legend  are  indeed 
full  of  references  to  what  we  may  call  an  age  of  gold,  recall- 
ing that  which  Schliemann  laid  bare  in  the  tombs  of  Mycenae. 
In  the  old  days  the  Celts,  it  is  clear,  worked  native  gold  mines. 
Warriors  and  even  horses  were  emblazoned  in  gold.  Of  the 
ornaments  which  have  survived  and  which  are  constantly  being 
dug  up,  some  were  votive  offerings  ;  others  may  have  been 
concealed  by  their  possessors  for  security,  and  some  were 
buried  in  the  barrows  of  the  dead  : — 

There  Gollah  sleeps — the  golden  band 

About  his  head  is  bound  ; 
His  javelin  in  his  red  right  hand, 

His  feet  upon  his  hound. 
And  twice  three  golden  rings  are  placed 

Upon  that  hand  of  fear  ; 
The  smallest  would  go  round  the  waist 

Of  any  maiden  here. 
And  plates  of  gold  are  on  his  breast. 

And  gold  doth  bind  him  round  ; 
A  king,  he  taketh  kingly  rest 

Beneath  that  royal  mound. 

L.  E.  L.  ( from  an  old  Irish  song). 

The  circumstances  attending  the  finding  of  some  of  these 
monuments  of  the  "  gold  age  "  are  very  remarkable.  Thus  on 
one  occasion — 

"  The  Bishop  of  Derry  happening  to  be  at  dinner,  there  came  in  an 
Irish  harper,  and  sung  an  old  Irish  song  to  his  harp.  The  substance 
of  it  was  that  in  such  and  such  a  place  a  man  of  gigantic  stature  lay 
buried,  and  that  over  his  breast  and  back  were  plates  of  pure  gold, 
and  on  his  fingers  rings  of  gold,  so  large  that  an  ordinary  man  might 
creep  through  them.  The  place  was  so  exactly  described  that  two 
persons  there  present  were  tempted  to  go  in  quest  of  the  golden  prize 
which  the  harper's  song  had  pointed  out  to  them"  (C.  R.  Smith's 
Collectanea  Antiqua,  iii.  149). 

They  dug  and  they  found  two  disks  of  gold  such  as  we  may 
see  here  (Case  J).  One  of  these  very  disks  has  a  curious  story. 
Some  Irish  labourers  were  found  digging  on  a  field  under  an 


58o 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


old  hag,  "  Shelah  the  dreamer,5'  who,  "for  a  certain  quantity 
of  tobacco  and  whisky,  had  the  power  of  pointing  out,  to  those 
who  gave  it  her,  a  great  heap  of  treasure  buried  in  a  golden 
cauldron  by  the  Danes."  After  many  days  they  did  find  a 
gold  disk,  which  one  of  them  gave  to  a  doctor  of  antiquarian 
tastes  in  return  for  the  extraction  of  a  tooth.  After  other 
wanderings,  the  disk  has  found  a  final  home  in  the  Museum. 

A  marked  characteristic  of  Celtic  art  which  may  be  noticed 
in  these  ornaments  is  the  absence  of  animal  forms.  The 
decoration  is  always  spiral  or  geometrical,  in  keeping  with  the 
abstract  genius  of  the  Celts.  We  may  see  a  curious  develop- 
ment of  this  avoidance  of  animal  forms  in  the  armlets  or 
tores.  In  Greek  and  Roman  work,  a  natural  way  of  finishing 
off  the  two  ends  was  the  introduction  of  a  head — frequently 
a  serpent's  head  was  suggested  by  the  shape.  But  the  Celts 
never  used  animal  motives  in  this  way.  Accordingly  the  tores 
ended  in  bulbous  knobs.  These,  in  order  to  economise  the 
material,  were  afterwards  made  of  hollowed-out  or  trumpet- 
shaped  forms — as  we  may  see  in  many  of  the  examples  here. 
Sometimes  the  tores  are  fastened  with  a  ring,  as  in  one  from 
Boyton,  Suffolk  (Case  L) ;  this  was  found  by  a  labourer  while 
digging  in  a  loam  pit.  Another  tore  (J)  has  been  twisted 
into  a  knot,  to  fit  a  younger  wearer. 

Thirteen  gold  bracelets  here  shown  (J)  were  part  of  a  great 
hoard  found  at  Newmarket-on-Fergus,  County  Clare,  in  1854: — 

"  This  treasure  was  discovered  by  four  labourers,  who  netted  £6000 
between  them  by  its  sale.  From  the  fact  that  the  articles,  valuable  as 
they  are,  and  infinitely  more  valuable  as  they  must  have  been  in  their 
day — in  those  days 

When  Malachi  wore  the  collar  of  gold — 

it  is  surmised  that  they  must  have  been  suddenly  and  hastily 
deposited  where  they  were  found  by  the  fortunate  working-men. 
They  were  laid  only  about  18  inches  under  the  surface  of  a  mound, 
and  there  they  remained  uninjured,  undisturbed  for  centuries,  while 
the  soil  on  each  side  and  all  around  was  repeatedly  broken  up  in 
the  process  of  agriculture.  Ancient  records  state  that  a  chief  named 
M'Mahon  went  to  battle  in  this  region  6  laden  with  gold  ' ;  that  he  was 
slain  and  stripped  of  his  ornaments  ;  and  that  none  ever  discovered 
what  became  of  the  spoil  with  which  his  person  was  emblazoned " 
(C.  R.  Smith,  Collectanea  Antigua,  iii.  230). 

Another  remarkable  object  is  a  chain  of  forty-eight  spiral 
rings  of  gold,  found  in  a   tomb  near  the  Lake  of  Bolsena. 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


Attached  to  it  was  a  very  large  bulla  of  gold  of  the  form 
common  both  to  Etruscan  and  to  Roman  art.  The  bulla 
shows  considerable  refinement,  as  also  the  usual  economy  of 
the  precious  metal.  But  in  fashioning  the  chain,  the  gold  has 
by  no  means  been  spared  ;  it  is  used  in  profusion  unusual  in 
gold  ornaments,  either  for  personal  or  sepulchral  use.  It  is 
no  doubt  a  chain  of  ring  money  made  of  pale  gold  (Aless. 
Castellani  in  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  2nd 
ser.,  iv.  347).  There  are  other  specimens  of  Celtic  "ring 
money "  in  our  collection,  as,  for  instance,  a  bracelet  with 
rings  (in  Case  L).  This  was  found  by  some  labourers  while 
digging  turf,  in  the  Fens,  near  Ely.  The  treasure  was  four 
or  five  feet  below  the  surface,  and  near  it  was  a  quantity  of 
human  bones.  The  larger  links  are  said  to  be  multiples  of 
the  smaller  {Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  1st  ser., 
ii.  103).  The  term  "  ring-money 55  is  not  strictly  accurate,  for 
it  is  of  the  essence  of  money  that  it  should  be  stamped  by 
authority  : — 

There  seems  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Celtic  gold  rings 
all  weigh  multiples  of  the  same  unit,  but  very  seldom  multiples  of  one 
another.  From  their  form  it  is  probable  that  most  of  them  were  used 
as  ornaments,  and  as  such  they  would  probably  have  been  generally 
made  to  weigh  an  exact  weight  without  fractions,  on  the  same  principle 
that  the  ancients  frequently  avoided  fractions  of  their  measures  in 
architecture.  They  belong  to  a  time  anterior  to  the  introduction  of 
money  among  the  Celts,  or  before  its  general  use,  a  time  therefore 
at  which  precious  metals  must  have  been  weighed  when  employed  in 
barter.  Hence  an  additional  reason,  and  probably  the  main  one,  why 
their  weight  is  always  a  multiple  of  the  same  unit.  In  a  primitive 
state  of  society  in  the  present  day,  a  woman  often  wears  her  dowry  in 
coins  as  ornaments  ;  and  thus  these  Celtic  rings  may  have  been  both 
ornaments  and  substitutes  for  money  {Encyclopedia  Britannica,  xvii. 
630;/.). 

None  of  the  Celtic  gold  ornaments  is  richer  than  a  large 
peytral  or  breastplate  for  a  horse  (Case  K).  It  is  decorated 
with  curved  lines  and  abstract  ornament,  and  is  ascribed  to 
the  later  bronze  period.  It  was  found  with  human  bones  and 
amber  heads  (some  exhibited  here)  in  a  barrow  in  Flintshire. 
The  circumstances  of  the  find  are  not  without  an  element  of 
legendary  romance  : — 

On  a  farm,  situated  a  short  distance  from  the  town  of  Mold,  on  the 
Chester  road,  there  stood  a  gravel  heap,  known  from  time  immemorial 


582 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


as  Bryn-yr-Ellyllon,  the  Goblins'  Hill ;  why  or  wherefore  it  was  so 
designated,  was  a  mystery.  Many  years  ago,  as  we  learn  from  most 
reliable  testimony,  an  old  woman  was  returning  from  Mold,  where  she 
had  been  to  fetch  home  her  drunken  husband  from  a  tavern,  and  had 
to  pass  on  her  way  this  Goblins'  mound.  It  was  near  the  midnight 
hour,  sacred  to  ghosts  and  ghost-seers,  when  lo  !  before  the  astonished 
gaze  of  the  old  lady  a  spectre  of  unusual  size  ' e  appeared,  clothed  in  a 
raiment  of  gold,  which  shone  like  the  sun,"  and  crossing  the  road 
before  her  with  measured  step,  rested  an  instant  on  the  fairy  mound, 
and  then  vanished  into  thin  air!  Years  passed,  until  on  the  nth 
of  October  1833  a  new  tenant,  who  had  himself  heard  the  vision 
related  by  the  old  woman,  gave  orders  for  the  mound  to  be  levelled. 
The  workmen  had  not  proceeded  far  with  their  task  when  they  came 
upon  stones,  and  underneath,  this  golden  breastplate,  which  verily 
shone  like  the  sun.  It  was,  unfortunately,  some  little  time  before  its 
value  was  properly  appreciated  ;  it  was  left  in  the  field,  and  several 
pieces  were  broken  off  to  make  pins  of.  Some  fragments  were  after- 
wards recovered  (Archceologia,  xxvi.  442  ;  C.  R.  Smith's  Collectanea 
Antiqua,  iii.  226  ;  and  Journal  of  the  Chester  Archceological  Society ', 
i.  37o). 

A  large  number  of  gold  crescents  —  some  plain,  some 
incised  with  patterns — should  also  be  noticed.  They  come 
from  various  places  in  England  and  Wales.  They  are  not 
very  unlike  the  silver  ornaments  which  Swiss,  Tyrolese,  and 
Italian  peasant- women  of  the  present  time  wear  on  gala  occa- 
sions in  their  hair. 


CELTIC  GOLD  ORNAMENTS:  THE  LIMAVADY 
FIND 

This  treasure  of  gold  (Case  L),  acquired  by  the  Museum 
from  Ireland  in  1897,  is  of  great  value  and  interest,  and  round 
it  fierce  battles,  archaeological  and  political,  have  been  fought. 
Its  presence  in  the  British  Museum  has  figured  as  a  fresh 
Irish  wrong,  and  desperate  attempts  have  been  made  in 
Parliamentary  debates  and  before  a  Committee  of  Inquiry  to 
recover  the  treasure  from  London  for  Dublin.  But  the 
principle  of  Beati  possidentes  has  so  far  prevailed,  and  we 
are  still  free  to  examine  these  remarkable  objects  here  at 
our  leisure.  We  will  describe  in  turn  the  artistic  interest  of 
the  objects  themselves,  the  manner  of  their  discovery,  and 
the  controversies  which  have  gathered  about  them.  The  most 
curious  of  the  objects  is  a  small  boat,   in  gold  ;   the  most 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  583 


artistic,  a  gold  collar,  with  repousse  work  designs,  "  beyond 
question  the  most  magnificent  object  of  its  kind  ever 
discovered."  It  is  formed  of  two  repousse  plates  of  thin 
gold,  folded  over  into  a  tubular  form  and  soldered 
together.  After  the  repousse  geometrical  designs  were  done, 
the  vacant  spaces  in  the  interstices  of  the  raised  ornaments 
were  filled  by  a  series  of  engraved  lines  in  curves,  executed  by 
a  compass.  The  work  is  an  example,  says  Mr.  A.  J.  Evans, 
of  a  free  and  noble  decorative  style,  belonging  to  the  pre- 
Roman  period  of  British  art,  about  the  first  century  A.D.  One 
of  its  characteristics  is  noteworthy  : — 

"  The  tendency  of  all  late  Celtic  art  was  to  reduce  the  natural- 
istic motives  borrowed  by  it  from  the  classical  world  to  geometrical 
schemes.  In  its  earliest  phase,  the  borrowed  elements  are  not  yet 
perfectly  assimilated,  and  Greek  motives  such  as  the  confronted 
monsters,  the  sphinxes,  or  palmettes  are  often  still  distinguishable. 
But  the  decorative  design  of  the  present  torque  is  of  a  purely  geometrical 
character.  There  is  no  trace  here  either  of  animal  or  spray,  and  the 
Celtic  spirit  has  triumphed  in  a  beautiful  abstraction  of  curving  lines  " 
{Archceologia,  lv.  p.  404). 

The  solid  gold  tores  of  stout  wire,  with  thinner  wire  twisted 
round  them,  need  not  detain  us.  The  bowl  of  thin  gold,  with 
four  rings  at  the  edges  for  suspension,  was  perhaps  used  as  a 
hanging  lamp.  The  two  chain  necklaces  are  of  very  fine 
workmanship  : — 

"Their  civilised  appearance,  and  perhaps  the  quality  of  the  gold, 
recall  certain  chains  of  Greek  and  Greco-Roman  fabric.  A  plaitwork 
chain  (now  B.M.)  resembling  the  smaller  of  the  two  was  found  in  a 
tomb  at  Cyprus,  belonging  to  the  fifth  century  B.C. ,  and  other  parallels 
may  be  found  among  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Greco- Roman  objects  in 
this  room.  The  manufacture  ot  fine  chains  was  not,  however,  confined 
to  the  classical  world.  The  use  of  such  chains  for  suspension  between 
a  pair  of  fibufoe,  one  worn  on  each  breast,  is  a  well-known  Celtic 
fashion.  The  chains  before  us  may  have  been  imported  to  the  British 
Islands  from  Alexandria  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  or 
they  have  been  of  British  fabric  closely  imitated  from  Greco-Egyptian 
models  "  {ibid.). 

Lastly,  we  have  to  notice  the  model  of  a  boat  in  gold  : — 

"  It  has  nine  benches  for  rowers,  of  which  the  first  is  now  wanting. 
The  central  one  is  slightly  broader  than  rest,  and  has  a  hole  in  the 
middle,  through  which  originally  the  mast  passed.  Moveable  wire 
rings,  attached  to  the  margin  by  a  series  of  small  holes,  serve  for  the 


5§4 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


rowlocks,  and  the  number  of  holes  shows  that  there  were  originally  nine 
of  these  on  each  side,  giving  two  rowers  to  each  bench,  or  eighteen  in 
all.  There  is  besides  another  moveable  ring  on  the  left  side  of  the  boat 
at  the  stern  for  the  steering-oar  or  rudder.  This  and  fifteen  of  the  oars 
have  been  preserved.  Besides  the  oars,  there  were  found  a  miniature 
grappling-iron,  a  boat-hook,  and  three  forked  implements,  which  may 
either  be  fishing-spears  or  more  probably  forked  barge-poles,  such  as  are 
still  in  use.  The  object  is  a  rough  representation,  for  votive  purposes, 
of  the  kind  of  boats  which  were  constructed  by  the  ancient  Irish  and 
other  Celtic  populations.  It  would  be  easy  to  find  an  almost  perfect 
analogy  among  the  small  votive  offerings  of  returned  mariners  suspended 
in  the  shrines  of  Roman  Catholic  countries.  In  such  cases  the  work 
itself  is  often  of  the  poorest  kind,  but  although  the  local  workman  was 
incapable  of  giving  anything  more  than  a  general  representation  of  the 
whole,  he  is  often  excessively  careful  in  introducing  the  proper  com- 
plement of  details,  such  as,  in  this  case,  the  right  number  of  oars,  spars, 
and  boat-hooks"  {ibid.). 

These  gold  objects  are,  it  will  be  seen,  from  an  artistic  point 
of  view  of  very  unequal  merit,  and  seem  at  first  sight  to  belong 
to  different  periods.  The  conditions  in  which  they  were  found 
become,  therefore,  of  importance.  They  were  ploughed  up  by 
a  farm-servant  of  Mr.  Joseph  Gibson,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Limavady,  on  the  sea-coast  in  the  north-west  of  Ireland,  and 
the  ploughshare  somewhat  injured  the  boat  and  the  bowl.  Mr. 
Gibson  said  that  the  objects  were  all  found  together  in  the  same 
deposit,  and  all  were  certainly  covered  with  the  same  fine  brown 
clay.  They  afterwards  came  into  the  possession  of  a  jeweller 
at  Belfast,  from  whom  they  were  purchased  by  Mr.  Day,  a  well- 
known  antiquarian  and  collector  of  antiquities.  Mr.  Day 
communicated  with  Mr.  Read,  the  keeper  of  the  British  and 
mediaeval  antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  with  the  result 
that  the  trustees  bought  the  objects  for  the  sum  of  .£600. 
"The  find  was,"  Mr.  Read  reported,  "the  most  important  that 
has  ever  been  made  of  objects  of  this  very  interesting  period, 
a  period  in  which  the  Museum  is  exceptionally  rich,  though  the 
examples  in  the  precious  metals  are  by  no  means  numerous.5' 
On  this  state  of  facts  an  Irish  grievance  was  ventilated.  The 
objects^  it  was  argued,  were  treasure  trove,  and  as  such  should, 
according  to  law,  have  been  handed  over  to  the  Government  of 
Ireland,  in  which  case  they  would  have  been  placed  in  the 
National  Museum  at  Dublin.  Again,  the  objects  were,  it  was 
said,  Irish  in  origin,  and  their  proper  resting-place  was  there- 
fore Dublin,  and  not  London.    The  British  Museum,  it  was 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  585 


contended,  should  not  have  purchased  the  hoard  until  the  Irish 
Museum  had  been  offered  the  refusal  of  it.  On  the  other  side 
it  was  argued  that  the  objects  had  changed  hands  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  business  ;  that  the  Irish  Museum  had  had 
plenty  of  time  to  make  an  offer  for  the  treasures  ;  and  that  in 
any  case  the  authorities  of  the  British  Museum  were  now 
precluded  by  statute  from  parting  with  these  possessions, 
even  were  they  so  minded.  A  committee  was  appointed  by 
the  Treasury  to  inquire  into  the  whole  matter,  and  after  the 
manner  of  committees,  reported  somewhat  indecisively.  The 
Government  next  consulted,  in  turn,  the  Irish  Law  Officers, 
and  the  Irish  and  English  Law  Officers  jointly.  The  former 
advised  that  the  objects  were  treasure  trove,  and  that  the 
British  Museum  was  bound  to  surrender  them.  The  trustees 
at  this  stage  produced  a  new  contention.  The  field  in  which 
the  gold  was  found  was  formerly  part  of  the  sea  •  therefore  the 
objects  were  not  treasure  trove.  The  Joint  Law  Officers  next 
reported.  Their  advice  was  that  the  question  whether  the 
objects  were  treasure  trove  was  one  for  a  Court  of  Law  to 
determine.  The  Government  then  determined  to  bring  an 
action  ;  but  the  trustees  had  another  card  up  their  sleeves. 
The  land  where  the  ornaments  were  found  had  been  granted 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  Irish  Society,  which  Society,  and  not 
the  Crown,  had  the  right  to  treasure  trove.  The  question  of 
ownership  is  at  present  under  consideration  by  the  courts. 

At  one  point  the  political  discussions  thus  briefly  summarised 
touch  a  question  of  antiquarian  interest.  Are  these  gold  objects 
which  were  dug  up  in  Ireland  of  indigenous  Irish  manufacture  ? 
With  this  question,  we  may  consider  two  others  :  Do  they  all 
belong  to  the  same  period  ?  and  in  what  circumstances  were 
they  deposited  in  the  same  place  ?  The  chains  and  collar  are, 
as  we  have  seen,  of  much  more  artistic  work  and  are  also  of  better 
gold  than  the  boat  and  the  bowl.  Some,  therefore,  finding 
suggestions  of  Scandinavian  influence  in  the  boat,  have 
supposed  that  the  hoard  was  deposited  by  some  Viking  who 
had  plundered  earlier  Celtic  graves.  But  another  explanation 
of  the  difference  in  workmanship  is  that  the  boat  and  bowl, 
being  made  expressly  for  votive  or  sepulchral  purposes,  would 
naturally  be  of  flimsier  material  and  less  finished  work  than 
the  other  ornaments  which  had  belonged  to  the  dead  man  in 
his  lifetime  (on  this  point,  see  above,  p.  451).  On  this 
assumption  all  the  objects  may  be  held  to  belong  to  one  period, 


5*6 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


namely  the  first  century  A.  D.  The  theory  of  Mr.  Evans  on 
the  subject  is  very  interesting  : — 

"The  custom  of  making  votive  deposits  was  (he  says)  very  widespread 
in  the  early  Iron  age,  and  in  the  northern  counties  such  hoards  are 
often  buried  on  the  borders  of  lakes  and  pools,  or  actually  beneath 
their  waters.  In  the  present  case  the  deposit  was  made  close  to  the 
seashore,  on  a  rocky  part  of  the  coast  liable  to  shipwrecks;  and  from 
the  votive  ship  and  its  furniture,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  a 
thank-offering  dedicated  by  some  ancient  Irish  sea-king,  who  had 
escaped  from  the  perils  of  the  waves,  to  a  marine  divinity.  This  was 
perhaps  the  Celtic  Neptune,  the  British  Nud,  whose  name  in  the  later 
form  of  Lud  is  connected  with  the  port  of  London,  and  still  survives 
in  Ludgate  Hill"  (Archceologia,  lv.  p.  408). 

The  question  remains  whether  these  ornaments,  deposited 
on  the  sea-coast  of  Ireland,  are  of  Irish  origin.  Mr.  Evans 
thinks  that  they  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  triple  chain, 
which  was  probably  imported  from  the  East.  Mr.  Read,  on 
the  other  hand,  on  behalf  of  the  British  Museum,  combats  this 
contention.  The  idea  (he  says)  that  Celtic  art  and  Celtic 
civilisation  must  necessarily  refer  to  Ireland  or  Scotland  is  not 
borne  out  by  the  facts.  "  Up  to  the  firm  establishment  of 
the  Roman  power  in  England,  there  is  no  more  reason  for 
connecting  the  Celts  with  Ireland  or  Scotland  than  with  the 
South  of  England."  In  later  mediaeval  times,  Celtic  art  means 
Irish  art,  because  elsewhere  it  gradually  disappeared  ;  but  in 
earlier  times  Celtic  art  is  pre-eminently  English  : — 

"  The  bare  fact  (continues  Mr.  Read)  that  an  object,  particularly  if 
made  of  precious  metal,  is  found  in  a  locality  is  by  no  means  evidence 
that  it  necessarily  has  any  other  connection  with  the  place.  In  the 
present  case  the  circumstances  seem  rather  to  lead  to  an  opposite  con- 
clusion, viz.  that  these  golden  objects  were  the  prize  of  some  piratical 
foray,  and  therefore,  in  all  probability,  belonged  elsewhere  than  where 
they  were  found.  .  .  .  The  great  diversity  of  style,  as  well  as  the  differ- 
ence in  the  quality  of  the  gold  of  the  various  objects  comprised  in  the 
hoard,  point  very  clearly  to  some  such  explanation  of  their  being  found 
together.  Further,  there  is  nothing  in  the  character  of  the  work  that 
is  especially  Irish.  On  the  contrary,  the  closest  analogy  for  the  most 
particular  feature,  viz.  the  gold  chains,  is  seen  in  an  English  discovery 
of  the  same  period.  Even  if  it  be  granted  that  the  boat  is  a  model  of 
a  coracle,  this  form  of  boat  was  fully  as  English  as  it  was  at  a  later 
period  Irish.  I  do  not  consider  that  there  is  any  proof,  archaeological 
or  otherwise,  that  this  hoard  has  any  but  an  accidental  connection  with 
Ireland.  The  probability  is  fully  as  great,  if  not  greater,  that  these 
objects  were  the  production  of  the  people  popularly  known  as  the 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


587 


Ancient  Britons.  As  such  they  are  most  interesting  illustrations  of 
British  history,  and  could  nowhere  be  more  appropriately  placed  than 
in  the  British  Museum,  the  central  museum  of  the  Empire." 

Thus  boldly  turning  the  tables  on  his  opponents  with  their 
Irish  grievance,  Mr.  Read  suggests,  it  will  be  seen,  that  this 
golden  treasure,  which  had  for  so  many  centuries  lain  entombed 
in  Ireland,  was  originally  stolen  from  England  ;  and  so  comes 
to  the  comfortable  conclusion  that  its  acquisition  for  the  British 
Museum  is  a  tardy  act  of  retributive  justice.  (The  facts  and 
quotations  given  above  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Evans's  paper  in 
Archccologia,  vol.  lv.,  and  in  the  "  Report  of  the  Committee  on 
Celtic  Ornaments  found  in  Ireland,"  1899.  See  also  a  letter 
from  Mr.  Coffey,  keeper  of  Irish  Antiquities  at  the  Dublin 
Museum,  in  the  Times  of  Dec.  6,  1901.) 

MISCELLANEOUS  ORNAMENTS 

In  the  Cases  M-P  (upper  portions)  and  the  lower  portions 
also  of  M  and  N  are  ornaments  from  various  countries  and  of 
various  interests.  We  may  notice,  first  (M,  upper  portion), 
several  objects — silver  ingots,  portions  of  ornaments,  etc. — 
from  a  remarkable  hoard  found  at  Cuerdale  in  Lancashire  : — 

In  1840  some  workmen  were  employed  in  Cuerdale,  near  Preston, 
in  carrying  earth  to  replace  the  soil  which  had  been  washed  away  from 
behind  a  wall  formerly  built  to  protect  the  banks  of  the  river  Ribble. 
In  digging  for  this  purpose,  they  discovered,  at  a  distance  of  about  forty 
yards  from  the  bank,  a  large  mass  of  silver,  consisting  of  ingots  or  bars 
of  various  sizes,  a  few  silver  armlets  tolerably  entire,  several  fragments 
and  a  few  ornaments  of  various  kinds,  cut  into  pieces  of  different 
dimensions  and  weights,  amounting  to  upwards  of  a  thousand  ounces, 
exclusive  of  about  six  or  seven  thousand  coins  of  various  descriptions  ; 
the  whole  had  been  enclosed  in  a  leaden  chest,  -which  was  so  decom- 
posed that  only  small  portions  of  it  could  be  secured. 

An  examination  of  the  coins  suggests  that  this  treasure 
was  deposited  about  the  year  910;  and  the  ornaments  must  be 
considered  such  as  were  worn  about  the  time  of  Alfred  or 
somewhat  earlier,  for  none  of  them  appears  to  have  been 
actually  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  deposit.  They  were  rather 
ornaments  laid  aside  ready  to  be  broken  up,  and  cut  in  pieces 
for  the  greater  convenience  of  traffic,  or  for  facility  in  melting. 
The  patterns  on  the  armlets  are  elaborate  and  sometimes 


588 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


elegant,  but  all  were  produced  by  the  use  of  a  few  punches  in 
various  combinations.  Some  of  the  other  ornaments  show 
more  advanced  methods  of  workmanship  and  powers  of  design. 
Many  of  the  coins  were  struck  by  piratical  sea-kings,  and  the 
whole  hoard  must  have  been  deposited  for  security  for  use  as 
bullion  {Arch.  Journal,  iv.  pp.  in,  189).  Here  also  are 
portions  of  another  hoard  of  like  nature  from  Goldsborough  in 
Yorkshire. 

Below  is  a  collection  of  African  gold  ornaments.  Among 
them  are  the  ceremonial  hat,  sword,  and  ornaments  from  the 
house  of  King  Prempeh ;  also  his  executioner's  sword,  obtained 
by  the  Ashanti  Expedition  of  1896.  A  collection  of  gold 
ornaments  of  native  manufacture  from  Ashanti  was  obtained 
as  part  of  the  war  indemnity  in  1876.  An  object  of  consider- 
able historical  interest  is  a  gold  ring,  formerly  belonging  to 
Samory,  the  great  Mohammedan  Chief  of  the  Western  Soudan 
(given  by  the  Government  of  the  Gold  Coast,  1900). 

Spoil  from  China  may  be  seen  in  the  next  compartment 
(N).  A  Chinese  vase  of  gold,  inscribed  "  Hair  Pagoda  of 
the  Empress  Heaou-Tih,,J  is  from  the  Summer  Palace,  Pekin. 
Notice  also  two  figures  of  Buddha — one  in  gold,  the  other 
carved  in  ruby  (from  Burmah). 

Masks  and  other  gold  ornaments  from  graves  in  Central 
America  are  also  in  this  compartment.  Among  the  American 
tribes,  as  in  Greece,  such  masks  were  buried  in  order,  no 
doubt,  to  avert  the  evil  eye  from  the  dead.  A  gold  breast- 
plate of  unusual  size  was  found  in  a  grave  of  the  Chibcha 
Indians  (Republic  of  Colombia). 

In  the  remaining  compartments  (O  and  P)  we  may  notice 
silver  horse-trappings  used  by  the  Indians  of  Bolivia  ;  personal 
ornaments  and  weapons  inlaid  with  silver  from  Perm  (Russia), 
and  a  further  collection  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments  from 
Ashanti. 

FINGER-RINGS 

Cases  O  and  P. — The  rings  in  the  first  case  are  for  the 
most  part  mediaeval  and  later ;  we  shall  note  many  of  the 
different  kinds  in  describing  the  larger  collection,  which  is 
arranged  in  an  adjoining  corridor  (p.  602).  Here  also  is  a 
collection  of  cameos  mounted  on  rings.  A  ring  with  a  sapphire, 
here  exhibited,  was  found  on  Flodden  Field. 

In  the  next  case  are  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  gold 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


589 


finger-rings,  set  with  engraved  stones  or  precious  stones,  or 
having  designs  engraved  on  the  gold  bezel.1  The  first  row 
contains  Roman  rings.  The  early  Romans  cultivated  a  stern 
simplicity  in  finger- rings.  An  iron  signet-ring  on  the  right 
hand  was  the  only  wear.  Only  ambassadors  sent  to  foreign 
nations  were  allowed  to  wear  gold  rings  ;  these  were  supplied 
at  the  public  expense  as  a  sign  of  their  dignity.  Afterwards, 
other  officials  and  classes  received  the  jus  annuli  aitrei — the 
right  to  wear  a  gold  ring.  To  distinguish  it  from  other  rings 
adorned  with  stones,  the  gold  ring  retained  its  original  shape 
unimpaired  by  fashion.  Under  the  Empire  the  passion  for 
rings  adorned  with  precious  stones  or  engraved  gems  seems  to 
have  pervaded  all  classes.  Men  and  women  covered  their 
fingers  with  rings  ;  and  every  person  of  consequence  had  his 
dactyliotheca,  or  case  for  holding  them  when  removed  from 
the  fingers.  An  ivory  case  for  this  purpose  was  found  at 
Pompeii,  with  an  upright  stick  at  the  top  for  stringing  the 
rings  upon,  precisely  in  the  manner  now  practised  on  a  lady's 
toilette  table.  There  is  an  epigram  of  Martial,  satirising  a 
very  poor  man  who  made  a  vain  display  of  wealth.  "  He 
wears  rings  on  every  finger.  He  sleeps  in  them.  He  never 
takes  them  of!  when  he  washes.  You  wonder  why  ?  He 
cannot  afford  a  case  for  them."  The  exquisite  specially 
affected  rings.  Of  an  elegant  poet  friend  of  his,  Martial 
says  that  you  may  find  in  his  verses  even  more  gems  than 
he  wears  on  his  fingers.  They  were  worn  even  on  the  upper 
joints,  falling  sometimes,  as  we  learn  from  another  passage 
in  Martial,  into  the  soup  or  meat.  Rich  people  had  their 
sets  of  rings  to  correspond  to  suits  of  clothes  ;  lighter  rings 
for  the  summer,  heavier  ones  for  the  winter.  The  wearing  of 
rings  in  old  days,  as  every  one  must  admit  who  inspects  the 
collection  in  the  Museum,  was  no  light  matter.  But  then 
sometimes  rings  had  to  carry  a  good  deal — poison,  for  instance. 
The  row  of  Roman  rings  here  before  us  contains  principally 
late  specimens,  set  with  a  plain  stone  or  paste. 

The  second  and  third  rows  contain  the  earlier  and  later 
Etruscan  rings  respectively.  Here  one  may  note  the  different 
ways  in  which  scarabs  were  mounted  in  rings.  In  the  third 
row  (near  the  middle)  is  "  the  most  magnificent  Etruscan  ring 

1  The  part  of  the  ring  which  bears  the  device,  whether  on  metal  or  on 
a  stone,  is  called  the  bezel ;  the  rest  of  the  ring  being  the  hoop ;  and  the 
thickened  parts  near  the  bezel,  the  shoulders. 


59o 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


known  "  (formerly  in  the  Canino  collection).  It  is  formed  by 
two  lions,  whose  bodies  make  up  the  shank,  their  heads  and 
forepaws  supporting  an  elegant  bezel  in  filigree  which  holds  the 
signet-stone,  a  small  scarabaeus  charged  with  a  lion  regardant 
The  two  lions  are  beaten  up  in  full  relief  out  of  thin  gold  plate 
in  a  stiff  archaic  style,  yet  exquisitely  finished  (King's  Antique 
Gems  and  Rings,  p.  331).  Some  of  the  later  Etruscan  rings 
have  large  agates  and  sards  set  in  heavy  mounts,  elaborately 
decorated  with  dolphins  and  waves  or  other  ornaments  (com- 
pare the  later  Etruscan  jewellery  in  Cases  E  and  F). 

The  fourth  row  contains  the  choicest  specimens  in  the 
collection.  These  are  gold  rings  of  Greek  design,  including 
some  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  They  are  massive  rings 
with  a  large  flat  bezel,  all  of  gold,  engraved  like  a  gem,  with 
designs  of  great  beauty.  The  following  may  be  specially 
noticed  : — 

A  copy  of  the  quadriga  on  the  silver  decadraches  of  Syracumse. 

On  a  bezel  of  pointed  oval  form,  a  very  beautiful  female  head 
(Castellani  collection,  from  a  tomb  in  Magna  Grrecia). 

A  figure  of  a  (?)  youth  on  horseback,  riding  at  full  speed,  44  a 
marvel  of  spirited  design  and  minute  workmanship,  cut  with  as  much 
sharpness  of  touch  as  if  the  material  had  been  a  hard  stone,  instead  of 
soft  pure  gold  " — from  the  Castellani  collection  (Middleton's  Ancient 
Gems,  p.  31). 

A  Victory  nailing  up  a  shield  on  a  trophy  inscribed  to  Zeus 
Basileus.  "The  attitude  of  the  figure  closely  resembles  that  of  one 
of  the  Victories  on  the  balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Athene  Nike  at 
Athens  "  ;  from  Kertch  (Murray's  Catalogue  of  Gems,  p.  28). 

A  very  beautifully  engraved  female  figure  holding  a  wreath  and 
inscribed  diopov  (a  gift). 

A  nude  figure  of  Aphrodite  standing  beside  a  pillar. 

Odysseus  preparing  to  escape  from  the  Cyclops,  under  the  belly  of 
a  ram. 

Eros,  with  a  wreath  inscribed  "farewell"  (from  the  Blacas 
collection). 

Some  of  these  rings  are  among  the  best  work  of  the  kind 
that  has  been  discovered.  The  Museum  was  fortunate  in 
acquiring  them  with  unexceptionable  pedigrees  or  from  collec- 
tions formed  at  a  time  before  the  manufacturers  of  antiques 
had  set  to  work  in  this  charming  field.  The  simplicity  of 
Greek  gold  rings  of  the  best  period  is  very  striking  and 
characteristic.  It  contrasts  alike  with  the  complicated  gold 
work  of  Mycenaean  rings,  and  with  the  sumptuousness  of  Roman 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


591 


times.  "  Under  Claudius,"  says  Pliny,  "  it  became  the  fashion 
to  engrave  the  signet  in  the  gold  of  the  ring  itself."  But  this 
was  only  a  Roman  revival  of  the  ancient  Greek  practice  which 
had  been  superseded  by  the  added  luxury  of  gems.  The  use 
of  signet-rings  such  as  we  have  before  us  is  referred  to  in 
Euripides  {Hippolytus),  who  makes  Theseus  say  on  receiving 
Phaedra's  letter :  "  The  impress  of  the  gold- wrought  signet 
smiles  on  me."  It  is  curious  and  worth  observing  that 
neither  in  Greek  sculptures  nor  on  the  innumerable  painted 
vases  do  we  find  figures  wearing  rings  on  their  fingers  : — 

"We  do  not  expect  to  see  such  things  worn  by  gods  and  heroes  ; 
but  though  there  are  hundreds  of  tombstones  still  to  be  seen  in  Athens 
representing  ordinary  persons,  there  are,  so  far  as  we  know,  no  rings 
on  their  fingers.  In  Roman  and  late  Etruscan  art  it  is  quite  different. 
There  we  find  a  profusion  of  rings  on  the  sculptures.  The  Greek 
artists  had  no  objection  to  ear-rings  and  necklaces.  Why  did  they 
draw  the  line  at  finger-rings,  unless  it  was  from  sheer  artistic  reticence, 
and  a  desire  to  keep  the  fine  articulation  of  the  fingers  free  from 
accessories  which  would  have  vulgarised  them  in  sculpture  or  painting, 
however  pleasant  they  might  be  to  the  sight  in  daily  life?"  {Quarterly 
Review r9  October  1901). 

ROMAN  FRESCOES 

On  the  walls  of  this  room  (above  the  Wall-cases  A  to  H) 
are  some  fresco-paintings  from  Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  and  else- 
where of  the  period  of  the  early  Roman  Empire.  Ancient  murai 
paintings  in  a  genuine  state  are  so  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  the 
market  that  these  specimens  are  of  considerable  value  and 
interest.  Most  of  them  were  acquired  from  the  Blacas  collec- 
tion, having  been  presented  to  the  elder  Due  de  Blacas  by  the 
King  of  Naples. 

"  The  style  of  the  drawing  is  rather  dexterous  than  masterly  ; 
rapidity  of  execution  seems  to  be  more  prized  than  faithful,  con- 
scientious representation  of  the  truths  of  nature.  The  drawing  is 
generally  careless,  and  effects  are  sometimes  produced  by  tricks  and 
expedients  which  belong  rather  to  scene-painting  than  to  the  higher 
branches  of  art.  It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten  that  the  majority 
of  these  pictures  were  architectural  decorations,  not  meant  to  be 
regarded  as  independent  compositions,  but  as  parts  of  larger  com- 
positions, in  which  they  were  inserted  as  in  a  frame.  As  compositions 
the  mural  paintings  discovered  at  Rome  are  superior  to  those  of 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  ;  and  they  are  further  interesting  to  us, 


592 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


because  it  was  by  the  study  of  these  remains  that  Raphael  and  his 
successors  in  the  Roman  School  formed  that  beautiful  style  of  decorative 
fresco  which  we  see  in  its  perfection  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican  " 
(C.  T.  Newton,  Guide  to  the  Second  Vase  Room,  1869,  p.  31). 

The  Pompeian  paintings  are  of  course  peculiarly  interesting 
as  the  chief  surviving  clue  to  the  fresco-painting  of  Greece. 
The  frescoes  by  the  old  masters  of  Greece  have  all  perished  ; 
but  some  idea  of  the  final  stage  at  any  rate  in  Greek  painting 
may  be  gathered  from  the  mural  paintings  so  strangely  and 
amply  preserved  in  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  and  perhaps  also  in 
some  of  those  more  recently  discovered  at  Rome.  For  after 
all  Pompeii  was  in  part  a  Greek  city,  and  in  the  late  days  of 
ancient  Rome,  as  Dr.  Murray  points  out  in  his  very  interesting 
chapter  on  Greek  Painting  (ch.  ix.  of  his  Handbook  of  Greek 
Archceology),  "  it  was  a  distinction  among  the  Romans,  in  art 
as  in  literature,  to  be  imbued  with  Greek  taste  and  penetrated 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  artistic  conceptions  of  the  Greeks. ;? 
Vitruvius,  when  comparing  the  older  mural  painting  with  that 
of  his  own  time,  says  that  the  old  masters  "  decorated  the 
walls  with  scenery  after  the  tragic,  comic,  or  satyric  mode  ; 
and  galleries,  from  their  extended  length,  they  decorated  with 
landscapes,  the  representations  of  particular  spots.  In  these 
they  also  painted  ports,  promontories,  the  coasts  of  the  sea, 
rivers,  fountains,  straits,  groves,  mountains,  cattle,  shepherds, 
and  natives,  figures  representing  gods  and  stories  such  as  the 
Trojan  battles  or  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses  over  different 
countries.5'  This  style  was  probably  adapted  from  Greek 
models,  and  the  passage  is  applicable  to  the  Pompeian 
paintings  in  our  Museum.  Among  the  pictures  which  are 
of  special  interest,  either  for  the  subject  or  for  the  treatment, 
we  may  notice  the  following  : — 

Ulysses  escaping  from  the  Sirens. — This  design  should  be  com- 
pared with  that  on  the  Vase  E  440  (see  p.  377).  Virgil  speaks  of 
the  ' '  rocks  of  the  Sirens,  cruel  in  bygone  days,  and  white  with  the 
bones  of  many."  The  vase  gives  no  indication  of  "the  bones  of 
many,"  but  in  the  fresco  we  find  this  ghastly  detail  faithfully  portrayed. 
"The  boat  of  Odysseus  is  a  richly  ornamented  Roman  galley;  he 
himself  is  bound  high  up  on  the  mast  above  the  heads  of  his  comrades. 
We  are  irresistibly  reminded  that,  some  two  or  three  centuries  after 
the  date  of  our  picture,  Odysseus  became,  in  the  hands  of  Christian 
artists,  the  symbol  of  a  crucified  Christ,  who  was  uplifted  that  he 
might  draw  all  men  to  him.  It  is  difficult  to  judge  of  the  colour- 
effects  of  the  picture,  so  marred  is  it  by  the  lapse  of  time  ;  but  as  we 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


593 


see  it  now,  the  dull-blue  water,  the  dim  galley,  the  white-patched 
rocks,  streaked  and  splashed  with  red,  are  grim  and  ghastly,  and  the 
bird -woman  tempters  seem  rather  terrible  than  alluring"  (Jane  E. 
Harrison,  Myths  of  the  Odyssey ;  p.  153). 

Daedalus  and  Icarus  (also  from  Pompeii).  Daedalus  is  flying,  and 
Icarus  falling  headlong  from  the  sky.  In  the  foreground,  a  rocky 
shore  on  which  Pan  is  advancing  with  goats  ;  in  the  distance,  a 
fortified  city.  The  subject  is  very  curiously  treated.  Visitors  who 
would  be  interested  in  comparing  the  latest  with  one  of  the  earliest 
pictures  of  this  subject,  may  be  reminded  of  Mr.  H.  J.  Draper's 
"  Lament  for  Icarus  "  in  the  Tate  Gallery. 

A  flute-player  (said  to  have  been  found  in  a  columbarium  on  the 
Appian  Way,  1823).  44  Though  retouched  in  places,  this  head  is  a 
very  interesting  specimen  of  mural  painting.  The  style  is  broad  and 
masterly,  and  the  colouring  harmonious"  (C.T. N. ).  It  would,  says 
another  authority,  be  ''the  most  beautiful  extant  example  of  encaustic 
wall-painting  if  it  had  not  been  injudiciously  restored"  (Hawara, 
P-  39). 

It  will  not  escape  notice  that  on  the  whole  in  these 
paintings  the  landscape  backgrounds  are  less  successful  than 
the  figures.  Even  these  landscape  backgrounds,  however, 
afford  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  style  of  Greek  vases,  on 
which,  and  especially  on  those  of  the  best  periods,  there  is  no 
indication  of  a  background  at  all  except  a  few  conventional 
dots.  It  has  sometimes  been  questioned  whether  the  Greeks 
had  any  feeling  for  the  picturesque  in  nature.  The  true 
answer  seems  to  be  that  they  felt  the  beauty  of  the  natural 
world,  but  not  as  moderns  feel  it  : — 

"The  enjoyment  of  mere  landscape  was  excluded  and  anticipated 
by  a  deeper  sympathy — that  humanising  instinct  which  saw  conscious 
life,  and  life  of  a  human  type,  through  all  the  kingdom  of  nature. 
And  so  it  came  that  to  the  Greek  the  most  adequate  representation  of 
a  landscape  was  a  representation  of  the  gods  who  were  identified  with 
its  rivers  and  mountains.  The  sculptor  accordingly  took  the  place, 
and  performed  the  work,  of  the  landscape  painter"  (Mahaffy's  Rambles 
mid  Studies  in  Greece,  ch.  xvi.,  where  this  subject  is  discussed). 

In  the  corridor  leading  into  this  room  some  other  Roman 
paintings  are  exhibited.  Several  of  these  were  obtained  from 
the  tomb  of  the  Nasones,  discovered  in  1674,  on  the  Flaminian 
Way  near  Rome  : — 

"These  pictures  were  much  broken  and  required  a  good  deal  of  put- 
ting together.  Nevertheless,  they  may  fairly  serve  to  convey  an  idea 
of  the  art  as  it  was  practised  in  Rome  in  the  first  century  B.C.  The 

2  Q 


594 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


composition  and  drawing  of  the  figures  may  be  mannered  enough  at 
times.  Yet  there  is  always  in  these  pictures  the  singular  charm  of 
brilliancy  of  colour  and  true  pictorial  effect  which  belongs  to  ancient 
fresco  "  (Murray's  Handbook  of  Greek  Archeology p.  408). 

From  the  Blacas  collection  is  a  picture  (found  at  Stabiae) 
of  two  poets,  crowned  and  holding  laurel  branches,  very  well 
drawn.    Also  one  of  a  Music  Lesson  (from  Herculaneum). 

A  more  recent  acquisition  is  Bacchus  and  Silenus  from  a 
villa  at  Bosco  Reale,  near  Pompeii.  "  The  youthful  Bacchus 
leans  on  a  diminutive  Seilenos,  at  his  feet  a  panther,  in  his 
right  hand  a  cantharos,  in  his  left  a  thyrsus.  The  Seilenos 
plays  on  a  lyre.  The  shading  is  indicated  by  rough  hatched 
lines.  This  group  much  resembles  the  Dionysos  and  Seilenos 
in  a  fresco  of  Pompeii"  {Brit.  Mus.  Return,  1900,  p.  65). 

SILVER-PLATE,  STATUETTES,  Etc 

The  collection  of  silver  services  and  ornaments  which  we 
have  next  to  inspect  is  small  but  interesting.     It  consists  of 

(1)  Roman  silver-plate  (exhibited  in  the  Wall-cases  J,  K,  L)  ; 

(2)  Greek  and  Roman  vases,  statuettes,  and  other  objects 
(exhibited  in  the  Wall-case  R,  between  the  windows). 

(1)  The  luxurious  Romans,  after  the  conquest  of  Greece 
and  Asia,  were  in  the  habit  of  having  their  utensils  of  the 
table,  and  even  (in  the  wealthier  houses)  of  the  kitchen,  made 
of  solid  silver.  The  silversmith's  trade  was  as  busy  in  those 
days  as  in  ours.  Dr.  Murray  once  mentioned  in  a  lecture  that 
he  had  had  occasion  to  examine  a  number  of  specimens  of 
ancient  silversmith's  work  in  the  British  Museum,  in  company 
with  a  skilled  silversmith  who,  with  an  extensive  business  on 
his  hands,  had  yet  found  leisure  to  inquire  into  the  processes 
employed  by  the  ancients.  As  the  result  of  long  experience, 
he  declared  that  there  was  no  process  employed  now  that  was 
not  known  to  and  practised  by  the  ancients  {Builder,  March  23, 
1889).  Of  the  finds  of  ancient  silver-plate  which  have  escaped 
the  melters,  the  silver  treasure  of  Chaourse  (J,  L)  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  valuable.  The  service,  which  consists  of 
thirty-six  pieces,  was  found  in  1883  by  some  peasants  who 
were  working  in  a  field  near  Montcornet  (Aisne)  in  France. 
The  first  piece  was  turned  up  by  the  plough,  and  this  led  to 
the  discovery  of  the  remainder.     The  entire  service  (minis- 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  595 


terium)  had  been  originally  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  cloth,  and 
must  have  been  buried  for  security  {Gazette  Archeologique, 
1885,  p.  112).  Some  bronze  coins  afterwards  found  on  the 
spot  fix  the  date  of  the  deposit  at  the  second  century  A.D. 
The  workmanship  is  of  great  beauty.  Its  Roman  origin  is 
shown  by  such  names  as  Genialis  and  Aurelianus  which  occur 
on  some  of  the  objects  (Cecil  Smith  in  Classical  Review,  iv. 
71).  The  pepper-pot  is  in  the  form  of  a  squatting  Arab  slave, 
whose  head  is  pierced  with  six  holes.  There  is  also  a  wine- 
strainer.  Part  of  another  silver  service,  found  at  Caubiac, 
near  Toulouse,  is  also  here  exhibited  (K). 

(2)  Extant  works  of  art  in  silver  dating  from  the  earlier 
times  are  comparatively  rare,  owing  to  the  perishable  nature  of 
silver  which  oxidises  when  exposed  to  damp.  Nor  have  the 
arts  of  forgery,  which  in  most  other  departments  have  so 
largely  increased  the  supply  of  "  antiques,''  been  successful  in 
the  case  of  silver-plate.  "  I  must  mention,  however,"  says 
Count  Tyszkiewicz,  "  that  contemporary  chemistry  has  placed 
various  ingenious  processes  at  the  service  of  forgers,  by  which 
they  can  make  an  imitation,  perfect  to  the  eye,  of  the  violet 
patina  taken  on  by  silver-plate  after  it  has  remained  in  the 
earth  for  several  centuries.  This  patina  is  very  soft,  and  any 
one  who  has  been  warned  can  detect  its  falsity  "  {Memories  of 
an  Old  Collector,  p.  171).  Among  the  more  ancient  silver 
objects  in  our  collection  are  some  silver-gilt  platings  from  an 
Etruscan  chariot,  of  about  600  B.C.  (Window-case  R).  These 
objects  are  part  of  a  great  find  of  reliefs  in  bronze  and  silver 
which  was  made  in  181 2  at  Castello  di  S.  Mariano,  four  miles 
from  Perugia,  a  spot  celebrated  in  Perugian  annals  for  a 
victory  obtained  in  the  fifteenth  century  over  a  band  of  British 
condottieri.  They  were  not  found  in  a  tomb  ;  which  makes 
it  probable  that  they  were  buried  for  concealment  in  ancient 
times  (Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  ii.  427).  The 
reliefs  are  of  silver-plate,  beaten  out  and  gilded  ;  they  are 
works  in  the  archaic  Greek  style  produced  in  Etruria. 

In  Greece  the  art  of  the  silversmith  was  highly  esteemed. 
Among  the  votive  offerings  at  the  Parthenon  were  numerous 
goblets  made  both  of  gold  and  silver.  Many  of  the  celebrated 
sculptors  cultivated  this  branch  of  art ;  and  in  the  later  days 
of  Hellenism,  fabulous  sums  were  paid  for  fine  examples.  The 
Greek  silver  vases  are  "  distinguished  by  the  simple  refinement 
of  their  shapes,  and  the  delicately  chased  ornaments.    A  two- 


596 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


handled  cup,  with  a  finely-chased  internal  pattern,  is  said  to 
have  been  found  at  Bosco  Reale  (near  Pompeii),  but  it  has  the 
character  of  Greek  work"  {Guide  to  the  Department), 

The  collection  of  Roman  silver-plate  is  continued  in  this 
case.  Notice  especially  a  fine  bowl,  in  the  centre  of  which  is 
a  medallion  group  of  the  three  Graces  ;  this  was  found  in 
France  at  Chatuzange,  near  Romans  (Drome). 

Of  special  interest  are  two  silver  phialse  (or  libation  dishes), 
found  at  Eza,  near  Nice  (formerly  said  to  have  come  from  Roque  - 
maure,  in  the  department  Gard).  The  designs  are  beaten  up 
in  a  rough  way  and  then  finished  by  chasing.  The  bowl  which 
is  broken  at  the  edge  is  the  finer  in  style.  The  subject  repre- 
sented is  Hercules  being  driven  in  a  chariot  to  Olympus  (see 
for  a  discussion  of  the  subject,  A.  S.  Murray's  Handbook  of 
Greek  Archceology,  p.  108,  and  in  the  Classical  Review,  v. 
342).  There  are  in  the  collection  of  vases  (Fourth  Vase  Room, 
G  118,  see  p.  407)  two  bowls  of  black  ware  (duplicates  from 
the  same  mould)  of  the  same  shape  as  these  silver  bowls,  and 
impressed  with  almost  the  same  designs.  The  coincidence  is 
instructive  as  showing  how  certain  stock  patterns,  as  it  were, 
were  used  for  various  kinds  of  products.  We  see,  too,  that 
the  black-ware  vases  were  the  poor  man's  substitute  for  the 
silver  vases  of  the  wealthy.  The  quantity  of  rich  silver-plate 
found  at  Roman  sites  in  France  testifies  to  the  diffusion  of 
luxury  in  Gaul  in  Imperial  times. 

Among  the  silver  statuettes  none  is  finer  than  the  portrait 
bust,  much  oxidised,  supposed  to  be  of  Antonia,  the  wife  of 
Drusus  and  mother  of  Germanicus.  It  originally  formed  a 
projecting  boss  in  a  silver  bowl,  and  was  found  in  1895  at 
the  Roman  villa  at  Bosco  Reale,  near  Pompeii,  which  has 
yielded  so  many  artistic  treasures.  Our  bust  was  originally 
bought  from  the  owner  of  the  villa  by  Count  Tyszkiewicz,  but 
being  unable  to  remove  the  crust  which  overlaid  the  lady's 
face,  he  exchanged  it  with  a  Roman  dealer.  Several  amateurs 
were  soon  after  it,  but  they  were  too  late  ;  the  bust  was  already 
in  the  British  Museum  (p.  139  of  Memories  of  an  Old  Collector; 
a  reproduction  of  the  bust  is  the  frontispiece  to  that  entertain- 
ing volume). 

Very  interesting  is  the  figure  wearing  a  mural  crown, 

which  marks  her  as  the  personification  of  a  city,  while  the 
wings  suggest  victory  (Nike).  Hence  the  suggestion  has 
been  made  that  Nicopolis  is  intended,  the  city  founded  by 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  597 


Augustus  after  the  victory  of  Actium.  More  probably  the 
figure  personifies  Rome  herself;  she  was  often  worshipped  as 
Protectress  of  the  world.  Above  her  head  the  row  of  deities 
represents  the  seven  days  of  the  week — Saturn  (Saturday),  the 
sun  (Sunday),  the  moon  (Monday),  Mars  (Tuesday,  French 
Mardi),  Mercury  (Wednesday,  French  Mercredi),  Jupiter 
(Thursday,  Italian,  Giovedi),  and  Venus  (Friday,  French, 
Vendredi).  Mars  occupies  the  middle  place,  and  dominates 
the  composition.  Above  the  head  of  the  Deified  City  are  busts 
of  the  two  "  twin-brethren  Castor  and  Pollux,  tutelary  gods  of 
Rome.  In  her  left  hand  she  has  a  cornucopia,  with  busts  of 
Apollo  and  Diana  (or,  according  to  others,  Antoninus  Pius 
and  Faustina).  This  interesting  piece  was  found  near  Macon 
in  1764,  together  with  several  silver  figures  now  beside  it" 
{Gazette  Archeologique,  1877,  p.  82  ;  1879,  p.  *)• 

[With  this  silver  statuette  of  a  city  we  may  compare  four 
others,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  room  of  Christian  antiquities 
(North  Gallery)  They  were  found  with  the  famous  Bridal 
Casket  of  Projecta  and  other  treasures  on  the  Esquiline  Hill 
at  Rome,  and  belong  to  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  A.D.  The 
style#  of  art  is  poor,  but  they  are  interesting  as  showing  us 
personifications  of  cities  in  art : — 

"  Beneath  the  feet  of  each  statue  is  a  leaf ;  and  fitting  into  the  back 
of  each  is  a  square  socket,  adapted  to  receiving  the  head  of  a  pole, 
which  was  held  in  place  by  a  silver  pin  attached  to  a  chain.  Probably 
the  statuettes  formed  the  decoration  of  the  poles  of  a  litter,  or  the 
cross  pieces  of  a  chair.  Of  these  figures  one  is  a  copy  of  the  statue  of 
Eutychides  and  stands  for  Antioch.  A  second  figure  seated  wearing 
helmet,  and  holding  sceptre  and  round  shield,  is  evidently  the  deified 
Roman  who  is  familiar  to  us  from  coins  and  reliefs.  A  third  figure  is 
helmeted  like  Roma,  but  there  is  more  profusion  of  ornament  in  her 
attire,  and  she  holds  patera  and  cornucopias.  She  is  evidently  the 
new  Rome,  Constantinopolis,  who  appears  helmeted  on  coins  of  her 
founder,  Constantine.  The  fourth  figure  wears,  like  Antioch,  a  turreted 
crown ;  she  holds  in  each  hand  ears  of  corn,  and  her  feet  rest  on  the 
prow  of  a  ship.  She  must  be  the  fourth  great  city  of  the  Roman  world, 
Alexandria.  To  her,  ears  of  corn  and  prow  would  be  alike  appro- 
priate as  a  great  mercantile  city  and  the  capital  of  a  region  of  corn  " 
(P.  Gardner  in  /.U.S.  ix.  77).] 

A  silver  disk,  with  a  pretty  representation  of  Aphrodite, 
comes  from  Tarentum,  and  narrowly  escaped  going  the  way 
of  so  many  other  antiques  in  the  precious  metals — namely, 
into  the  melting-pot.    It  was  bought  by  a  travelling  jeweller: — 


598 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


On  one  of  his  customary  visits  to  Tarentum  he  was  invited  by  a 
silversmith  to  take  some  refreshment,  and  on  entering  a  room  behind 
the  shop  he  observed  this  bas-relief  placed  against  the  wall,  and  two 
small  lamps  burning  before  it.  Being  at  the  very  first  sight  sensible 
of  its  antiquity,  he  carefully  asked  the  silversmith's  wife,  who  was 
present,  where  it  was  found.  Her  answer  was  to  this  effect.  Some 
excavators  brought  to  their  shop  for  sale  a  quantity  of  silver,  which 
they  had  found  in  digging  among  the  ruins  of  the  old  city.  On  break- 
ing up  the  mass,  her  husband  discovered  these  figures  within  it,  and 
was  about  to  put  them  into  the  crucible  to  melt  them,  when  she 
snatched  the  rare  relic  from  her  husband,  exclaiming  with  religious 
horror,  4 'Would  you  melt  the  Madonna?" 

Thus  was  our  silver  Aphrodite  saved  by  the  comprehensive 
charity  of  a  woman's  religion  !  The  disk,  which,  when  found, 
had  been  soldered  into  a  silver  bowl,  was  no  doubt  originally 
a  mirror-case.  The  subject  is  Aphrodite  at  her  toilet ;  the 
accessories,  suggestive  of  various  divinities,  are  characteristic 
of  the  pantheistic  spirit  of  the  Grseco-Roman  times  (Archceo- 
logia,  xxxiv.  265). 

The  figure  of  a  boy  playing  with  a  goose  was  found  near 
Alexandria,  together  with  coins  which  prove  it  to  have  been 
buried  about  240  B.C.  The  subject  is  one  of  the  most  common 
in  ancient  genre.  The  goose,  it  should  be  remembered,  had 
not  then  acquired  its  present  character.  It  was  thought  to  be 
a  valiant  bird,  and  its  domesticated  habits  made  it  the  very 
model  for  a  good  housewife.  Geese  were  constant  inmates  of 
the  house,  and,  from  the  time  of  Penelope  downwards,  were 
the  much-loved  companions  of  the  mistress  and  her  children. 
The  little  figure  before  us  is  possibly  an  imitation  of  a  work  by 
the  sculptor  Boethus,  of  which  we  know  from  Pliny  (xxxiv.  84), 
and  which  seems  to  have  set  the  fashion  for  similar  productions 
in  variously  modified  types  (E.  A.  Gardner  in  J.H.S.  vi.  1). 

The  statuette  of  Serapis  (from  the  Payne  Knight  collection) 
was  the  only  object  of  silver  found  with  the  Paramythia 
Bronzes  (Ch.  XXI.).  It  is  Hellenistic  work ;  the  dignified 
posture  of  repose  is  enhanced  by  the  long  hair  and  beard. 

At  the  side  of  this  case  are  three  silver-gilt  votive  tablets, 
addressed  to  Jupiter  of  Doliche.  Two  of  the  tablets  have 
small  shrines.  These  votive-tablets  (found  at  Heddernheim, 
near  Frankfort)  "are  the  only  objects,  hitherto  discovered, 
which  seem  to  offer  any  analogy  to  the  silver  shrines  of  Diana, 
made  by  Demetrius  and  the  Ephesian  silversmiths  ;J  {Guide 
to  the  Department). 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


599 


BEQUEST  OF  SIR  A.  W.  FRANKS 

In  three  glass  cases  within  the  room  and  in  the  corridor  is 
arranged  a  portion  of  the  Bequest  of  Sir  Augustus  Wollaston 
Frank 's,  K.C.B. : — 

This  distinguished  antiquary  (born  1826,  died  1897)  was  connected 
with  the  British  Museum  for  forty-five  years  (1851-96),  for  thirty 
of  which  he  was  Keeper  of  the  Department  of  British  and  Mediaeval 
Antiquities.  He  had,  says  one  who  knew  him  well,  "  but  one  idea,  the 
progress  and  enrichment  of  the  collections  under  his  charge.  To  this 
object  he  devoted  his  whole  time  and  energies,  and  his  ample  means." 
He  was  an  indefatigable  collector,  and  everything  he  collected  was 
intended  for  the  Museum.     In  his  will  we  read  : — 

"  I  bequeath  to  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  all  collec- 
tions lent  by  me  on  loan  to  the  said  museum,  or  to  any  other 
museum  or  exhibition  ;  my  collection  of  finger-rings  and  personal 
ornaments  of  olden  times  ;  and  any  of  the  curiosities  or  works  of 
art  in  my  possession  at  the  time  of  my  death,  which  the  said 
Trustees  may  please  to  select.  ...  I  also  bequeath  to  the  said 
Trustees  my  collection  of  book-plates  (ex  libris),  trade  cards,  and 
tickets,  together  with  my  catalogues  of  the  same." 

He  also  bequeathed  any  of  his  books  which  were  not  already  in  the 
Museum.  The  collections  on  loan  at  the  testator's  death  include 
drinking-vessels  ;  a  large  collection  of  Japanese  netsuke,  those  fascinat- 
ing little  carvings  which  represent  in  miniature  the  folklore,  the  daily 
life,  and  mythology  of  Japan  ;  a  collection  of  Japanese  sword-guards  ; 
and  a  collection  of  Continental  porcelain.  These  bequests  are  the  more 
munificent,  for  the  testator  had  already  in  his  lifetime  been  a  frequent 
and  generous  donor  to  the  Museum.  Between  the  years  1855  and 
1896  he  had  presented  an  extensive  collection  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
pottery  and  porcelain  ;  a  selected  collection  of  English  wares  ;  a  choice 
series  of  Italian  majolica  ;  specimens  of  French,  Spanish,  and  Persian 
faience  ;  additions  to  the  Museum  collections  of  glass  ;  mediaeval  and 
other  antiquities,  including  a  valuable  casket  carved  in  whalebone, 
with  Anglo  -  Saxon  runes  ;  collections  of  antiquities  from  the  lake 
dwellings  of  Switzerland  and  France  ;  collections  illustrating  religions 
of  the  East  ;  a  large  collection  of  Anglo-Saxon  coins  ;  a  book  of 
prayers,  formerly  belonging  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  bound  in  enamelled 
gold  ;  and  a  Roman  bronze  figure  of  Hercules  found  in  Cumberland. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said  of  Sir  Wollaston  Franks,  of  the  British  Museum, 
as  it  is  written  of  Wren  at  St.  Paul's,  si  monumentum  requiris 
circumspice. 


6oo 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


CHAP. 


Drinking- Vessels 

The  collections  bequeathed  by  Franks  with  which  we  are 
here  concerned  are  three: — (i)  Drinking  -vessels  ;  (2)  the 
Oxus  Treasure  ;  (3)  Finger-rings  and  Jewellery.  The  drinking- 
vessels  are  arranged  in  three  cases,  between  the  windows  of 
the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  ;  the  other  collections  in  the 
corridor.  The  first  case  assigned  to  drinking-vessels  contains 
principally  vessels  of  pottery  in  silver  mountings  ;  the  most 
remarkable  are  a  fine  jug  of  Rhodian  faience  and  a  stoneware 
jug,  with  ornament  in  relief,  both  in  English  mounts  of  the 
time  of  Elizabeth. 

The  second  case  contains  on  the  three  upper  shelves  objects 
of  ancient  date.  They  include  a  curious  set  of  silver  vessels, 
found  near  Van,  in  Armenia  ;  a  silver  dish  from  Central  Asia, 
with  a  figure  of  the  Sassanian  king,  Sapor  II.  ;  a  vase  and 
dish,  from  Persia  ;  a  gold  head,  jug,  bowls,  etc.,  found  in  the 
river  Oxus  ;  a  silver  bowl  found  in  Lancashire,  full  of  coins  of 
Canute.  There  are  also  a  gold  vessel  from  Tarsus,  and  the 
ornaments  found  with  it,  and  ornaments  in  precious  stones. 
The  treasure  of  Carthage,  silver  bowls,  spoons,  etc.,  found  in 
the  Hill  of  St.  Louis,  at  Carthage.  In  the  lower  part,  various 
Oriental  vessels. 

In  the  third  case  there  are  drinking-vessels,  chiefly  of 
Gothic  and  Renaissance  period.  Five  mazer  bowls,  four  of 
them  English,  including  the  one  given  by  Robert  Pechum  to 
the  refectory  at  Rochester  (1532) ;  the  fifth  is  that  of  Louis  de 
Male,  the  last  Count  of  Flanders,  whose  devices  and  arms  are 
upon  the  foot  ;  it  has  its  ancient  leather  case  ;  mounted  vessels 
of  Chinese  porcelain  ;  a  Venetian  glass  jug  in  English  mounts, 
temp.  Edward  VI.  ;  an  Arab  crystal  cup  of  the  thirteenth 
century  in  Flemish  mount  of  the  fourteenth  ;  the  Goodricke 
Cup,  and  the  Aston  Tankard,  the  former  of  which  was,  like 
the  latter,  originally  formed  of  an  ostrich  egg  ;  a  globe  cup, 
dated  1569,  with  a  map  of  the  world,  after  Oronce  Fine  ;  and 
a  small  tankard  of  clear  glass,  with  the  arms  of  the  great  Lord 
Burleigh  in  enamel. 

The  Oxus  Treasure 

The  gold  and  jewellery  exhibited  under  this  head  illus- 
rate  Bactrian  art  from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  601 


Bactria,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Central  Asia,  lying  to  the 
south  of  the  river  Oxus,  was  subdued  by  that  conqueror  and 
in  the  following  century  was  the  scene  of  an  independent  king- 
dom under  a  dynasty  of  Grseco-Bactrian  kings,  some  of  whose 
coins  we  have  already  seen  (pp.  530,  536).  These  specimens 
of  earlier  Bactrian  art  were  for  the  most  part  discovered  in  1877. 
In  that  year  a  great  treasure  of  coins  and  of  gold  and  silver 
objects  was  found  in  the  sand  of  the  river  bank  of  the  Amon- 
Daria  (the  Oxus),  not  far  from  the  town  of  Iakt-i-Kouvate. 
The  treasure  had  been  hidden  either  in  the  sand  or  in  chests 
which  had  crumbled  to  dust.  The  coins  belonged  mostly  to 
the  fourth  and  partly  to  the  beginning  of  the  second  century. 
The  treasure,  it  would  seem,  had  been  amassed  for  a  great 
number  of  years,  and  ultimately  buried  by  its  owner  or  by 
some  one  who  had  obtained  possession  of  it.  The  hypothesis 
of  theft  or  seizure  in  conquest  is  very  probable,  for  many  of  the 
objects  were  found  broken  in  a  barbarous  way  in  order  to 
facilitate  transport.  The  treasure,  on  being  unearthed  from 
the  sandy  bed  where  it  had  lain  for  so  many  centuries,  was 
dispersed,  as  was  feared,  for  ever.  But  Sir  Wollaston  Franks 
was  on  the  alert.  He  obtained  his  collection  through  Indian 
dealers,  and  augmented  it  by  the  purchase  of  the  late  Sir  A. 
Cunningham's  treasures.  The  collection  is  of  great  antiquarian 
interest,  both  for  its  resemblance  to  objects  found  in  Southern 
Russia  and  for  the  place  where  the  treasure  was  discovered — 
the  most  eastern  point  at  which  antiquities  of  a  Scythian 
character  have  yet  been  exhumed.  Particularly  striking  is 
a  grand  quadrangular  plaque  of  gold  on  which  is  figured  a 
bearded  man  holding  five  switches  in  his  hand.  This  warrior 
is  presumably  an  Asiatic  Scythian  (see  Antiquites  de  la  Russie 
Meridionale,  by  Kondaff,  Tolstoi,  and  Reinach,  1891,  p.  284). 

"  As  works  of  art  the  most  important  (objects  in  the  Treasure 
of  the  Oxus)  are  : — a  large  gold  armlet  with  two  gryphons 
in  full  relief,  their  wings  once  set  with  pastes  or  stones  ;  the 
remains  of  a  dagger-sheath  with  hunting  scenes  in  low  relief 
in  Persepolitan  style  ;  two  disks,  one  in  gold,  the  other  in 
silver,  with  designs  of  a  similar  character ;  a  gold  jug,  the 
handle  terminating  in  a  lion's  head  ;  and  a  model  of  a  king 
in  his  chariot,  in  gold.  The  principal  piece  of  historical 
interest  is  the  gold  signet  of  a  Persian  king  of  about  350  B.C., 
whose  name  has  been  read  as  Phahaspes  "  {British  Museum 
Return,  1898,  p.  71). 


602  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


Finger- Rings 

Sir  Wollaston  Franks's  collection  of  the  finger-rings  of  all 
nations  comprised  3000  specimens,  of  which  about  half  the 
number  are  exhibited.  There  is  another  fine  collection,  formed 
by  Edmund  Waterton,  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 
The  Franks  collection  begins  (at  the  far  end  of  the  corridor) 
with  ancient  Egyptian  rings,  arranged  chronologically,  from 
the  twelfth  dynasty  (2500  B.C.)  to  Roman  times.  There  is  a 
further  collection  in  the  Fourth  Egyptian  Room  (Table-case  I). 
Egyptian  women  wore  many  rings,  sometimes  two  or  three  on 
the  same  finger.  The  left  hand  was  the  more  favoured  in  this 
respect,  and  its  third  finger,  as  with  us,  was  considered  the 
ring  finger  par  excellence  (the  ancient  Britons  preferred  the 
middle  finger).  The  Egyptians  wore  rings  also  on  the  thumb, 
as  may  be  seen  on  the  hands  of  a  wooden  figure  of  a  woman 
on  the  lid  of  a  mummy-case  in  the  Museum.  The  finest 
Egyptian  rings  are  of  pure  gold,  and  are  engraved  with  figures 
or  inscriptions.  Rings  worn  in  Egypt  by  the  poorer  classes 
were  made  of  less  costly  materials,  such  as  silver,  bronze,  glass, 
or  pottery  coloured  with  a  brilliant  blue  or  green.  Other 
examples  have  been  found  made  of  ivory,  amber,  and  hard 
stones,  such  as  carnelian. 

Next  come  Greek  and  Roman  rings  found  in  Egypt,  and 
Greek  rings.  Among  the  latter  are  several  of  the  finest  work- 
manship, such  as  we  have  already  examined  (p.  590).  Note 
also  a  row  of  Greek  sepulchral  rings.  With  that  ritual 
economy  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made,  these  rings 
are  of  very  thin  material. 

Among  the  Roman  rings  several  very  heavy  ones  will  be 
noticed.  "  These  are  of  great  weight,  nearly  two  ounces  in 
one  instance,  and  though  they  are  set  with  a  stone,  this  is 
innocent  of  engraving,  as  it  might  then  be  useful  as  a  seal,  and 
tend  to  diminish  the  owner's  pleasure  in  a  costly  and  entirely 
useless  ornament."  One  can  well  believe  what  Martial  says, 
that  these  rings,  being  worn  on  the  upper  joint  of  the  finger, 
were  apt  to  slip  into  the  dish  when  the  elegant  wearers  were^ 
at  meals,  and  one  can  understand  the  point  of  his  gibe  that 
the  fops  should  try  the  leg  instead  of  the  finger  : — 

In  a  whole  pound  of  gold  the  gem  why  fix, 
And  bury  thus  the  unlucky  sardonyx  ? 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


603 


Though  such  a  ring  beseemed  your  shanks  of  late, 
One's  fingers  sure  require  a  different  weight. 

(xi.  47,  King's  translation.) 

In  the  next  compartment  are  early  Christian  rings.  In 
the  third  and  fourth  centuries  Roman  rings  were  made  en- 
graved with  Christian  symbols — the  monogram  of  Christ,  for 
instance,  or  a  dove  with  an  olive  wreath.  Roman  objects 
with  any  Christian  device  have  been  very  rarely  found  in 
Britain.  Of  special  interest  is  the  ring  of  Ethelswith,  sister 
of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  Queen  of  Mercia  (85  5-899).  She 
married  Burhed,  King  of  Mercia,  in  855.  This  ring  is  of  gold, 
weighing  312  grains.  In  the  centre  of  the  bezel  is  a  circular 
medallion  with  the  Agnus  Dei ;  in  the  half-circle  on  each  side 
are  conventional  animals  or  monsters.  Inside  is  an  inscription, 
"  Eathelsvith  Regina.;'  The  edges  of  the  ring  show  signs 
of  wear,  but  the  inscription  does  not.  The  suggestion  is 
that  the  Queen  had  consecrated  the  ring  at  some  shrine,  and 
that  the  priests  then  inscribed  the  ring  as  a  record  of  her  gift. 
The  ring  was  ploughed  up  in  Yorkshire,  between  Aberford  and 
Sherburn,  in  the  West  Riding,  and  the  finder  is  said  to  have 
attached  it  to  the  collar  of  his  dog  as  an  ornament  (A.  W. 
Franks  in  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  2nd  ser. 
vi.  305).  It  is  remarkable  that  a  gold  ring  of  the  Queen's 
father,  Ethelwulf,  King  of  Wessex,  should  also  be  in  the 
Museum  (see  p.  666). 

On  another  interesting  ring,  of  the  same  period,  is  en- 
graved a  cross.  From  its  unusual  size,  and  the  prominent 
position  of  the  cross,  it  is  supposed  that  the  ring  belonged  to 
some  high  ecclesiastic.  It  was  found  by  a  boy  in  a  field  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Trent,  in  North  Lincolnshire  {Proceedings 
of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries y  2nd  ser.  iv.  97).  Of  the  same 
period  is  a  gold  finger-ring  consisting  of  a  stout  band  with 
beaded  border ;  the  inscription  on  the  outside  has  not  been  in- 
terpreted. Another  gold  ring  (found  in  Garrick  Street,  London) 
expands  in  front  to  form  a  bezel,  which  has  in  the  centre  a 
circle  containing  a  quatrefoil  of  wire  loops,  filled  in  with  small 
rosettes. 

The  Byzantine  rings  of  the  eleventh  century,  in  gold 
and  niello,  are  interesting.  A  figure  of  our  Lord  uniting 
a  bride  and  bridegroom  is  a  favourite  device  on  wedding  rings. 
Here  also  are  some  Gnostic  rings.    The  serpent-headed  man 


604  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


engraved  on  one  of  these  is  one  of  the  characteristic  devices 
of  this  school  of  mystics. 

Among  the  ecclesiastical  rings,  notice  a  charm  ring  for 
invisibility.  The  earliest  of  all  legends  about  finger-rings — 
the  tale  of  Gyges,  the  Lydian — tells  of  the  power  of  a  ring  in 
this  respect.  Every  one  remembers,  in  Plato's  version  of  the 
legend,  how  Gyges,  a  shepherd,  had  taken  a  gold  ring  off  the 
skeleton  of  a  giant : — 

* '  Now  the  shepherds  met  together,  according  to  custom,  that  they 
might  send  their  monthly  report  concerning  the  flock  to  the  king  ; 
and  into  their  assembly  he  came,  having  the  ring  on  his  finger,  and  as 
he  was  sitting  among  them  he  chanced  to  turn  the  collet  of  the  ring 
towards  the  inner  side  of  the  hand,  when  instantly  he  became  in- 
visible, and  the  others  began  to  speak  of  him  as  if  he  were  no  longer 
there.  He  was  astonished  at  this,  and  again  touching  the  ring,  he 
turned  the  collet  outwards,  and  reappeared  ;  thereupon  he  made 
trials  of  the  ring,  and  always  with  the  same  result ;  when  he  turned 
the  collet  inwards  he  became  invisible,  when  outwards,  he  reappeared. 
Perceiving  this,  he  immediately  contrived  to  be  chosen  messenger  to 
the  court,  where  he  no  sooner  arrived  than  he  seduced  the  queen,  and 
with  her  help  conspired  against  the  king  and  slew  him,  and  took  the 
kingdom  "  [Rep.  ii.  359,  Jowett's  translation). 

The  notion  of  invisibility  attached  to  a  ring  was  suggested, 
perhaps,  by  the  way  in  which  scarabs  were  set  in  a  revolving 
swivel ;  turn  it  inwards,  and  the  device  on  the  signet — the 
proof  of  a  man's  identity — disappears.  For  many  centuries, 
and  under  all  forms  of  faith,  the  belief  in  this  supernatural 
agency  of  rings  survived.  In  Christian  times  rings  to  pro- 
cure invisibility  had  to  be  engraved  with  the  quotation  from 
Luke  iv.  30,  Jesus  autem  transiens  per  medium  illorum  ibat 
(  "  but  He  passing  through  the  midst  of  them  went  His 
way  "  ). 

Another  compartment  of  the  Franks  collection  contains 
gold  rings  with  figures  of  patron  saints.  To  these,  high 
protective  powers  were  ascribed.  Among  them  is  a  remark- 
able gold  ring  found  in  Coventry  Park  in  1802  by  a  man  when 
digging  up  potatoes  : — 

"  The  centre  device  represents  our  Saviour  rising  from  the  sepulchre, 
and  in  the  background  are  shown  the  hammer,  ladder,  sponge,  and 
other  emblems  of  His  passion.  On  the  left  is  figured  the  wound  of 
the  side,  with  the  following  legend  :  4  The  well  of  everlasting  lyffe.' 
In  the  next  compartment  two  smaller  wounds  with  the  words  *  The 


xxv  THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  605 


well  of  comfort,'  '  The  well  of  grace';  and  afterwards,  two  other 
wounds,  with  *  The  well  of  pitty,'  '  The  well  of  merci.'  On  the  inside 
of  the  ring  is  an  inscription  which  is  an  amulet  :  '  The  five  wounds  of 
God  are  my  medicine.'  A  will  of  1487  of  Sir  E.  Shaw,  goldsmith 
and  alderman  of  London,  directs  similar  devices  and  inscriptions  to  be 
made  on  sixteen  rings  '  of  fyne  gold,  to  be  graven  with  the  well  of 
pitie,  the  well  of  mercie,  and  the  well  of  everlasting  life  '  "  (Archceologia, 
xviii.  306). 

Another  ring  of  great  rarity,  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  of 
gold  set  with  a  green  jasper,  on  which  is  engraved  in  intaglio 
a  head  in  a  hood.  On  the  gold  setting  is  an  inscription,  "  S. 
Cristine  Almarici."  "  It  had  long  been  supposed  that  the  art 
of  gem-engraving  had  been  lost  in  the  west  of  Europe,  at  the 
fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  few  specimens  subsequent 
to  that  period  which  had  been  noticed  being  evidently  of 
Byzantine  origin.  The  remarkable  crystal,  however,  en- 
graved for  Lothaire,  King  of  France,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  also  several  other  Carlovingian  intaglios  in 
that  material,  prove  that  this  art  was  practised  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries "  {Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, 2nd  ser.,  i.  51).  Of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century 
is  a  cameo,  now  in  the  Museum,  representing  our  Lord  in  the 
Garden. 

Among  the  magical  rings,  several  are  set  with  a  toad- 
stone,  a  gem  supposed  to  be  of  rare  virtue,  now  identified  by 
science  as  the  palatal  tooth  of  a  fossil  ray.  Another  variety  is 
made  of  ass's  hoof. 

The  Foreign  ornamental  rings  include  a  good  collection 
of  rings  with  precious  stones  of  varied  colours,  set  as  giardinetti 
or  nosegays  (eighteenth  century). 

The  English  signets  (fifteenth  to  seventeenth  century) 
include  several  with  merchants'  marks.  Rings  of  this  kind 
with  a  badge  or  trade-mark  were  not  only  much  used  as 
seals,  but  the  ring  itself  was  often  sent  by  a  trusty  bearer  as 
the  proof  of  the  genuineness  of  a  bill  of  demand — a  revival  of 
the  most  ancient  use  of  signets  (see  p.  632).  At  the  same 
period,  private  gentlemen  used  rings  with  their  initials  or 
coats-of-arms  or  crests  cut  on  the  bezel.  Some  of  them  are 
very  massive.  One  thinks  of  FalstafT's  boast  that  in  his  youth 
he  was  slender  enough  to  c<  creep  into  any  alderman's  thumb- 
ring."  That  aldermen  wore  other  rings  also,  we  know  from 
Romeo  and  Juliet : — - 


6o6 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


O,  then,  I  see  Queen  Mab  hath  been  with  you. 
She  is  the  fairies'  midwife,  and  she  comes 
In  shape  no  bigger  than  an  agate-stone 
On  the  forefinger  of  an  alderman. 

We  may  next  notice  an  interesting  collection  of  Posy  rings, 
so  called  from  the  "  poesy "  or  rhyme  engraved  on  them. 
'Twas  such  a  ring  that  Nerissa  gave  to  Gratiano  in  The 

Merchant  of  Venice : — 

A  hoop  of  gold,  a  paltry  ring 
That  she  did  give  me,  whose  posy  was 
For  all  the  world  like  cutler's  poetry 
Upon  a  knife,  "  Love  me,  and  leave  me  not." 

Among  the  posies  on  the  rings  before  us  are  "  A  virtuous  wife 
preserveth  life,"  "  Hearts  united  live  contented,"  "  Thee  and  I 
will  lovers  die,"  u  If  love  abide,  God  will  provide." 

The  decade  rings  form  another  interesting  class  ;  they 
were  common  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  are  so  called 
from  having  ten  knobs  along  the  hoop  of  the  ring,  and  were 
used,  after  the  manner  of  rosaries,  to  count  nine  aves  and  one 
paternoster.  In  some  cases  there  are  only  nine  knobs,  the 
bezel  of  the  ring — in  the  shape  of  a  cross  or  a  skull — being 
counted  in,  like  the  "gaude"  in  a  rosary. 

Also  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  some  Italian  rings  with 
niello  work  : — 

"  Niello  is  a  term  used  to  express  a  composition  of  silver,  lead, 
copper,  sulphur,  and  borax.  At  a  certain  degree  of  heat  it  fuses, 
and  when  allowed  to  cool  becomes  hard.  The  process  by  which  this 
composition  is  made  to  impart  the  shadows  to  engravings  on  metal  is 
called  lavoro  di  niello^  and  derives  its  name  from  the  black  colour 
which  the  mixture  assumes  when  melted.  The  application  of  this 
alloy  to  engravings  on  silver  gives  them  the  appearance  of  exquisite  pen- 
and-ink  drawings  on  a  light  background.  This  result  is  obtained  by 
carefully  washing  and  cleaning  the  niello  until  it  is  brought  to  grains 
like  the  finest  millet  seed,  when  it  is  spread  over  the  metal  surface, 
which  is  then  heated  until  the  grains  are  fused.  The  plate  is  then 
taken  out  of  the  furnace,  and  when  cold  it  is  cleaned  and  polished ; 
the  only  portion  of  the  niello  which  is  allowed  to  remain  is  that  em- 
bedded in  the  engraved  design  and  in  the  lines  hatched  to  form  the 
background"  (E.  Waterton  in  Arch.  Journal ',  xix.  323). 

The  art  of  niello  work  was  known  in  Roman  times.  An 
early  specimen  may  be  seen  in  the  statuette  of  a  Roman 
general  in  the  Anglo-Roman  collection  (p.  727).    The  art  was 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


607 


constantly  practised  in  Europe  till  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  is  still  practised  in  Russia  and  India.  Of  Saxon 
workmanship  are  the  rings  of  King  Ethelwulf  and  Queen 
Ethelswith  (pp.  603,  666).  In  the  early  Middle  Ages, 
Byzantium  was  a  centre  of  the  art.  We  have  already  seen 
some  niello  Byzantine  rings.  It  was,  however,  in  Italy  that 
niello  reached  its  highest  perfection,  especially  at  the  hands 
of  Tommaso,  commonly  called  Maso,  di  Finiguerra. 

Other  classes  of  rings  in  the  same  compartment  are  those 
set  with  diamonds  for  writing  on  glass  ;  sundial  rings,  and 
rings  of  serjeants-at-law.  It  was  the  custom  for  Serjeants,  on 
their  appointment,  to  give  gold  rings  with  mottoes  to  their 
colleagues. 

The  Stuart  rings  form  an  interesting  class.  Charles  I. 
is  represented  by  about  half-a-dozen  nearly  contemporary 
portraits  set  in  rings.  An  inscription  is,  "  Prepared  be  to 
follow  me."  The  Jacobites  executed  in  1746  are  recorded  on 
a  minutely-inscribed  ring  of  which,  by  a  strange  coincidence, 
there  was  an  exact  duplicate  already  in  the  Museum.  Another 
ring  has  the  cypher  of  the  Old  Chevalier  and  the  Papal  Arms 
inside. 

A  doleful  ornament  was  the  mourning  ring,  much  in  favour 
in  this  country  in  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth,  and  early 
nineteenth  centuries.  Some  are  enamelled  with  memorial 
vases  ;  others  with  an  eye. 

The  last  compartment  contains  Javanese  and  Oriental  rings 
and  Ashanti  rings.  A  more  interesting  class  is  that  of  Papal 
investiture  rings,  the  episcopal  ring  solemnly  conferred 
upon  the  newly-made  bishop  together  with  his  crozier.  In  the 
time  of  Innocent  III.  (1194)  this  was  ordered  to  be  of  pure 
gold  mounted  with  a  stone  that  was  not  engraved  ;  but  this 
rule  was  not  strictly  kept.  In  many  cases  an  antique  gem 
was  mounted  in  the  bishop's  ring,  an  inscription  being  some- 
times added  to  Christianise  the  pagan  device.  Owing  to  the 
custom  of  burying  the  episcopal  ring  in  the  bishop's  coffin 
many  fine  examples  still  exist.  The  ring  was  worn  over  the 
bishop's  gloves,  usually  on  the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  ; 
hence  the  large  size  of  the  hoop. 

Some  Jewish  betrothal  rings  are  also  interesting.  "  Fine 
examples  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  exist.  In 
the  place  of  the  bezel  is  a  model,  minutely  worked  in  gold,  of 
a  building  with  high-gabled  roofs,  and  frequently  movable 


6o3 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS  chap. 


weathercocks  on  the  apex.  This  is  a  conventional  repre- 
sentation of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem."  On  one  of  our  rings 
is  a  representation  of  the  seven-branched  candlestick. 


Jewellery 

The  Franks  Bequest  of  personal  ornaments  includes  ex- 
amples of  the  jewellery  of  nearly  all  ages  and  countries,  and 
serves  as  a  supplement  to  the  historical  collection  already 
described.  On  one  side  of  the  corridor  are  cases  containing 
Greek,  Graeco- Roman,  Roman,  and  Byzantine  specimens. 
*;  The  transfer  of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium  marked," 
says  Castellani,  "  a  new  phase  in  the  history  of  jewellery.  It 
became  quickly  grafted  on  the  Arab  art,  and  by  means  of  this 
new  element  acquired  quite  a  different  style  from  that  which 
it  had  derived  from  the  artists  of  antiquity.  Enamels,  precious 
stones,  pearls,  and  coarse  chasings,  all  mounted  together  with 
an  exuberance  of  barbaric  luxury,  constitute  the  characteristic 
traits  of  that  Byzantine  school  which,  whilst  it  preserved  in  the 
general  disposition  of  its  ornamentation  the  square  forms  of 
Greek  art,  served  so  well  for  the  transition  between  the  ancient 
and  modern  art  at  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  y'  {Archceo- 
logical  Journal,  1861,  p.  365). 

:'  Among  the  Classical  jewellery  may  be  mentioned  two 
shoulder  ornaments  of  gold  from  the  Fould  collection,  with 
Etruscan  designs  in  granular  work  :  a  large  series  of  jewellery, 
ear-rings,  etc.,  from  Crete  ;  two  small  gold  bells  from  the 
treasure  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  with  the  labours  of  Hercules  ; 
and  a  number  of  articles  of  Roman  date  found  in  Egypt il 
(Brit.  Mus.  Report,  1898,  p.  72). 

Of  Merovingian  and  Anglo-Saxon  jewellery  "  the  charac- 
teristics are  thin  plates  of  gold,  decorated  with  thin  slabs  of 
garnet,  set  in  walls  of  gold,  soldered  vertically  like  the  lines  of 
Cloisonne  enamel,  with  the  addition  of  very  decorative  details 
of  filigree  work,  beading,  and  twisted  gold." 

On  the  other  side  of  the  corridor  is  a  collection  of  English 
and  foreign  jewellery  of  later  centuries.  We  may  call  special 
attention  to  some  enamelled  portraits  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  ;  a  curious  shell-portrait  of  William  III.  and 
Mary  in  a  locket.  In  the  next  compartment  are  two  enormous 
Hungarian  brooches  :  some  silver  and  enamelled  book-covers  ; 


XXV 


THE  ROOM  OF  GOLD  ORNAMENTS 


609 


and'  some  Italian  translucent  enamels.  The  third  compart- 
ment contains  some  beautiful  examples  of  the  best  Italian 
work.  Notice  especially  a  very  fine  belt  with  enamelled 
rosettes,  Venetian  work  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  also  some 
fine  samples  of  Italian  niello  in  crucifixes  and  reliquaries. 

itST  We  now  re-enter  the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  in  order  to  inspect 
the  collection  of  engraved  gems,  etc.,  which  forms  the  stibject 
of  the  next  chapter. 


2  R 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 

In  tenui  labor,  at  tenuis  non  gloria  si  quern 
Numina  laeva  sinunt  auditque  vocatus  Apollo. 

What  Virgil  says  of  the  humbler  themes  of  the  poet  is  true 
also  of  the  little  works  of  art  which  we  have  next  to  examine 
(in  the  case  opposite  the  door).  Engraved  gems  are  for  the 
most  part  small  in  scale  ;  the  work  upon  them  is  minute  ;  it  is 
not  always  easily  seen  ;  its  motives  are  slight.  But  when  the 
conditions  are  propitious  and  the  engraver  is  well  inspired,  a 
gem  is  among  the  most  precious  of  artistic  treasures. 

The  conditions  must  be  favourable ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
stones  on  which  the  artist  works  must  be  in  themselves  beauti- 
ful and  suitable.  This  is  the  first  thing  that  gives  value  to  an 
engraved  gem.  If  the  reader  will  take  a  general  glance  at  the 
gems  exhibited  in  the  cases  opposite  the  door,  he  will  at  once 
be  struck  by  the  beauty  of  the  translucent  stones.  These  gems 
are  intaglios — so  called  from  the  Italian  intagliare,  "to  cut  in" 
— in  which  the  design  is  sunk  beneath  the  surface  ;  from  them  is 
obtained  an  impression.  They  are  in  fact  seals,  and  beside 
each  intaglio  is  exhibited  a  plaster-cast,  showing  the  design  as 
it  appears  in  relief.  For  intaglios  stones  of  a  single  colour  are 
generally  chosen,  such  as  the  amethyst,  hyacinth,  beryl,  and 
sard.  Of  these  stones  none  is  more  beautiful  for  the  purpose 
of  the  engraved  gem  than  the  beryl  and  the  sard.1  Antique 

1  "  It  is  worth  noticing  that  some  stones,  such  as  the  amethyst  and  the 
garnet,  which  often  look  poor  and  tawdry  when  faceted,  have  great  decor- 
ative beauty  when  cut  in  the  older  fashion.  The  modern  system  is 
applied  with  great  want  of  taste  on  the  part  of  jewellers  to  many  stones, 
which  are  quite  spoilt  by  it.  In  Oriental  countries  the  old  method  of 
shaping  gems  still  survives,  and  modern  Indian  jewellery  of  very  great 
beauty  and  decorative  effect  is  often  made  with  gems  which,  in  the  hands 
of  a  European  jeweller,  would  be  almost  valueless"  (Middleton's  Ancient 
Gems,  p.  39). 

610 


CHAP.  XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


6u 


beryls  are  very  pure  and  lustrous,  and  the  sard — m  its  various 
colours — brilliantly  transparent.  How  beautiful,  for  instance, 
is  the  blue  beryl,  containing  an  intaglio  of  Hercules  (Compart- 
ment 44,  Row  e),  and  the  blood-red  sard  in  45  c  ! 1  The  delight 
of  the  connoisseur  in  such  beautiful  stones  is  expressed  in  the 
verses  which  Maecenas  wrote  upon  the  departure  of  Horace. 
Not  even  the  sight  of  his  darling  jewels  could  console  him  : — 

Whilst  I  thine  absence,  O  my  life  !  deplore, 
Emeralds  and  lustrous  beryls  charm  no  more  ; 
No  more,  my  Flaccus,  can  the  brilliant  white 
Of  orient  pearls,  as  erst,  my  soul  delight ; 
Nor  can  my  favourite  rings  my  grief  beguile, 
Nor  jaspers  polished  by  the  Thyiian  file. 

In  the  process  of  intaglio-making  the  polisher  first  gives 
the  stone  the  desired  form,  and  the  engraver  then  works  at  it. 
The  tools  used  for  making  the  designs  were  of  three  kinds — 
the  drill,  the  wheel,  and  the  diamond-point.  The  drill  was 
worked  by  means  of  a  bow  ;  the  bow-string  was  wound  round 
the  stick  of  the  drill,  which  was  made  to  revolve  by  moving 
the  bow  rapidly  backwards  and  forwards.  Among  the  gems 
here  collected  is  one  which  shows  us  this  operation  (11  a, 
B.M.C.2  305).  The  point  of  the  drill  was  of  metal,  which 
was  smeared  with  emery  powder  mixed  with  oil.  By  this 
means  the  general  blocking  out  of  the  figure  was  done,  and 
sometimes  the  design  never  went  any  farther.  Thus  the  three 
figures  rudely  blocked  out  on  a  red  jasper  (12  e,  B.M.C.  447) 
were  obviously  done  with  the  drill.  Pliny  describes  the 
process  :  "  These  minute  splinters  (of  emery  or  crushed 
diamond)  gem-engravers  greatly  value,  and  mount  them  on  an 
iron  tool,  there  being  nothing  so  hard  that  they  will  not  hollow 

1  The  numerals  followed  by  letters  refer  to  the  places  at  present 
occupied  by  the  gems  ;  thus  11  a  means  Compartment  11,  Row  a. 

2  B.M.  C.  =  British  Museum  Catalogue.  The  references  are  to  the  num- 
bers as  given  in  the  Catalogue  of  Engraved  Gems  in  the  British  Museum 
(1888)  ;  this  contains  nine  plates  with  phototype  illustrations  of  many  of 
the  gems.  The  best  English  books  on  antique  gems  are  J.  H.  Middle- 
ton's  Ancient  Gems  (Cambridge  University  Press),  and  the  various  works 
of  C.  W.  King.  These  latter  are,  however,  not  easily  procurable,  with 
the  exception  of  his  Handbook  of  E?igraved  Ge?ns,  2nd  edition  (George 
Bell).  On  Caineos,  both  ancient  and  modern,  there  is  an  excellent  mono- 
graph by  Mr.  Cyril  Davenport  in  the  "Portfolio"  series  (5s.);  this 
contains  capital  illustrations  of  some  of  the  finest  specimens  in  the 
Museum. 


6l2 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


them  out  with  facility/'  The  drill  was  sometimes  tubular,  with 
emery  powder  set  along  its  working  edge.  It  is  curious  to 
reflect  that  the  same  invention  which,  on  a  minute  scale, 
served  to  carve  these  gems  has.  in  our  own  day,  been  re- 
invented to  drive  great  tunnels  through  the  Alps.  In  one 
of  the  earliest  Greek  gems  in  our  collection  (8  e,  B.M.C. 
1 06),  a  sard  with  a  design  of  heraldic  lions,  the  use  of  the 
solid  drill  and  of  the  tubular  respectively  may  clearly  be  distin- 
guished. The  eyes  of  the  lions  and  the  terminations  of  the 
pillar  between  them  were  sunk  with  a  minute  tubular  drill. 
The  rest  of  the  design  was  executed  with  the  solid  drill  and 
the  wheel.  This  wheel  was  "  a  minute  disc  of  bronze  which 
was  set  on  a  long,  slender  shaft  of  wood  or  metal  and  worked 
with  a  bow  and  tube  like  the  drill,  emery  and  oil  being  applied 
to  it  in  the  same  way.  The  wheel  cut  at  right  angles  to  the 
shaft,  not  in  the  same  direction  as  the  drill  did"  (Middleton). 
I  hope  it  will  not  set  the  readers  teeth  on  edge  to  remind 
him  that  the  wheel  and  the  drill  are  among  the  weapons  of  the 
modern  dentist.  But  the  most  artistic  work  in  gem-engraving 
was  done  with  the  diamond-point.  The  diamond-point  of  early 
days  was,  however,  corundum,  still  the  favourite  agent  of  some 
Eastern  lapidaries.  It  consisted  of  a  natural  crystal,  set  in  an 
iron  handle  ;  it  was  held  in  the  hand  like  a  pencil,  or  the 
"  dry-point "  of  an  etcher.  In  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jere- 
miah, written  600  years  before  Christ,  the  process  is  distinctly 
referred  to.  "  The  sin  of  Judah  is  written  with  a  pen  of  iron, 
and  with  the  point  of  a  diamond  ;  it  is  graven  upon  the  table 
of  their  heart/'  The  use  of  the  diamond-point  can  be  clearly 
traced  in  one  of  the  most  graceful  gems  in  the  British  Museum 
(40  e,  B.M.C.  562),  which  has  the  figure  of  a  girl,  dressed 
in  a  long  chiton,  standing  and  holding  a  hydria.  "  The  lines 
of  the  hair,  the  long  straight  folds  of  the  drapery,  and  even  the 
pitcher  in  her  hand,  are  all  executed  with  the  point,  thus 
giving  a  sort  of  sketchy  look  to  this  very  beautiful  design, 
which  probably  dates  from  the  time  of  Phidias."  Another 
very  beautiful  gem  illustrates  the  use  of  the  diamond-point. 
This  is  a  scarab  of  green  jasper  (12  B.M.C.  464),  with 
a  head  of  Zeus  of  most  noble  style,  within  a  cable  border. 
"  The  delicate  lines  cut  with  the  diamond-point  are  specially 
visible  in  the  working  of  the  hair  and  beard  of  this  head" 
(Middleton).  When  the  design  on  a  gem  had  thus  been  cut, 
the  file  was  used  for  smoothing  level  surfaces,  and  lastly  the 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


613 


internal  sunk  part  was  laboriously  polished.  The  engraver 
took  the  greatest  pains  to  polish  all  the  cavities,  for  on  this  de- 
pends much  of  the  beauty  of  the  intaglio  itself,  as  well  as  the 
sharpness  of  the  impression  in  relief  obtained  from  it.  A  poet 
of  our  day  has  prettily  versified  the  process  of  making  a 
signet  ring  :— 

Day  after  day  an  ancient  goldsmith's  skill 
Guided  the  copper  graver,  tempered  hard 
By  some  lost  secret,  while  he  shaped  the  sard 
Slowly  to  beauty,  and  his  tiny  drill, 
Edged  with  corundum,  ground  its  way,  until 
The  gem  lay  perfect  for  the  ring  to  guard. 
Then,  seeing  the  stone  complete  to  his  desire, 
With  mystic  imagery  carven  thus, 
And  dark  Egyptian  symbols  fabulous, 
He  drew  through  it  the  delicate  golden  wire, 
And  bent  the  fastening  ;  and  the  Etruscan  sun 
Sank  over  Ilva,  and  the  work  was  done. 

(J.  W.  Mackail  in  Alma  Mater* s  Mirror.) 

Of  the  artistic  value  of  the  engravings  thus  made  upon 
gems  we  shall  learn  something  when  we  proceed  to  examine 
our  collection  more  in  detail.  Of  fine  antique  gems  in  general 
it  may  be  said  that  they  are  among  the  most  beautiful  works  of 
art  in  the  world.  They  combine,  as  nothing  else  does,  exquisite- 
ness  of  design  with  the  greatest  beauty  of  material.  "  The 
more  brilliant  varieties  of  sard  glow  with  a  sort  of  internal 
lustre  when  held  up  to  the  light  [an  effect  produced  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  gems  before  us],  and  the  device  engraved 
upon  them  comes  out  at  once  soft  in  effect,  and  clear  in  out- 
line, with  a  sort  of  beauty  which  can  hardly  be  rivalled  in  any 
other  branch  of  art "  (Middleton).  The  engraved  gems  are 
very  small,  and  they  require,  we  may  add,  minute  observation 
for  their  beauty  and  interest  to  be  fully  appreciated.  Mr. 
Pater  has  compared  them  with  minor  poetry,  and  we  shall 
often  be  reminded  by  the  gems  of  the  Greek  Anthology. 
"  With  perfect  grace,  the  minute  intaglio  shows  also  the 
faculty  of  structure,  the  logic  of  poetry."  To  grace,  the  best 
Greek  gem-engravers  added  dignity.  One  of  the  secrets  of  fine 
art,  to  which  we  have  already  referred  in  noticing  some  of  the 
smaller  bronzes  (p.  443),  is  revealed  again  and  yet  more 
strikingly  by  the  best  Greek  gems  ;  grandeur  of  effect  does 
not  necessarily  depend  on  greatness  of  size.   There  are  minute 


614 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


gems  in  this  collection — we  shall  call  attention  to  some  of  them 
presently — which  have  all  the  dignity  of  a  large  bust  in  bronze 
or  a  marble  bas-relief.  This  effect  is  produced  in  the  best 
specimens  by  the  perfect  fitness  of  the  design  to  the  artistic 
method.  The  treatment  is  simple  ;  the  style  is  sculpturesque. 
Another  point  may  be  noticed  as  adding  to  the  artistic  value  of 
engraved  gems.  Marble  stains  ;  bronze  corrodes ;  clay  breaks  ; 
but  precious  stones  endure.  "  There  are  few  things  made  by 
mankind  which  will  retain  their  original  surface,  colour,  and 
beauty  longer  than  a  cut  or  engraved  gem.  Time  alone  affects 
them  but  little,  if  at  all ;  a  thousand  years  more  or  less  leave 
no  trace  55  (Davenport). 

The  incidental  interest  of  engraved  gems  is  hardly 
inferior  to  their  intrinsic  beauty  as  works  of  art.  Sometimes, 
as  in  the  case  of  portrait  gems,  the  interest  is  historical. 
Another  source  of  special  interest  in  the  case  of  the  later 
Greek  and  Grasco- Roman  gems  is  that  the  design  often 
represents  some  important  work  of  sculpture.  Thus  a 
famous  bronze  statue  of  Apollo  with  a  deer  by  Canachus 
at  Branchidae  appears  to  be  copied  on  a  gem  here  (13 
c,  B.M.C.  720).  Another  gem  (13  c,  B.M.C.  722)  has 
a  representation  of  the  Apollo  Sauroctonus  of  Praxiteles. 
Again,  on  a  red  jasper,  there  is  a  representation  of  Ares 
and  Aphrodite,  with  a  winged  Eros  (13  e,  B.M.C.  790). 
This  is  founded  on  a  Greek  design  of  which  more  than  one 
Roman  copy  in  marble  exists,  and  which  is  supposed  by  some 
to  have  been  the  motive  of  the  group  to  which  the  Venus  of 
Milo  belonged.  Another  gem  here  (39  see  below)  may 
reproduce  more  or  less  accurately  the  Athena  Parthenos 
of  Phidias.  On  a  rock  crystal  (40  e,  B.M.C.  611)  is  a 
representation  of  a  statue  of  Poseidon.  In  other  cases  the 
motive  may  have  been  pictorial ;  amongst  our  gems  (p.  648) 
is  a  design  which  appears  to  have  been  taken  from  a  picture 
by  Zeuxis.  To  the  archaeologist,  to  the  mythologist,  and  to 
the  student  of  religious  ideas,  engraved  gems  afford  a  rich 
field  of  interest.  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  with  an 
enthusiastic  student  of  this  branch  of  art  that  "  in  the  gems 
that  have  been  worn  by  any  civilised  people,  we  possess  an 
epitome  of  that  people's  arts,  their  religion,  and  their  civilisa- 
tion in  a  form  at  once  the  most  portable,  the  most  indestructible, 
and  the  most  genuine."  "  If,"  says  another  authority,  "  we 
could  but  assemble  in  one  collection  the  still  extant  gem- 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


signets  of  the  different  ages  and  families  of  man  from  the  days 
of  Urukh  to  those  of  the  latest  Sassanian  kings,  we  should 
have  a  more  complete  representation  of  the  objects  that  stirred 
the  minds  and  ruled  the  hearts  of  men  through  all  those  many 
ages  and  changes  of  circumstance,  than  would  be  afforded  by 
any  other  single  form  of  their  arts  —  indeed,  we  may  perhaps 
with  justice  say  than  by  all  the  other  forms  of  those  that 
remain  to  us  combined  "  (Story  Maskelyne's  Catalogue  of  the 
Marlborough  Gems,  1870,  p.  xxiv.). 

It  is  not  surprising  that  works  of  so  much  beauty  and 
interest  as  gems  should  have  become  favourite  objects  with 
collectors  and  connoisseurs.  The  Greeks  appreciated  them 
highly ;  but  it  was  among  the  Romans  of  the  Imperial  period 
that  the  collection  of  them  first  became  a  passion.  The  taste 
was  created,  Pliny  tells  us,  by  the  collection  of  Greek  gems 
which  had  belonged  to  Mithradates,  and  which  Pompey  con- 
veyed among  his  spoils  to  Rome.  The  emperors  seem  to  have 
had  special  curators  of  their  gem  cabinets.  These  must  have 
been  of  great  value,  for  we  read  of  Marcus  Aurelius  that  he 
sold  by  public  auction  the  collection  formed  by  Hadrian, 
together  with  other  works  of  art,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
war  with  the  Marcomanni.  In  the  revival  of  taste  in  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Roman  cardinals  took  the  place  of  Roman 
emperors  as  collectors  of  gems.  There  is  a  passage  in 
Benvenuto  Cellini's  Autobiography  (i.  27),  which  gives  us  an 
interesting  glimpse  of  the  trade  in  antiquities  in  those  days. 
Cellini  was  fond  of  shooting  in  the  Campagna  : — 

The  sport  improved  his  health  and  "  was  also  the  cause,"  he 
says,  "  of  my  making  acquaintance  with  certain  hunters  after  curiosities, 
who  followed  in  the  track  of  those  Lombard  peasants  who  used  to 
come  to  Rome  to  till  the  vineyards.  While  digging  the  ground  they 
frequently  turned  up  antique  medals,  agates,  chrysoprases,  carnelians, 
and  cameos.  The  peasants  used  to  sell  things  of  this  sort  to  the  traders 
for  a  mere  trifle  ;  and  I  very  often,  when  I  met  them,  paid  the  latter 
several  times  as  many  gqlden  crowns  as  they  had  given  guilders  for 
some  object.  Independently  of  the  profit  I  made  by  this  traffic,  which 
was  at  least  tenfold,  it  brought  me  into  agreeable  relations  with  nearly 
all  the  cardinals  of  Rome."  Cellini  goes  on  to  describe  some  of  the 
gems  which  he  thus  bought  and  sold  :  among  others  one  <£  of  such 
beauty  and  skill  that  our  great  Michael  Angelo  protested  he  had  never 
seen  anything  so  wonderful." 

It  was  from  the  Roman  collectors  and  dealers  that  the  wealthy 
English  connoisseurs  acquired  their  cabinets.      One  of  the 


6i6 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


earliest  and  most  celebrated  was  that  of  the  famous  Earl  of 
Arundel  who  "  during  the  troubled  times  of  Charles  the  First 
found  solace  for  the  abridgement  of  his  dignities  in  collecting 
works  of  art  and  monuments  of  antiquity."  His  collection  of 
gems  afterwards  passed  into  that  formed  by  the  third  Duke  of 
Marlborough  (see  below,  p.  646).  The  eighteenth  century 
witnessed  an  extraordinary  furore  among  the  wealthy  dilettanti 
for  antique  gems.  Even  our  bucolic  king,  George  III.  ("  a 
man  of  more  liking  for  cows  than  for  camei "),  was  caught  by 
the  fever. 

Supply,  as  ever,  kept  pace  with  demand,  and  forgery,  which 
even  in  the  days  of  ancient  Rome  was  not  unknown,  became 
rampant.1  There  are  no  lost  secrets  in  the  arts  of  gem-cutting. 
The  cinque-cento  engravers  and  many  of  the  moderns  used 
the  same  instruments  with  the  same  skill  as  the  ancients, 
and  the  counterfeiting  of  antique  gems  has  been,  and  is, 
a  lucrative  and  busy  trade.  Baron  Stosch,  who  sold  an 
enormous  cabinet  to  Frederick  of  Prussia,  had  a  notoriously 
light  conscience  in  the  matter  ;  but  the  most  audacious  fabrica- 
tion in  the  history  of  antique  art  is  the  collection  of  3000 
"antique"  gems  (now  dispersed  over  Europe),  which  was 
made  by  Roman  engravers  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  for  Prince  Poniatowsky.  Count  Michael  Tyszkiewicz, 
in  his  Memories  of  an  Old  Collector,  describes  how  he,  with 
the  help  of  his  friend  Alessandro  Castellani  (then  comparatively 
a  novice),  set  to  work  in  the  'sixties  of  the  last  century  to  form 
a  cabinet  of  gems.  "  In  fifteen  months,"  he  said,  "  I  had  ex- 
pended ^5000  in  gems,  two-thirds  of  them  at  least  being  modern 
— a  fact  we  were  both  far  from  guessing.  But  towards  the  end 
of  this  time  my  eyes  became  a  little  sharper  in  detecting  the 
good  from  the  bad.     I  sold  the  whole  collection  to  Castellani 

1  Pliny  says  (N.H.  xxxvii.  12)  that  in  his  hands  "are  certain  books 
wherein  is  deciphered  how  to  sophisticate  transparent  gems,  and,  to  say 
the  truth,  there  is  not  any  fraud  or  deceit  in  the  world  which  turneth  to 
greater  profit  than  this."  As  one  instance  of  many  to  illustrate  the  tricks 
of  the  trade,  I  quote  the  following  passage  from  King's  Antique  Gems  a?id 
Rings  (i.  21) : — "  An  abraded  and  scratched  surface  must  not  be  received 
as  an  unquestionable  criterion  of  antiquity,  for  Italian  ingenuity  has  long 
ago  discovered  that  a  handful  of  new-made  gems  crammed  down  the 
throat  of  a  turkey  will,  in  a  few  days,  from  the  trituration  of  the  gizzard, 
assume  a  roughness  of  surface,  apparently  due  to  the  action  of  many 
centuries."  If  one  of  those  turkeys  had  been  picked  up,  like  the  goose  in 
Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle's  story  of  The  Blue  Carbuncle,  even  Sherlock 
Holmes  might  have  been  at  fault. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


617 


for  the  fourth  part  of  what  it  cost  me.  He  weeded  out  the 
palpably  false  gems,  left  the  doubtful  ones  (a  large  number), 
added  some  that  he  had  bought  at  a  later  date,  and  ended 
by  selling  them  all  to  the  British  Museum."  Another  cele- 
brated collector  was  taken  in,  but  he  never  admitted  the  fact. 
This  was  Payne  Knight.  He  was  talking  to  Pistrucci,  the 
well-known  engraver,  to  whom  we  owe  the  design  of  George 
and  the  Dragon  on  our  sovereigns.  Payne  Knight  handed  to 
Pistrucci  a  gem.  It  was  a  cameo  of  Flora  (now  in  the  British 
Museum).  "  This,"  he  said,  "  is  the  finest  Greek  cameo  in 
existence."  Pistrucci  at  once  recognised  it  as  a  work  he  had 
executed  for  Bonelli,  a  travelling  gem-dealer.  Bonelli  had 
paid  him  £$  for  it,  and  sold  it  to  Payne  Knight  as  an 
antique  for  £^oo.x  Many  tests  have  been  laid  down  for 
detecting  forgeries,  but  none  is  certain.  "  All  rules,"  says 
Middleton,  "  are  quite  useless  for  distinguishing  between 
ancient  and  modern  gems  when  the  work  of  a  clever  forger  is 
in  question — a  man  who  has  carefully  studied  and  copied  the 
characteristics  of  genuine  antique  gems.  The  fact  is  that  in 
no  other  class  of  art  is  it  so  difficult  to  distinguish  the  genuine 
from  the  false  ;  partly  because  age  makes  no  alteration,  gives 
no  patina  to  a  hard  polished  gem  ;  and  secondly,  because, 
owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  material  and  the  laborious  method 
of  working  it,  there  is  necessarily  something  mechanical  in 
the  process  of  engraving  a  gem,  which  diminishes  the  promi- 
nence of  the  artist's  personal  peculiarities  and  touch."  An 
intuitive  flair,  and  careful  study  of  gems  whose  pedigree  places 
them  beyond  suspicion,  may  help  towards  the  distinction  of 
old  gems  from  new  ;  but,  as  we  shall  see,  experts  of  equal 
authority  sometimes  differ  about  the  same  gem. 

The  collection  of  antique  gems  in  our  Museum — which  has 
been  enriched  from  various  private  cabinets  2  and  from  exca- 
vations— is  not  the  largest,  but,  owing  to  its  representative 
character,  is,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  in  the  world. 

The  specimens  thus  collected  are  so  numerous  (over  3000), 
the  points  of  interest  raised  by  many  of  them  are  so  various, 
that  we  cannot  attempt  to  notice  them  in  detail.    The  object 

1  The  story  is  told  at  length  in  Pistrucci's  autobiography,  which  is  pub- 
lished in  an  appendix  to  Billing's  Science  of  Gems. 

2  The  following  are  the  principal  collections  of  gems  acquired  :  the 
Hamilton  (1772),  Cracherode  (1799),  Townley  (18 14),  Payne  Knight 
(1824),  Blacas  (1867),  Castellani  (1865  and  1872),  and  Carlisle  (1890), 


6x8 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


of  the  following  pages  will  be  to  call  attention  to  the  most 
interesting  or  representative  gems,  and  to  assist  the  reader 
towards  following  out  the  history  and  characteristics  of  the  art. 
The  best  plan,  here  as  elsewhere,  is  to  look  first  at  the  best 
specimens,  and  afterwards  to  trace  the  historical  evolution  of 
the  art.  We  proceed,  then,  at  once  to  the  Case  in  the  centre 
of  the  room  (X),  where  are  arranged  the  finest  specimens  of 
Greek  and  Roman  gem-engraving. 

SELECT  GREEK  GEMS 

{Arranged  hi  Compartme7its  39  and  40  of  Case  X) 

In  the  best  of  these  Greek  intaglios  we  may  notice  the 
same  refinement  of  type,  tenderness  of  sentiment,  and  careful 
treatment  of  drapery  which  mark  the  best  Greek  work  in  other 
fields  of  art.  Other  characteristics  are  also  noticeable,  namely, 
the  appropriateness  and  the  economy  of  the  means  employed. 
Thus,  first,  the  relief  is  low.  "  The  shallowness  or,  more  cor- 
rectly, flatness  of  relief  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  early 
Greek  intaglio  and  relief  work  of  the  best  period.  The  figure 
is  not  treated  like  a  statue  sawn  in  half  and  then  applied  to 
a  background,  but,  like  the  best  Florentine  reliefs  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  is  modelled  with  a  peculiar  delicacy  of  sur- 
face, and  more  relief  than  actually  exists  is,  as  it  were,  sug- 
gested "  (J.  H.  Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  p.  26).  Again, 
in  the  best  Greek  gems  the  lines  are  few  ;  there  is  little  detail. 
The  designer  "  had  worked  out  his  image  beforehand,  so  as  to 
save  all  possible  labour  of  hand  consistently  with  its  expressing 
itself  clearly."  General  effect,  and  not  particular  detail,  was 
what  the  artist  aimed  at.  As  a  specimen  of  vivid  effect  the 
satyr,  carrying  a  full  wine-skin  on  his  back,  may  be  noticed 
(39  c).  In  the  same  row  is  Hercules,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Nemean  lion,  being  offered  water  by  the  local  nymph.  This 
early  Greek  gem  was  found  in  the  Punjab,  carried  there, 
perhaps,  in  the  army  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  heads 
of  a  girl,  and  of  a  youth  in  a  peaked  hat,  (both  in  Row  d, 
B.M.C.  480,  481)  are  simple  and  broad  in  style  :  they  resemble 
the  pre-Phidian  sculpture.  The  contest  of  Hercules  and 
Achelous,  in  the  presence  of  Dejanira,  engraved  on  a  plasma 
(39  a),  is  an  interesting  example  of  archaic  gem -engraving. 
The  same  subject  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias  (iii.  18.  15)  as 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


619 


having  been  sculptured  on  the  throne  of  Apollo  at  Amyclae, 
and  often  occurs  on  vases.  Note  (in  39  c)  the  figure  of 
Athena  with  helmet  and  spear  on  a  scarab  of  banded  onyx, 
set  as  a  finger-ring  in  gold,  with  a  bronze  hoop,  found  at 
Amathus  in  Cyprus  (see  Classical  Review,  iii.  283).  A  gem 
from  Curium  shows  us  Athena  (39  e)  —  a  figure  resembling 
the  Parthenos  of  Phidias,  but  holding  out  the  ornament  on  the 
stern  of  a  ship,  the  recognised  emblem  of  a  naval  victory  (cf. 
Classical  Review,  iv.  71,  132). 

One  of  the  finest  of  Greek  gems  is  the  sard  showing  a  man 
seated  on  a  rock  and  playing  the  lyre  (39  e,  B.M.C.  555)  : — 

4 4  It  is  a  proof  that  the  gem-engraver  may  have  been  at  times  an 
artist  of  perfect  attainments.  The  structure  of  the  body  of  the  youth, 
the  treatment  of  the  drapery  round  his  legs,  the  manner  in  which  the 
perspective  of  the  figure  is  adapted  to  the  necessary  lovvness  of  relief, 
are  all  points  that  may  afford  comparisons  with  the  Parthenon  frieze  ; 
nor  less  so  is  the  serene  composure  with  which  the  youth  bends  over 
his  instrument,  enabling  us  at  once  to  interpret  the  music  of  his  lyre. 
Who,  then,  is  this  youth  seated  at  his  lyre  ?  There  is  no  indication  of 
Apollo  about  him.  The  alternative  would  seem  to  be  some  motive  of 
ordinary  life  which  the  artist  has  idealised  "  (A.  S.  Murray,  Hand- 
book of  Greek  Archceology,  p.  153  ;  and  Encyclopcedia  Britannica, 
ii-  158). 

"  There  is  no  gem,"  says  a  writer  in  the  Quarterly  Revieiv  (Oct. 
1 90 1),  "  which  may  be  so  justly  compared  with  the  Parthenon  frieze  for 
its  combination  of  an  almost  solemn  dignity  of  bearing  with  breadth  and 
simplicity  of  execution,  which  are  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  emotional 
element  in  the  figure.  It  is  like  some  noble  thought  of  a  great  poet, 
which  remains  with  us  as  if  hewn  in  imperishable  adamant." 

In  the  same  row,  on  a  rectangular  piece  of  amethyst 
{B.M.C.  563)  are  four  Bacchantes — full  of  simple,  ideal  beauty 
— in  allusion,  no  doubt,  to  the  supposed  protective  influence  of 
this  gem  against  the  power  of  wine  ;  hence  its  name,  which  in 
Greek  means  "  not  drunken."  1  Next  to  this  gem  is  a  very 
beautiful  design  on  a  sard  {B.M.C.  562) ;  a  maiden,  with  a 
pitcher  in  her  hand,  stands  in  a  pensive  attitude  before  a 
sepulchral  cippus,  as  if  bringing  libations.  The  attitude  and 
simplicity  of  the  figure  recalls  the  style  of  the  Caryatids  of  the 

1  A  couplet  in  the  Anthology  on  an  amethyst  engraved  with  a  figure  of 
Dionysus  turns  upon  the  play  of  words,  which  is  untranslatable  in 
English  :- — 

i]  \idos  ear  afxedvcrTos,  iyCo  5'  6  Trorr/s  Alqpvctos' 


620 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


Erechtheum.  The  design  was  a  favourite  one  with  Greek 
artists  ;  and  in  this  gem  we  have  a  rare  specimen  of  the  best 
period.  The  wounded  centaur  in  chalcedony  (39/,  B.M.C. 
557)  is  of  special  interest  from  its  resemblance  to  the  centaurs 
on  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon,  and  probably  dates  from 
about  the  same  time.  The  lion  attacking  a  deer  (39  c,  B.M.C. 
125)  is  remarkable  for  its  delicacy  of  execution. 

Among  the  curiosities  in  this  compartment  are  two  gems 
which  combine  relief  and  intaglio.  The  relief  on  one  (39  a, 
B.M.C.  473)  shows  the  figure  of  a  boy,  from  whose  left  arm 
hangs  a  vase — presumably  his  oil-flask,  ready  for  the  bath. 
He  has  the  features  of  a  negro,  and  is,  perhaps,  a  slave.  The 
foreshortening  of  the  limbs  is  admirably  expressed  (Newton). 
The  subject  of  the  intaglio  is  Capaneus,  struck  by  a  thunder- 
bolt. The  stone  is  an  onyx  of  three  layers.  On  the  back  of 
the  other  gem  (39  c,  B.M.C.  479)  is  a  satyr's  head  in  relief ; 
the  intaglio  represents  "  a  male  citharist  draped,  as  compet- 
ing citharists  were  draped,  in  female  attire  ;  the  drapery  is 
made  to  fall  into  the  forms  and  limbs  with  minute  care.  This 
design,  apart  from  the  minute  treatment  of  the  drapery,  is  just 
such  as  might  be  seen  on  a  vase  of  the  pure  red-figure  style, 
so  true  is  it  within  its  limits  to  the  Greek  conception  of  what 
was  graceful  and  yet  noble  in  a  figure "  (A.  S.  Murray  in 
B.M.C.  p.  19).  Round  the  margin  is  an  inscription  recording 
that  Syrias  made  the  gem. 

In  the  next  compartment  (40)  many  of  the  designs  are  of 
animals.  The  wild  goose,  flying  (in  40  d,  B.M.C.  466),  on 
an  onyx,  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens.  In  the  same  row 
notice  the  fallen  giant  {B.M.C.  553) — a  fine  design,  finely 
engraved.  Notice  also  the  bull  (40  a,  B.M.C.  122),  a  frequent 
figure  on  early  Greek  seals.  Readers  of  ^schylus  will  remem- 
ber the  proverb  :  "I'm  mute  ;  on  tongue  a  big  ox  has  trodden  " 
— meaning  that  the  person's  lips  were  sealed  by  a  bribe  or 
otherwise  to  silence.  A  curious  gem  (40  c,  B.M.C.  549)  is 
in  the  shape  of  a  lotus  flower,  engraved  on  two  sides  (on  one, 
two  little  loves  ;  on  the  other,  two  sirens  :  love  and  death  is  per- 
haps the  motive).     This  gem  was  obviously  worn  as  a  pendant. 

In  the  next  row  (40  e)  are  some  very  fine  gems.  That  on 
which  an  ecstatic  maenad  is  figured  {B.M.C.  554)  has  been 
broken,  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  leg  badly  restored  in  gold. 
"  The  engraving  is  kept  extremely  shallow,  the  details  of  the 
figure  are  thought  out  with  amazing  delicacy.      It  will  be  seen 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


621 


that  with  all  the  refinement  of  beauty  pervading  this  gem,  the 
head  is  disproportionately  large,  a  circumstance  which  sug- 
gests that  the  gem  is  older  than  the  frieze  of  the  Mausoleum, 
about  352  B.C.,  by  which  time  such  errors  of  proportion  had 
ceased  in  all  good  work  "  (A.  S.  Murray's  Handbook  of  Greek 
Archaeology,  p.  158).  Very  simply  treated  and  beautiful  in 
sentiment  is  the  girl  reading  from  a  scroll ;  in  front  of  her  a 
lyre  (40  e,  B.M.C.  556).1  The  beautiful  quality  of  the  stone, 
a  golden  sard  of  fine  translucency,  seems  in  this  gem  to  be 
part  of  the  very  design. 

Very  fine  is  the  head  of  Victory,  in  the  same  row  {B.M.C. 
1 146).  There  are  wings  on  her  shoulders,  and  the  head  is 
slightly  inclined  forward  as  if  the  goddess  were  descending 
from  above,  perhaps  the  finest  example  of  work  in  this  very 
difficult  style  (King,  in  the  Archaeological  Journal,  xxiv.  214). 
In  the  next  row  we  may  notice  a  very  charming  head  of  a 
youth,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  ivy. 

A  very  beautiful  chalcedony  should  also  be  noticed  (40  /, 
B.M.C.  1 161),  engraved  with  a  figure  of  Victory  erecting  a 
trophy,  "  a  somewhat  similar  design  to  that  on  a  Syracusan 
tetradrachm  of  Agathocles.  On  the  ribbon-like  folds  of  a  flag 
attached  to  a  spear  is  inscribed  a  name  which  may  be  that  of 
the  artist,  Onatas.  The  genuineness  of  this  noble  gem  has 
been  questioned,  but  Furtwangler  and  other  good  authorities 
accept  it  as  a  genuine  Greek  work  of  the  early  part  of  the 
fourth  century"  (Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  p.  88). 

SELECTED  GR^ECO-ROMAN  INTAGLIOS 

{Arra?iged  in  Comftartmeiits  41-43,  Case  X) 

The  most  fertile  age  in  the  production  of  ancient  intaglios 
began  with  the  Roman  Empire,  but  the  engravers  of  the  best 
Roman  gems  were  still  Greeks.  To  distinguish  between  pure 
Greek  and  Graeco-Roman  work  is  difficult.  This  is  frequently 
the  case  even  with  large  sculpture  in  marble  ;  in  the  case  of 
work  so  minute,  and  in  a  measure  so  mechanical,  as  that  of 
intaglios,  it  is  often  impossible.  During  the  Alexandrine 
period  of  Greek  art,  gems  had  followed  the  general  course  of 

1  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  subject  may  be  intended  for  a 
representation  of  Sappho  reading  one  of  her  lyrics.  But  there  is  not 
the  proper  note  of  passion  (see  A.  S.  Murray  in  The  New  Amphion,  p.  33. 


622 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


development.  The  type  of  beauty  became  softer  ;  and  the 
choice  of  subjects  inclined  away  from  heroic  scenes  and 
towards  gentler  themes.  A  few  further  remarks  on  Graeco- 
Roman  and  Roman  gems  may  best  be  postponed  till  we  come 
to  the  bulk  of  the  collection  of  them. 

Among  the  selected  specimens  here  brought  together  we 
may  notice  : — 

In  Compartment  41,  Row  a  :  a  head  of  Hera  (perhaps  a  Roman 
portrait)  on  a  sard  {B.M.C.  608)  ;  and  a  curious  head  of  a  Muse 
combined  with  a  bearded  mask  {B.M.C.  754).  Row  c :  Silenus 
nursing  the  infant  Bacchus  {B.M.C.  935);  a  fine  engraving,  full  of 
expression.  Row  d :  a  head  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  the  beard  rendered 
in  an  archaistic  manner  {B.M.C.  572).  A  Bacchante  {B.M.C.  1075) 
falling  backwards  as  if  sinking  under  the  influence  of  her  god,  and 
vainly  supporting  herself  by  placing  her  hand  upon  a  tall  amphora,  of 
extremely  graceful  shape.  The  work  is  wonderful  both  for  design  and 
for  finish,  "a  precious  monument  of  mature  Greek  work"  (King). 
Row  e  :  a  very  noble  and  dignified  head  of  Jupiter  {B.M.C.  569). 
Row  fi  bust  of  Apollo  on  an  amethyst  {B.M.C.  715):  "the  very 
beau-ideal  of  gem  work  in  the  best  Greek  style  "  (King). 

In  42,  Row  b  :  Apollo  Citharcedus  on  a  beautiful  jacinth  {B.M.C. 
729).     Row  c  :  a  very  graceful  head  of  a  Muse  on  a  sard. 

In  43,  Row  a  :  a  remarkable  bust  of  a  female  satyr,  which  King 
ascribes  without  hesitation  to  one  of  the  most  eminent  artists  of  the 
cinque-cento  school.  "  In  spite  of  the  technical  excellence  of  the 
engraving,  the  vulgar  and  gross  conception  of  the  Maenad,  a  mere 
drunken,  jolly  beauty,  is  utterly  repugnant  to  the  antique  idea  of  the 
same  character,  which  was  that  of  inspiration,  or  rather  frantic 
possession  by  the  deity,  having  nothing  at  all  jocose  in  its  nature. 
This  Bacchante,  on  the  other  hand,  is  little  more  than  a  half- 
intoxicated,  good-looking  courtesan,  laughing  heartily  at  some  coarse 
pleasantry  "  [Arch.  J.  xxiv.  215).  Row  b  :  the  radiate  head  is  doubtless 
intended  for  a  portrait  of  Alexander  the  Great  as  the  Sun.  In  the 
next  row  two  heads  of  Medusa  should  be  noticed.  The  one  on  a 
carnelian  was  noted  by  the  Due  de  Blacas  as  one  of  the  finest 
gems  in  his  collection.  But  more  beautiful  is  the  head  on  an 
amethyst  {B.M.C.  1253),  Medusa  being  here  represented  with  eyes 
closed  as  if  in  sleep.  This  intaglio  is  "almost  without  a  rival  for 
delicacy  of  finish  and  exquisite  beauty  of  profile  "  ;  it  is  the  original  of 
numerous  repetitions,  and  is  full  of  a  dreamy,  voluptuous  languor. 

SIGNED  GEMS 

(Arranged  in  Compartments  44  and  45,  Case  X) 

A  large  number  of  gems  are  signed,  or  purport  to  be 
signed,  with  the  names  of  ancient  engravers,  and  for  the 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


623 


convenience  of  students  most  of  the  signed  intaglios  are  here 
arranged  together. 

Two  questions  arise  with  regard  to  these  signatures  :  ( 1 )  Are  they 
genuinely  antique,  or  additions  made  subsequently  ?  (2)  If  genuine, 
are  the  names  those  of  the  engravers  or  of  the  owners  of  the  gems  ? 
Both  questions  have  been  much  discussed  by  archaeologists,  and  the 
most  diverse  conclusions  have  been  reached.  Some  believe  generally 
in  the  practice  of  engravers  signing  gems ;  and,  accepting  many 
signatures  as  genuine,  compile  long  lists  of  gem-engravers.  Others 
disbelieve  in  all  artists'  signatures  on  gems,  explain  away  even 
the  best-authenticated  signatures,  and  interpret  all  genuinely  antique 
signatures  as  those  of  owners  (see  C.  W.  King's  Handbook  of  Engraved 
Gems).  Without  going  into  these  discussions  minutely,  we  may  best 
accept  a  middle  view.  Some  signatures,  but  not  many,  may  be  taken 
as  contemporaneous  with  the  gems  and  as  being  those  of  the  engravers. 
In  other  and  more  numerous  cases  the  signature,  professing  to  be 
that  of  the  ancient  artist,  is  a  later  forgery.  In  many  cases  both  the 
gem  itself  and  the  signature  are  forgeries.  In  other  cases  the  signature 
gives  the  name  of  the  owner. 

To  distinguish  in  any  given  gem  between  these  various  alternatives 
is  often  very  difficult,  and  belongs  to  the  archaeological  expert.  Some 
reference,  however,  to  a  few  of  the  known  facts  and  to  the  more 
commonly  accepted  opinions  will  be  of  general  interest.  These 
intaglios  which  we  now  treasure  as  mere  works  of  art  were  originally 
intended  for  use  as  signets.  It  would,  therefore,  be  very  natural  that 
the  name,  as  well  as  the  device,  of  the  owner  should  be  engraved  upon 
them.  In  such  cases  the  name  would  be  likely  to  be  given  some 
prominence.  Hence  it  is  accepted  as  a  general  rule  that  signatures 
in  comparatively  large  letters  and  in  the  more  conspicuous  positions 
are  the  names  of  owners.  Such  positions  are  the  exergue  (or  space 
immediately  below  the  design)  and  the  circumference  of  the  stone. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  gems  in  which  the  signature  is 
written  in  a  straight  line,  often  close  to  or  parallel  with  some  vertical 
portion  of  the  design,  and  in  which  the  letters  are  minute.  Such 
signatures  escape  observation  at  first,  and  when  discovered  appear  as 
subsidiary  to  the  design, — just  as  on  our  own  coins  few  people  notice  the 
initials  of  the  artist  unless  they  expressly  look  for  them.  Signatures 
which  are  thus  small  and  inconspicuous  may  be  those  of  the  gem- 
engravers. 

The  names  of  some  ancient  engravers  are  known  to  us.  The  storied 
ring  of  Polycrates  was  the  work  of  Theodorus  of  Samos.  Another 
Samian  gem -engraver  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  was 
Mnesarchus,  known  as  the  father  of  the  philosopher  Pythagoras. 
Pliny  mentions  the  names  of  a  few  other  gem-engravers — Pyrgoteles, 
who  worked  for  Alexander  the  Great,  Apollonides,  and  Cronius,  about 
whom  he  tells  us  nothing,  and  Dioscorides,  who  engraved  the  portrait 
of  Augustus  which  subsequent  Emperors  used  as   a  signet.  The 


624 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP, 


names  of  two  others  are  known  from  epigrams  preserved  in  the  Greek 

Anthology. 

The  number  of  names  professing  to  be  of  artists  on  existing  gems  is 
very  large.  But  here  comes  in  the  question  of  forgery.  Ever  since 
the  revival  of  interest  in  antique  gems  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
market  value  of  a  genuine  stone  has  been  enormously  increased  by  its 
possessing  an  artist's  signature,  and  unscrupulous  dealers  have  been 
employed  in  adding  the  name  of  some  real  or  imaginary  artist  to  gems. 
In  the  Devonshire  collection  there  is  an  intaglio  bearing  the  name  of 
Apollonides.  The  gem  is  fragmentary,  and  the  design  is  only  of  a 
cow.  For  the  sake  of  the  signature  the  then  Duke  paid  the  enormous 
price  of  ^"iooo  for  the  intaglio.  The  seller  was  Baron  Stosch,  who 
employed  engravers  in  this  profitable  form  of  industry.  The  fact  of 
forged  signatures  is  notorious  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  best 
gems,  which  are  of  indisputable  genuineness,  bear  no  signatures.  The 
appearance  of  a  signature  on  a  gem  raises,  therefore,  in  these  days 
some  prima  facie  suspicion  of  its  genuineness.  Signatures  are  often 
forged  with  great  skill,  and  even  so  competent  an  authority  as  the  late 
J.  H.  Middleton  has  to  admit  that  "owing  to  the  mechanical  process 
by  which  they  are  cut,  and  the  minute  scale,  it  is  very  frequently  quite 
impossible  to  decide  whether  a  signature  is  genuine  or  not."  As  we 
shall  notice  presently,  authorities  often  differ  ;  and  as  we  have  already 
seen,  even  if  a  signature  passes  its  examination  and  is  accepted  as 
genuine  and  antique,  the  question  remains  whether  it  is  the  name  of 
the  engraver  or  of  the  owner.  In  King's  Handbook  (2nd  ed.,  pp. 
245-282)  will  be  found  a  list  (condensed  from  Dr.  Brunn)  of  the  names 
on  gems.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes  : — Names  handed  down 
by  genuine  inscriptions,  and  more  or  less  confidently  referred  to  the 
artist ;  names  which  are  from  both  points  of  view  doubtful ;  and 
names  due  to  false  readings  or  which  do  not  refer  to  a  gem-engraver. 
Shorter  lists  will  be  found  in  A.  S.  Murray's  Handbook  of  Greek 
Archeology  and  J.  H.  Middleton's  Ancient  Gems. 

Referring  to  these  authorities  readers  who  may  be  interested  in 
further  study  of  the  subject,  we  may  now  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of 
the  signed  gems  which  are  of  special  interest. 

One  of  the  first  to  attract  attention  is  ^in  44,  Row  b)  a  rich 
golden  sard,  with  an  engraving  of  Hercules  standing  with  his 
club  in  the  left  hand,  and  a  cup  in  his  right.  "  The  work  is 
peculiarly  soft,  and  fades  into  the  stone  in  a  manner  no  modern 
hand  has  ever  caught n  (King).  The  name  Admoil  which  is 
inscribed  on  it  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  first  owner  of  the 
gem  (B.M.C.  1312).  In  the  next  row  (44  c)  is  a  Muse  tuning 
a  lyre  {B.M.C.  747)  :— 

"  A  large  intaglio,  at  first  sight  very  imposing,  but  which,  examined 
in  its  details,  more  particularly  the  folds  of  the  drapery,  betrays  the 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


625 


feeble  touch  of  the  modern  imitator.  The  pretended  signature 
AAAIONOS  appears  conspicuously  in  the  field.  The  imaginary  artist 
Allion  was  generated  from  the  "  Delion  "  (of  the  Delions),  accompany- 
ing a  head  of  Apollo,  which  the  ignorant  forger  mistook  for  a  common 
name.  The  stone  is  an  onyx  of  a  curious  sort,  having  a  crystalline 
layer  interposed  between  two  of  opaque  grey  ;  but  it  has  been  much 
doctored  and  roughened  to  give  the  whole  the  required  air  of  antiquity  " 
(King  in  Arch.  J.  xxiv.  207). 

The  head  of  ^Esculapius  in  the  next  row  (44  d,  B.M.C. 
1 1 30)  is  very  fine,  and  the  gem  is  further  celebrated  as  having 
formerly  belonged  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and  subsequently  to 
Voltaire  :- — 

' *  The  head  is  in  the  noblest  style  of  mature  Greek  art.  Nothing 
in  this  branch  can  be  cited  more  worthy  of  admiration  for  the  dignified 
expression  of  the  features  and  the  masterly  treatment  of  the  flowing 
hair  and  ample  beard  "  (King).  The  gem  is  inscribed  within  a  tablet 
with  the  name  of  Aulus.  Its  conspicuous  placing  proves  that  it  was 
the  name  of  a  previous  owner,  who  was  perhaps  a  Roman  physician. 
Owing  to  the  celebrity  of  this  gem,  the  signature  of  a  supposed  artist, 
Aulus,  became  a  favourite  one  with  forgers.  Two  adjoining  gems, 
from  the  Carlisle  collection,  bear  the  same  name.  The  "  Cupid  bound 
to  a  trophy "  is  believed  by  some  authorities  to  be  the  work  of  J. 
Pichler  (a  celebrated  engraver  of  the  eighteenth  century)  :  the  large 
empty  space  above  the  Cupid  would  not  be  found,  it  is  argued,  in  an 
antique  work. 

To  the  head  of  Hercules  in  blue  beryl  (44,  Row  e,  B.M.C. 
1 281)  we  have  already  called  attention  for  the  beauty  of  the 
stone  ;  the  design  is  worthy  of  it.  The  style  is  purest  Greek, 
and  nothing  can  exceed  the  refinement  and  tenderness  of  the 
execution  (Newton).  The  rich  and  varied  composition  of  the 
hair  should  also  be  noticed  : — 

"As  the  features  are  evidently  not  ideal,  we  see  here  the  portrait 
of  some  Greek  prince  who  thus  assumed  the  character  of  the  mythic 
founder  of  his  line  :  perhaps  Philip  of  Macedon  himself,  who  was  dis- 
tinguished for  his  manly  beauty  "  (King).  The  gem  is  inscribed  in 
Greek  characters  with  the  Roman  name  G-naios.  This  inscription  is 
mentioned  as  early  as  1606  ;  it  probably  refers  to  some  former  owner, 
conceivably  to  Gn.  Pompey,  whose  signet  it  may  have  been.  This 
beautiful  intaglio  was  formerly  in  the  Strozzi  collection.  On  the  sale 
of  that  collection  to  the  Due  de  Blacas,  the  original  gem  was  replaced 
by  a  modern  copy  in  crystal.  The  Due  accepted  it  as  genuine,  and 
was  much  surprised  when,  some  years  afterwards,  the  true  original 
was  brought  to  him.  It  is  said  to  have  been  stolen  by  the  person 
who  packed  the  Strozzi  gems.    It  reappeared  in  the  Schellersheim 

2  S 


626 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


collection,  and,  after  passing  through  various  hands,  was  acquired  by  the 
Due  de  Blacas.  The  modern  imitation  still  accompanies  the  original, 
and  affords  a  useful  comparison  between  the  different  styles  of  art. 
The  fracture  in  the  original  is  carefully  copied  in  the  counterfeit 
(Newton's  Guide  to  the  Blacas  Collection,  and  Intellectual  Observer % 
July  1867). 

In  the  next  rows  (44  /  and  g)  we  may  notice  some  modern 
gems  which  purport,  or  have  been  supposed,  to  be  signed  by 
ancient  artists.  Such  is  the  "  Hermes"  (No.  2299)  on  a  sard, 
inscribed  Dioscorides,  which  is  probably  a  copy  of  a  similar 
gem  formerly  in  the  Marlborough  collection.  Another  modern 
gem  is  the  bust  of  a  youth  as  Harpocrates.  The  signature  is 
Hellen.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  was  one  of  the  ways 
in  which  the  celebrated  Alessandro  Cesati  (see  below,  p.  668) 
used  to  sign  his  works  :  he  was  known  as  il  Greco,  being  a 
native  of  Cyprus.  A  gem  in  the  next  compartment  (45  a, 
B.M.C.  2304),  representing  Venus  riding  on  a  swan,  is  a  copy 
of  an  antique  by  the  engraver  Cerbara  ;  it  is  signed  Myrton. 

With  regard  to  two  fine  gems,  to  which  the  famous  name 
of  Dioscorides  is  attached,  opinions  differ.  One  (in  44  / 
B.M.C.  1933)  represents  a  wild  boar  at  bay,  attacked  by  a  dog, 
very  deeply  cut,  so  that  the  body,  foreshortened,  comes  out  in 
the  impression  in  nearly  full  relief.  "  The  inscription,  partly  in 
the  exergue,  follows  the  contour  of  the  gem,  and  is  inscribed  in 
neat,  almost  microscopic  letters  of  unmistakably  antique  work  M 
(King's  Handbook  of  Engraved  Gems,  1885,  p.  249).  The 
other  (also  in  44  f)  is  a  beautiful  figure  of  Mercury  carrying  a 
ram's  head.  This  gem  came  from  the  Carlisle  collection,  and 
was  formerly  in  possession  of  Baron  Stosch.  The  authen- 
ticity of  it  is  condemned  by  some  authorities,  but  is  defended  by 
Furtwangler  {Jahrbuch  des  Inst.,  1888,  p.  220).  On  a  dark 
sard  is  an  archaistic  figure  of  Diana  with  a  stag  (44  g).  This 
design  has  hitherto  been  known  only  from  a  paste  already  in 
the  British  Museum  (No.  765).  The  gem  is  from  the  Carlisle 
collection.  The  name  Heios,  with  which  it  is  inscribed  (on 
the  exergue)  is  presumably  that  of  an  owner  (for  an  alternative 
suggestion,  see  Catalogue  of  Gems,  p.  108;  :  but  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  gem  is  disputed  by  some.  Note  the  sard  engraved 
with  a  design  of  Cupid  coming  to  the  rescue  of  Pysche,  who 
has  been  caught  in  a  trap  (45  r,  B.M.C.  2306).  The  gem  is 
signed  Pamphilos  ;  ua  charming  work  of  the  finest  possible 
execution,  which  has  all  the  marks  of  the  school  of  Pichler" 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


627 


(King's  Antique  Gems  and  Rings,  ii.  55).  The  M  Achilles 
playing  on  a  lyre5'  (45  c\  also  inscribed  "  Pamphilos,"  is  a 
copy  of  a  well-known  gem  in  the  Cabinet  des  Medailles  at 
Paris. 

We  now  come  to  one  of  the  most  celebrated  gems  extant, 
and  assuredly  also — no  matter  whether  it  be  antique  or 
mediaeval — one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  our  collection.  This 
is  the  winged  head  of  Medusa,  on  a  clouded  chalcedony,  com- 
monly known  as  "the  Strozzi  Medusa"  (in  45  d,  No.  1256). 
This  is  remarkable  alike  for  the  size  and  quality  of  the  stone, 
and  for  its  elaborate  refinement  and  mastery  of  execution  : — 

According  to  Newton,  the  style  resembles  that  of  the  coins  of 
Mithradates  ;  according  to  King,  ' '  the  profile  has  none  of  the  antique 
character,  but  much  resembles  a  portrait  from  life  of  the  sixteenth 
century."  King  objects  further  that  the  common  white  chalcedony,  on 
which  the  design  is  cut,  has  been  much  clouded  by  repeated  applica- 
tions of  heated  wax — a  process  not  used  in  Graeco-Roman  times,  but 
common  with  the  cinque-centists.  To  Middleton,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  quality  of  the  stone  is  an  argument  in  the  opposite  direction. 
A  forger  would  not  have  used  so  mottled  and  opaque  a  stone.  To  the 
antique  engraver  the  impression,  not  the  stone,  was  the  thing  (Ajtcient 
Gems,  p.  38).  The  gem  was  found  in  a  vineyard  near  the  church  of  SS. 
Giovanni  e  Paolo  on  the  Caelian  Hill  at  Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  It  was  published  in  1707,  so  that  the  inscription  with 
the  name  of  Solon  is  comparatively  old  ;  none  the  less  it  is  believed  to  be 
a  forgery.  The  artist  of  this  gem  shows  us  Medusa,  not,  as  so  often,  in 
the  baleful  beauty  which  at  once  horrifies  and  attracts,  but  in  all  her 
early  charms  as  Ovid  describes  them  : — 

Splendid  in  form,  her  beauty  blighted  hope 
Of  envied  crowds  of  suitors  ;  none  could  cope, 
Midst  all  her  charms,  with  her  attractive  locks. 

The  head  of  Alexander  (45  d,  B.M.C.  2307),  signed 
Pyrgoteles  (see  below,  p.  629),  is  a  modern  gem  ;  so  also  is 
that  of  Hercules  {B.M.C,  2308),  signed  Seleucos  ;  the  latter 
is  probably  a  cinque -cento  production.  The  mask  of  Pan, 
deeply  cut  in  an  amethyst  (45  d,  B.M.C.  1088),  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  "one  of  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  antiquity" 
(Kohler),  both  for  the  spirit  and  thoroughness  of  the  execution 
and  for  the  skill  of  the  invention  ;  the  head  is  "  replete  with 
life  and  humorous  fury"  (King).  The  name  "Skylax"  is 
genuine,  not  cut  in  delicate  minute  letters,  but  in  a  bold  style 
to  indicate  the  owner.  This  is  the  source  whence  the  forgers 
have  got  a  name  which  appears  on  many  of  their  modern 


628 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


gems  (Brunn).  Another  fine  gem  is  the  head  of  Silenus  on  an 
amethyst  (in  45  f,  B.M.C.  985).  The  design  is  deeply  cut, 
and  is  a  vigorous  impersonation  of  the  character.  "  A  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  the  antique,  for  the  stone,55  says  King,  "  is 
a  Bohemian  amethyst  of  the  most  beautiful  ponceau  tint,  not 
the  violet  or  the  clouded  Indian  species  alone  known  to 
ancient  engravers  55  {Arch.  J.  xxiv.  p.  206). 


PORTRAITS  IN  INTAGLIO 

(Arranged  in  Compartments  46  and  47,  Case  X) 

No  portion  of  a  cabinet  of  gems  is  more  interesting  than 
that  which  contains  the  portraits  in  intaglio  or  cameo.  Those 
in  the  former  sort  are  here  arranged  together.  Those  in 
cameo,  to  which  we  shall  presently  come,  are  even  more 
interesting.  It  is,  however,  amazing  how  much  character  and 
individuality  can  be  obtained  even  in  a  tiny  intaglio,  made  for 
wearing  in  a  ring.  Look,  for  instance,  at  the  old  man,  nearly 
bald,  in  46  b  (from  the  Carlisle  collection).  It  is  a  wonderful 
example  of  the  engraver5s  skill  ;  noble  and  dignified  in  style, 
and  yet  treated  with  much  minuteness  of  detail  and  realism. 
Nothing  could  be  more  vivid  and  distinctive.  He  is  repre- 
sented, like  Cromwell,  "  wart  and  all 55  to  the  life,  and  his 
portrait  lives  for  ever.  Yet  at  the  same  time  it  is  for  us 
lifeless,  for  we  know  not  whom  it  represents.  "  One  of  the 
most  tantalising  things  in  this  study  is  the  continually  meeting 
with  faces  upon  our  gems  full  of  genius  and  of  energy,  un- 
mistakably belonging  to  the  bright  spirits  of  the  first  two 
centuries,  but  which  rest  to  us  voiceless  and  lifeless  from  the 
loss  of  all  means  of  identifying  them  with  their  originals,  still 
eternised  by  history  55  (King5s  Handbook  of  Engraved  Gems, 
P-  55)- 

In  the  earlier  and  pure  Greek  period,  we  find,  in  gems 
and  coins  as  in  sculpture,  only  ideal  heads  (cf.  p.  543).  Por- 
traiture came  into  fashion  under  Alexander  the  Great  and  his 
successors.  Contemporary  portraits  of  princes  then  began  to 
replace  the  national  deities  alike  upon  coins  and  upon  official 
seals — a  substitution  connected  with  Alexanders  assumption  of 
divinity.  The  privilege  of  engraving  the  royal  features  was 
restricted,  by  command  of  that  monarch,  to  Pyrgoteles,  the 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


629 


first  master  in  the  art,  "threatening  that  if  any  other  artist 
should  be  discovered  to  have  put  his  hand  to  the  most  sacred 
image  of  the  Sovereign,  the  same  punishment  should  be 
inflicted  upon  him  as  was  appointed  for  sacrilege."  Among 
the  modern  gems  purporting  to  be  signed  by  ancient  artists 
is  one  of  Alexander,  inscribed  Pyrgoteles  (see  above,  p.  627). 
The  numerous  gem  portraits  of  Alexander  still  extant  date, 
when  genuine,  from  after  his  time,  and  belong  to  the  school 
of  the  Roman  Empire  when  heads  of  Alexander  were  in  repute 
as  amulets.  In  our  collection  the  portrait  of  Alexander  as 
the  Sun  (43  B.M.C.  1103)  is  "deserving  of  notice,"  says 
Dr.  Murray,  "  for  the  clearness  and  vivacity  with  which  the 
general  likeness  is  rendered."  The  Emperor  Augustus  origin- 
ally used  for  his  signet  the  figure  of  a  sphinx,  such  as  we  may 
see  on  a  scaraboid  of  chalcedony  (39  g,  B.M.C.  476)  ;  but 
after  a  time,  says  Pliny,  owing  to  jokes  on  the  sphinx-like 
obscurity  of  the  Emperor's  edicts,  he  changed  the  device  for  a 
head  of  Alexander  the  Great.  A  striking  head,  engraved  on 
a  beautiful  sard  (46  B.M.C.  1526),  is  said  to  be  a  portrait  of 
Demetrius  I.  of  Macedon — Demetrius  the  Besieger,  of  whom 
we  read  that  "  he  showed  such  heroic  dignity  that  strangers 
who  came  and  saw  comeliness  adorned  with  the  pre-eminence 
of  a  king,  marvelled  and  followed  him  as  he  went  abroad  for 
the  very  sight's  sake."  The  portraits  on  gems  often  closely 
resemble  those  on  coins.  This  one  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
is  an  example  (cf.  p.  526). 

It  is  with  the  Roman  Empire  that  the  grand  era  of  portraits 
upon  gems  opens.  It  produced  "  countless  offspring  of  adula- 
tion, love,  affection,  and  friendship."  First,  of  adulation  ;  for 
"  it  became  a  mark  of  loyalty  to  adorn  one's  house  or  one's 
hand  with  the  visible  presence  of  the  Sovereign."  Again,  it 
was  believed  that  a  ring,  thus  worn  as  a  mark  of  subservience, 
secured  for  the  wearer  the  favour  of  the  divinity  latent  in  the 
Emperor's  person.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  in 
our  collection  a  large  number  of  intaglios  with  portraits  of  the 
Emperors.  First,  however,  we  may  notice,  as  an  example  of 
contemporary  portraiture,  the  head  of  Brutus  on  an  amethyst  (46 
d,  B.M.C.  1553).  Two  portraits  of  Julius  Caesar  (46  e\  B.M.C. 
1557-58)  are  signed  with  the  name  of  Dioscorides,  who  was 
the  great  gem -engraver  of  the  age  of  Maecenas,  but  the 
authenticity  of  neither  signature  can  be  accepted.  The  style 
of  these  portraits  is  worth  notice  :— 


630 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


chap. 


"  Obviously  the  same  model  has  served  for  both.  But,  while  the 
engraver  of  the  jacinth  has  bestowed  infinite  pains  on  the  minutest 
detail,  with  the  result  of  driving  all  artistic  sense  out  of  his  work,  the 
engraver  of  the  sard  has  treated  his  subject  with  a  simplicity  and 
absence  of  disturbing  details  which  announce  in  him  artistic  powers 
such  as  have  not  often  been  displayed  by  other  than  ancient  engravers. 
So  far  the  sard  may  fairly  claim  to  be  antique  as  well  as  beautiful. 
Nor  indeed  does  the  laborious  minuteness  of  the  jacinth  finally  dispose 
of  it  as  comparatively  modern,  since  that  quality  of  minuteness,  though 
hardly  with  so  bad  effect,  is  not  infrequent  among  really  ancient 
gems."  Thus  Dr.  Murray  {Catalogue,  p.  36).  But  his  predecessor, 
Sir  Charles  Newton,  saw  in  the  jacinth  "a  chef  d'ceuvre  of  ancient 
art  "  {Guide  to  the  Blacas  Collectio'n).  Another  eminent  authority,  Dr. 
Billing,  sees  in  both  examples  alike  faults  of  which  a  modern  gem- 
cutter  would  be  ashamed.  The  sard  is,  he  admits,  "deeply  and  well 
cut,  but  assuredly  there  never  were  such  eyes  in  any  human  head  in 
any  nation  on  earth  ;  the  mouth  is  most  ungraceful,  and  the  point  of 
the  nose  is  under-cut."  As  for  the  jacinth,  it  is  "  celebrated,  but  the 
right  eye  squints,  and  the  nose  is  not  like  Julius  Caesar's,  being  more 
like  that  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  or  William  III."  [Science  of  Gems, 
1875,  P.  25). 

Of  Maecenas,  a  great  connoisseur  of  gems,  as  we  have 
seen,  there  is  a  good  portrait  on  a  jasper  from  the  Carlisle 
collection  (46  e).  Of  Augustus  we  shall  see  some  grand 
portraits  presently  in  cameo.  Some  of  the  intaglios  here 
contain  remarkably  vigorous  portraits  of  later  emperors — 
note  especially  those  of  Vespasian  and  Titus  (46  g,  B.M.C. 
1605-6). 

The  portrait  of  Septimius  Severus  (47  cy  B.M.C.  1627)  is 
engraved  on  a  fine  plasma  (a  translucent  variety  of  the  green 
jasper)  of  beautiful  emerald  tint.  A  curious  gem  (47  f  B.M.C. 
1686)  contains  two  tiny  portraits  (supposed  to  be  Germanicus 
and  Agrippina),  which  occupy  two  votive  shields  borne  aloft  by 
a  winged  Victory  ;  "a  very  remarkable  performance  of  the 
Augustan  age  ;  the  subject  having  been  so  cleverly  adapted  to 
the  material  that  the  shields  coincide  exactly  with  the  two  eyes 
of  a  richly  coloured  onyx"  (King).  On  a  bloodstone  (47 
B.M.C,  1665)  there  are  portrait  busts  of  a  man  and  woman, 
with  a  smaller  male  bust  between.  They  are  inscribed 
"  Anteros,  Felicitas,  and  Hieron " — a  mother,  father,  and 
their  child,  perhaps. 

Among  the  portraits  of  Imperial  ladies,  we  may  call  atten- 
tion to  Livia  on  an  amethyst,  very  fine  (46  f)  ;  Antonia  (46  f), 
which  should  be  compared  with  the  silver  bust  from  Bosco 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


631 


Reale  (p.  596)  ;  and  Faustina  the  younger  on  a  red  jasper 
(47  ar  B.M.C.  1620). 

Not  inferior  in  interest  to  the  Imperial  portraits  are  those 
of  the  poets  and  philosophers.  We  have  seen,  in  the  case 
of  sculpture,  how  the  taste  grew  up  at  Rome  for  portrait 
busts  of  famous  poets  (p.  47).  The  same  taste  extended 
to  gem  portraits.  Men  wore  rings  engraved  with  their 
favourite  poets  as  a  badge,  as  it  were,  of  their  literary 
idolatry. 

Here  we  may  see  on  a  topaz  a  portrait  of  Horace  (46  d, 
B.M.C.  1555),  so  identified  by  the  sprig  of  bay  and  the  letter 
H  placed  conspicuously  in  the  field.  The  gem  was  cut  when 
authentic  portraits  of  the  poet  were  still  extant,  such  as 
the  statue  at  his  birthplace,  Venusia.  It  was  worn,  perhaps, 
in  a  ring  by  some  admirer.  This  was  still  more  the  custom 
with  gem  portraits  of  philosophers.  Cicero  ridicules  his 
Epicurean  friends  for  carrying  about  their  master's  likeness  on 
their  rings.  There  are  also  found  among  antique  gems  in- 
numerable heads  of  Socrates  and  many  of  Plato,  all  of  Roman 
workmanship,  testifying  to  the  widespread  vogue  of  the  Neo- 
Platonic  cult.  These  philosophic  cults  were  indeed  religious, 
and  Epicureanism  resembled  a  Church.  We  may  thus  com- 
pare the  wearing  of  these  engraved  gems  of  Epicurus  or 
Plato  among  the  ancients  with  the  wearing  of  gold  crosses  or 
crucifixes  in  our  own  day.  Of  Epicurus  there  is  here  a 
portrait  in  red  jasper  (46  &9  B.M.C.  1517)-  Of  Socrates 
there  are  several;  that  in  46a  (B.M.C.  15 10)  is  a  replica 
of  a  stone  in  the  Devonshire  collection.  The  ideal  type  of 
Plato  (46  B.M.C.  1 5  12)  shows  two  butterfly  wings  above 
the  right  ear — an  allusion,  it  is  supposed,  to  his  argument 
for  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  of  which  the  butterfly  was  a 
symbol. 

But  many  of  the  portraits  upon  gems  are  "  unknown,"  and 
in  most  of  these  cases  we  should,  doubtless,  be  none  the  wiser 
for  a  knowledge  of  the  names.  Yet  they  are  not  without  their 
human  interest.  They  tell  us  of  the  loves  and  friendships  of 
old  days,  when  portrait  gems  were  exchanged  as  tokens  and 
forget-me-nots.  It  may  have  been  on  the  gift  of  a  portrait 
gem  that  Meleager  wrote  his  lines  : — 

Ah  !  who  hath  shown  my  lady  unto  me, 
Her  very  self,  as  if  she  spake  ? 


632 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


Who  brought  to  me  one  of  the  Graces  three 

For  friendship's  sake  ? 
Full  surely  brings  he  me  a  joyful  thing, 

And  for  his  grace  the  grace  of  thanks  I  bring. 

(Translation  by  W.  M.  Hardinge). 

Tokens,  sometimes,  of  lasting  friendships  and  permanent 
bonds  ;  sometimes  also  of  light  loves,  for  did  not  Clemens 
of  Alexandria  inveigh  against  the  fashion  "  of  the  licentious 
world  of  keeping  in  their  rings  the  likenesses  of  their  mistresses 
or  other  favourites,  so  that  they  are  never  left  for  a  moment 
free  from  the  torments  of  desire  "  ? 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  ENGRAVED  GEMS 

{See  Case  U,  Compartments  7- 12) 

We  have  now  examined  some  of  the  intaglios  of  the  best 
and  later  workmanship.  We  must  next  retrace  our  steps, 
and,  examining  more  cursorily  the  earlier  examples,  note  the 
evolution  of  this  charming  art  (Case  U,  Compartments  7-12). 
The  origin  of  intaglio  gems  is  obvious  from  what  we  have 
already  seen.  They  were  wanted  as  seals.  In  Asia  the  use 
of  signets  goes  back  as  far  as  historic  records  extend.  In 
the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Room  in  the  Museum  cylinder- 
seals  may  be  seen  which  are  4500  years  old.  In  Egypt  the 
use  of  scarabs  (see  below)  for  the  same  purpose  prevailed  also 
from  very  ancient  times.  Of  the  cylinder  form  a  few  examples 
may  be  seen  among  our  early  Greek  gems.  Thus  among 
those  from  Camirus  is  a  cylinder  in  blue  porcelain,  with  snakes 
and  archers  (in  Case  U,  Compartment  9,  Row  c>  B.M.C 
132)  •  and  from  Tharros  there  is  a  similar  cylinder  in  ivory  in 
Row  h,  B.M.C.  191).  Classical  and  Biblical  literature  con- 
tains many  allusions  to  the  use  of  signets  for  security.  The 
treasure  -  chamber  of  Rhampsinitus  was,  Herodotus  tell  us, 
secured  by  the  impression  of  his  seal  ;  the  stone  closing  in 
the  den  of  lions  was  sealed  with  the  signet  of  Darius.  The 
cylinder-seal  of  Darius  the  Great  is  preserved  in  our  Museum 
(in  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Room,  Table-case  D,  No.  28). 
In  fact  it  would  seem  that  this  method  of  securing  property 
was  coeval  with  the  institution  of  property  itself.  "  The  idea 
must  naturally  have  suggested  itself  to  the  first  individual  who 
deposited  his  property  in  a  closed  vessel,  that  it  might  be 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


633 


protected  against  pilferers  by  a  plaster  of  clay  laid  round  the 
junction  of  the  lid  and  rolled  flat  with  the  joint  of  a  reed. 
Hence  the  first  origin  of  the  perforated  cylinder,  of  which  the 
bit  of  reed  was  the  true  prototype,  both  as  to  its  form  and  its 
mode  of  application,  and  way  of  carriage  "  (King).  The  next 
stage  was  the  assumption  of  exclusive  ownership  in  a  certain 
configuration  of  lines — a  process  which  may  be  traced  up  to 
the  great  seals  of  kings.1  Along  the  artistic  line  of  develop- 
ment, the  stage  next  to  the  reed  was  that  of  incision  by  means 
of  some  cutting  instrument,  whether  flint  or  bronze,  capable  of 
operating  upon  a  comparatively  soft  material.  Thus  Herodotus 
describes  the  Ethiopian  contingent,  in  the  host  of  Xerxes,  as 
equipped  with  reed-arrows  tipped  with  sharpened  stones,  "  by 
means  of  which  they  engrave  their  seals."  Next  came  the 
incising  of  hard  stones  by  means  of  the  implements  described 
above  (p.  611 ).  The  processes  thus  described  were  certainly 
long  older  than  Jeremiah.  Among  the  Eastern  signets  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum  is  that  of  Sennacherib,  King  of 
Assyria  (705-681  B.C.).  (It  is  shown  in  Table-case  D,  in 
the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Room.)  "  It  is  made  out  of 
one  of  the  finest  substances  known  to  the  lapidary,  the  Oriental 
amazon-stone  ;  and  nevertheless  presents  an  intaglio  that,  by 
the  extreme  precision  and  complicated  detail  of  its  drawing, 
strikingly  declares  the  perfection  to  which  the  art  had  thus 
early  attained — a  perfection  indicative  of  the  long  practice  of 
the  school  capable  of  such  a  performance"  (King).  The 
materials  employed  for  the  seals  changed  with  the  improve- 
ment of  the  instruments — beginning  (as  we  shall  note  in  the 
earliest  Greek  specimens)  with  steatite  or  soapstone,  a  silicate 
of  magnesia,  and  easily  worked,  and  ending  with  the  hardest 
of  precious  stones.  The  use  of  seals  in  Greece  is  recorded  in 
a  law  of  Solon,  which  forbade  the  gem-engraver  to  retain  an 
impression  of  a  seal  which  he  had  made.  The  earliest  Greek 
seals  of  all  were,  as  we  shall  see,  very  rude  and  devoid  of 
beauty.  By  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  they  had  be- 
come precious  "  objects  of  art  and  virtu,"  for  the  lists  cut  on 
marble,  as  inventories  of  the  sacred  treasure  preserved  in  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens,  include  many  signet-gems  of  precious 
stones  and  in  gold  settings.  Thus  may  we  trace  in  our 
Museum  the  evolution  of  signet-gems  from  clay  to  gold  and 

1  There  is  a  very  rich  collection  of  mediaeval  seals  in  the  British  Museum 
(in  the  Mediaeval  Room). 


634 


EXG RAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


amethyst,  from  rude  scratches  to  designs  of  the  utmost  grace 

and  delicacy. 

"  ISLAND  GEMS:: 
( Table-case  £/j  Compartments  7  and  8 ) 

The  shapes  of  the  earliest  examples  of  Greek  gem-engrav- 
ing are  neither  the  Assyrian  cylinder  nor  the  Egyptian  scarab. 
These  early  gems  are  engraved  on  rounded  pebble-stones, 
mostly  shaped  either  like  a  broad-bean  {lenticula\  or  like 
the  ordinary  lead  sling- bolts  (glandes Hence  they  are 
called  -  lenticular"  ar.d  "glandular"  gems  respectively.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  "  the  adoption  of  these  forms  by  the 
Greeks  may  be  connected  with  their  use  of  pebbles  to  record 
votes  at  public  trials,  and  of  beans  at  the  election  of  magis- 
trates. But  the  shapes  would  seem  to  have  come  naturally  from 
the  form  of  the  nodule  of  chalcedony  or  the  water-worn  pebble, 
which  was  polished,  and  had  the  signet  device  engraved  on 
it.  with  very  little  cutting  away  of  its  natural  surface."  Of  the 
lenticular  shape  the  very  early  gems  from  Ialysus  in  Rhodes 
are  examples  (U,  8).  (These  gems  were  presented  to  the 
Museum  by  Mr.  Ruskin,  who  at  the  instance  of  his  friend  Sir 
Charles  Newton  had  defrayed  the  cost  of  excavations  in 
Rhodes.;  The  commonest  material  for  the  earliest  Greek 
gems  is  steatite,  but  harder  stones,  such  as  rock-crystal,  car- 
nelian,  and  chalcedony  are  also  used. 

The  gems  of  lenticular  and  glandular  shape  were  first 
obtained  from  the  Greek  islands  ;  hence  the  name  by  which 
they  are  commonly  known,  "  Island  Gems.'"  They  have,  how- 
ever, also  been  found  in  various  sites  of  "  Mycenaean  "  culture 
on  the  mainland. 

The  designs  on  these  "  island  gems  ;;  belong  to  the  same 
Mycenaean  stage  that  we  have  already  noticed  in  other  arts  : — 

"The  rude  gems  from  the  Greek  islands  seem,"  says  Sir  Charles 
Newton,  "to  earn*  us  back  to  some  remote  time  before  Hellenic  art 
had  any  style  of  its  Own  ;  before  it  was  sensibly,  if  at  all.  affected  by 
foreign  influences,  whether  Asiatic  or  Egyptian,  and  the  majority  of 
the  subjects  represented  on  these  primitive  gems  are  such  as  would  be 
taken  direct  from  Nature  by  a  semi-barbarous  people.  In  these 
designs — as  in  the  similes  of  Homer — the  lion,  either  alone  or  devour- 
ing cattle  or  deer,  is  a  favourite  subject  ;  we  find,  too,  the  wild  goat 
with  very  large  horns,  which  still  inhabits  Crete,  and  was  once  general 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Archipelago.     We  would  refer  our  readers  to 


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the  interesting  series  of  these  intagli  in  the  British  Museum,  and 
invite  them  to  compare  their  rude  designs  with  those  of  the  rings  in 
gold  in  Dr.  Schliemann's  work  (describing  his  discoveries  at  Mycenae)  ; 
the  resemblances  will  be  found  most  striking,  not  only  in  the  subjects 
and  general  design  and  execution,  but  also  in  certain  minute  details  " 
(Essays  on  Archceology,  p.  280). 

The  engraving  on  the  island  gems  is  for  the  most  part  rude 
and  primitive  ;  the  subjects  are  generally  animals.1  These 
are  frequently  arranged  in  a  heraldic  way  :  two  similar  animals 
being  set  face  to  face  or  back  to  back,  forming  a  stiffly  con- 
ventional design  like  the  beasts  sculptured  over  the  "  Lion 
Gate"  of  Mycense  (cf.  p.  88).  That  design  is  at  once  recalled 
by  the  gem  from  Rhodes  (8  <?,  B.M.C.  106)  on  which  are  two 
lions  heraldically  grouped  with  a  column  between  them. 
Another  characteristic  example  is  the  gem  of  rock-crystal  in 
which  are  cut  two  goats  (7  i,  B.M.C.  57),  standing  on  their 
hind  legs,  with  bodies  turned  inwards.  This  quaint  device  is, 
it  should  be  noticed,  skilfully  designed  so  as  to  occupy  the 
whole  area  of  the  gem.  Heraldic  devices  of  a  similar  character 
may  often  be  noticed  on  the  shields  depicted  on  early  Greek 
vases. 

In  these  early  gems  there  is  little  attempt  to  produce  any- 
thing beautiful.  Their  object  was  use  as  signets.  If  the 
engraver  succeeded  in  producing  something  distinctive,  so  as 
to  express,  by  device  or  symbol,  the  owner's  identity,  it  was 
enough.  Hence  the  various  contortions  of  animal  form,  the 
fantastic  combinations,  which  meet  us  as  we  glance  at  these 
gems.  Yet  they  are  worth  examining  with  some  little  care, 
for  artistic  effort,  if  not  intrinsic  artistic  success,  can  thus 
be  discerned,  and  this  is  always  interesting.  Whether  it 
was  that  different  engravers  at  one  time  differed  in  skill,  or 
that  the  gems  before  us  represent  successive  stages  in  artistic 
development,   we  do  not  know.      But  certainly  the  gems 

1  Dr.  Murray  draws  an  interesting  distinction  in  this  connection.  On 
the  primitive  Greek  pottery  there  is  a  fondness  for  plant  life.  In  some 
cases  the  designs  on  the  gems  represent  the  same  subjects  as  on  the 
pottery  ;  but  in  general  the  gems  aim  at  higher  forms  of  animal  life, 
as  lions,  bulls,  and  horses,  occasionally  introducing  the  human  figure  in  a 
rude  elongated  form.  In  gem-engraving,  as  in  sculpture,  no  lines  tell  with 
effect  but  those  which  are  clear,  strong,  and  well  defined  ;  hence  the  love  of 
animal  and  human  forms,  which  have  been  moulded  on  the  principle 
of  resistance,  not  as  in  plant  life,  where  the  principle  of  yielding  plays  so 
important  a  part  (Handbook  of  Greek  Arc hceo logy,  p.  40). 


636 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


exhibit  very  different  degrees  of  artistic  merit.  To  the 
ingenuity  with  which  designs  are  made  to  cover  the  whole 
space  we  have  already  referred.  Sometimes  there  is  vigour, 
as  well  as  ingenuity.  Look,  for  instance,  at  the  bull  engraved 
in  a  rock-crystal  (8  h,  B.M.C.  107)  ;  its  boldness  and 
comparative  naturalness  of  design  contrast  very  favourably 
with  many  of  the  rude  forms  on  other  gems.  One  of  the 
finest  existing  examples  of  "  island  gems "  has  come  from 
Crete.  It  is  an  agate  chalcedony  (8,  Row  c),  and  in  it  is 
admirably  engraved  a  bull,  guided  by  a  man  who  stands  on 
the  farther  side  of  it,  and  holds  a  cord  in  both  hands  which 
is  fastened  round  the  bulFs  horns.  "  The  figure  of  the  man 
forms  a  curious  contrast  to  that  of  the  bull,  with  its  rudely- 
drawn  features  and  pinched-in  waist,  which  gives  a  triangular 
form  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  The  anatomy  of  the  legs 
is  well  rendered,  and  the  arms  fairly  so,  but  the  head  is  as 
usual  quite  incorrectly  pourtrayed,  though  free  from  Oriental 
influence"  (J.H.S.  xiii.  220). 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  quaint  and  naive  expedients 
to  which  the  engraver  is  sometimes  reduced  to  express  his 
ideas.  Look,  for  instance,  at  the  haematite  gem  (found  in 
Greece),  showing  two  men  leading  a  bull  (8,  Row  e).  The 
correctness  of  this  description  will  perhaps  be  doubted  by  the 
reader,  till  it  is  explained  that  the  jumping  figure  above  the 
bull  is  meant  to  represent  the  man  on  the  other  side  of 
the  animal.  In  a  wall-painting  of  the  Mycenaean  period  at 
Tiryns  (Plate  13  in  Schliemann's  Tiryns)  there  is  a  similar 
and  yet  quainter  design. 

SCARABS 

{Table-case  £/,  Compartments  9-12) 

The  next  oldest  stage  of  Greek  gem-engraving  is  seen  in 
the  shape  of  scarabs  and  in  the  scaraboids.  The  scarabs  are 
in  the  form  of  the  sacred  scarabaeus  beetle  of  Egypt.  (In  the 
principal  Egyptian  Gallery  of  the  Museum  a  large  green  granite 
scarab  may  be  seen,  and  in  the  Fourth  Egyptian  Room  upstairs 
is  a  collection  of  small  Egyptian  scarabs.)  This  beetle  was 
accepted  as  a  symbol  of  the  sun-god  Ra,  the  fertiliser  of  the 
world,  on  account  of  its  habit  of  moulding  balls  of  clay,  round 
like  the  world,  in  which  it  encloses  its  eggs,  to  be  hatched  by 
the  sun.     The  back  of  the  scarab  is  cut  into  the  form  of  a 


XXVI 


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637 


beetle,  and  the  signet  device  is  cut  on  the  flat  under-side.  A 
hole  was  then  drilled  longitudinally  through  the  scarab,  so  that 
it  might  be  set  by  means  of  a  wire  or  swivel  in  a  ring,  or  worn 
on  a  string  round  the  neck.  To  the  Egyptians  the  scarab  was 
a  sacred  emblem  or  amulet ;  by  other  nations,  to  whom  the 
beetle  had  no  such  religious  significance,  it  was  accepted  as 
a  convenient  form  for  an  engraved  stone.  The  Greeks  for  a 
time  adopted  this  form  ;  but  they  did  not  for  long  continue  the 
labour,  to  them  meaningless,  of  carving  beetles  on  the  backs 
of  their  gems.  They  preferred  the  scaraboid,  as  it  is  called  ; 
that  is  to  say,  a  stone  approximately  of  the  beetle  shape,  but 
plain  on  the  back. 

The  more  archaic  of  the  scaraboids  resemble  in  treatment 
the  lenticular  gems  which  we  have  already  discussed,  but  some 
little  advance  is  made  in  artistic  skill.  The  contorted  forms 
of  the  earlier  period  gradually  disappear,  and  there  is  an 
approach  to  simplicity  and  naturalness.  See,  for  instance,  the 
animal  suckling  its  young  on  an  agate  (9  a,  B.M.C.  114). 
The  lion  attacking  a  deer  and  the  bull  which  we  have  already 
seen  among  the  select  Greek  gems  (39  and  40  a)  show  a 
further  advance  in  the  treatment  of  animal  forms.  To  ap- 
preciate the  gradual  advance  made  by  the  gem-engravers  in 
depicting  the  human  figure,  we  may  compare  with  the  beautiful 
gems  already  examined  one  or  two  typical  specimens  of  earlier 
-styles.  In  the  nude  male  figure,  kneeling  and  playing  on  a 
lyre  (39  6,  B.M.C.  475),  "the  proportions — a  short  body  and 
long  legs — are  such  as  accompanied  archaic  Greek  art.  But 
there  is  a  massiveness  of  the  lower  limbs,  and  in  the  general 
simplicity  of  the  design,  a  distinct  effort  to  lend  dignity  to  the 
figure  "  (Murray). 

A  large  scarab  of  striped  chalcedony  (10  /,  B.M.C.  289)  is 
one  of  the  finest  known  gems  of  archaic  style,  dating  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  It  represents  a 
bearded  satyr  dancing  with  a  wine-cup  in  his  hand,  within  a 
cable  border  : — 

The  workmanship,  in  spite  of  its  archaic  stiffness,  is  very  spirited 
and  sharp  in  treatment.  The  use  of  the  tools  described  above  (p.  611) 
is  here  plainly  visible  :  a  large  drill  for  the  body  of  the  amphora,  small 
drills  for  the  hair,  and  delicate  strokes  of  the  diamond-point  for  the 
satyr's  tail.  The  gem  also  illustrates  the  pains  taken  by  the  Greek 
engravers  to  occupy  with  the  design  the  whole  "  field  "  or  surface  of  the 
stone,  leaving  the  least  possible  quantity  of  empty  margin.    In  archaic 


638 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


gems  such  as  this,  the  principle  is  carried  almost  to  absurdity,  the 
figures  being  bent  into  strained  attitudes.  In  Greek  gems  of  the  best 
period,  such  as  we  first  looked  at,  the  highest  skill  and  taste  is  shown 
in  designing  the  composition  so  as  to  fall  easily  and  gracefully  within 
the  necessary  limits  (Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  pp.  25,  98,  113). 

PHOENICIAN  SCARABS 

{Table-case  £/,  Compartments  9  and  10) 

The  scarabs  and  scaraboids  here  collected  belong  to  two 
different  classes.  The  one  class  bears  designs  of  Assyrian  or 
Egyptian  character,  and  these  are  the  workmanship  of  the 
Phoenicians.  Various  deities  and  sacred  symbols  are  arranged 
without  any  particular  meaning,  but  often  with  considerable 
decorative  skill  and  effect.  In  later  Phoenician  scarabs,  Greek 
motives  occur,  such  as  Hercules  (9,  Row/*),  the  tide  of  influence 
having  turned,  and  Phoenician  art  being  modified  by  that  of 
Greeks.  In  the  later  Phoenician  gems  a  peculiar  border  may 
be  noticed,  usually  called  "  the  cable  border,"'  or  in  French  the 
guilloche.  Examples  may  be  seen  on  gems  in  9  i  and  1  o  g, 
B.M.C.  197,  274.  The  larger  part  of  our  collection  of 
Phoenician  gems  (9,  Rows  e-?\  and  10,  Rows  a-c)  comes  from 
Tharros  (in  Sardinia),  and  was  included  in  the  collection  of 
antiquities  from  that  site  acquired  in  1856  from  M.  Barbetti 
'cf.  p.  705).  Tharros.  a  deserted  site  on  the  Gulf  of  Oristano, 
was  a  Phoenician  colony  ;  the  tombs  in  which  these  gems  were 
found  contained  other  objects  ranging  in  date  from  the  fifth  to 
the  third  century  B.C. 

ETRUSCAN  GEMS 

{Table-case  L\  Compartments  10-12) 

The  second  class  of  scarabs  and  scaraboids  has  Greek 
designs  (Compartments  10  d-12).  The  scarabs  in  this  class 
haA-e  mostly  been  found  in  Etruscan  tombs.  Some  were 
impoited  by  Phoenicians  ;  others  are  presumably  of  native 
Etruscan  workmanship,  for  many  bear  Etruscan  inscriptions. 
The  scaraboids  in  this  class  come  from  Greek  sites.  The 
best  examples  of  the  Etruscan  scarabs  appear  to  date  from  the 
sixth  century  B.C.,  and  are  characterised  by  great  refinement 
in  the  execution,  with  a  flat  rendering  of  the  figure  which 


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639 


corresponds  with  the  treatment  of  Greek  bas-relief  in  marble 
of  this  period"  {Guide  to  the  Department).  The  designs  are 
often  very  fine  and  the  subjects  interesting.  It  is  doubtful 
how  far  the  Etruscans  used  their  scarabs  as  seals.  Many 
specimens  are  mounted  too  elaborately  in  gold  for  such  use, 
and  necklaces  made  of  scarabs  have  been  found  in  Etruscan 
tombs.  From  the  heroic  or  palsestric  subjects  on  these  scarabs 
it  is  thought  that  they  were  symbols  of  valour  and  manly 
energy,  and  were  worn  by  the  male  sex  (Dennis,  i.  lxxvii.). 

One  of  the  most  admirable  of  the  Etruscan  gems  is  a  sard, 
in  which  is  cut  a  combat  between  Hercules  and  Cycnus,  son 
of  Mars  (10  g,  B.M.C.  276)  : — 

"  The  hero  appears  lifting  on  high  his  club  and  rushing  in  to  give 
the  finishing  blow  to  his  heavy -armed  adversary,  already  sinking 
back  fainting  from  its  previous  strokes.  The  grouping  of  the  figures  is 
truly  wonderful,  scarcely  any  composition  in  the  whole  range  of  glyptics 
can  be  pointed  out  so  full  of  spirit  and  movement,  and  this  is  matched 
with  equal  excellence  in  the  execution  ;  the  artist's  talent  being  as 
conspicuously  displayed  in  his  treatment  of  the  nude  in  Hercules,  as 
of  the  minute  details  of  the  panoply  in  his  opponent.  The  names  of 
the  two  inscribed  in  large  Etruscan  letters  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the 
nationality  of  the  artist  claiming  the  honour  of  this  wonderful  perform- 
ance "  (King  in  Arch.  J.  xxiv.  p.  211). 

Another  very  fine  gem  is  the  ideal  bearded  male  head,  cut 
in  the  rare  sap-green  Indian  jasper  (12  g%  B.M.C.  464)  : — 

An  invaluable  specimen  (says  King)  of  the  first  essays  at  portraiture 
from  the  life,  for  though  some  may  consider  the  head  to  be  an  archaic 
Jupiter's,  yet  there  is  better  reason  for  supposing  it  drawn  as  the  vera 
effigies  of  some  Etruscan  lucumo. 

In  the  Museum  Catalogue,  however,  this  gem  is  attributed 
to  a  Greek,  and  not  an  Etruscan,  craftsman,  and  in  this  opinion 
Middleton  concurs.  It  is  a  work,  he  says,  of  the  finest  Greek 
style,  "  with  a  slight  trace  of  archaic  stiffness  or  rather  dignity." 
He  adds  that  "the  delicate  lines  cut  with  the  diamond-point 
are  specially  visible  in  the  working  of  the  hair  and  beard  of 
this  head"  {Ancient  Gems,  pp.  27,  112). 

Among  the  other  scarabs  we  must  notice  one  or  two  for 
the  interest  or  curiosity  of  their  subject.  On  a  banded  agate 
(11  <z,  B.M.C.  298)  is  Hercules  seated  on  the  funeral  pyre, 
the  tongues  of  flame  rising  from  all  points  towards  him.  "  The 
easy  posture,  by  which  the  artist  means  to  depict  the  hero's 


640 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


composure,  has  a  comic  gravity  about  it,"  says  King,  "  which 
is  irresistibly  ludicrous."  The  representation  of  Sisyphus  (11^, 
B.M.C.  306)  is  peculiar.  He  is  not,  as  in  later  designs, 
copied  from  Homer,  rolling  a  huge  rock  up  a  steep,  but  .is 
more  prosaically  lifting  a  big  building-stone  up  the  steps  of  a 
pyramid  which  evidently  is  supposed  ever  to  fall  to  pieces  at 
the  moment  of  completion.  To  a  gem  catalogued  as  "  Hermes 
about  to  slay  the  tortoise"  (1 1  g,  B.M.C.  434  ;  and  see  also  a 
similar  gem  in  1 2  k)  King  gives  a  more  interesting  interpreta- 
tion. It  represents,  he  says,  "  Ulysses  kneeling  upon  the 
back  of  a  monster  turtle  that  is  carrying  him  over  the  waves, 
and  which  he  rewards  by  holding  a  bunch  of  grapes  above  its 
upturned  mouth."  The  engraver  was  referring,  we  are  told, 
to  some  old  Pelasgic  myth  of  the  preservation  of  a  traveller  by 
a  turtle.  The  reader  of  the  veracious  voyages  of  M.  de 
Rougemont  may  remember  that  the  same  adventure  befell  a 
traveller  of  our  own  time.  Notice  some  curious  gems  (prob- 
ably of  the  sixth  century)  on  which  a  Gorgon's  mask  or  other 
figure  is  cut  in  very  low  relief  (10  d,  B.M.C.  244-47);  these 
are  the  oldest  existing  examples  of  cameos  (see  p.  643). 

GRyECO- ROMAN  GEMS 

{Table-case  W,  Coi7ipartments  13,  14,  28-33) 

The  other  antique  intaglios,  which  we  have  not  examined, 
are  Graeco-Roman,  arranged  according  to  their  subjects  (Case 
U,  13,  14;  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Case,  28-33). 
The  subjects  are  mostly  deities  represented  in  forms  taken  from 
Greek  art.  There  are  also  many  portraits  and  several  scenes 
from  ordinary  life.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  group  in  the 
collection  is  that  of  the  cycle  of  Eros  and  Aphrodite  (13  and 
14).  This  cycle  of  myths  "  set  in  play  the  artists'  imagination 
and  furnished  them  with  charming  compositions,  when  a  felici- 
tous conception  is  allied  with  most  delicate  execution."  Into 
plastic  forms  of  the  most  exquisite  beauty,  engravers  often 
translated  the  epigrams  of  the  poets  of  the  Anthology.  There 
seems  to  be  a  natural  bond  connecting  these  higher  forms  of 
art  and  poetry.  In  an  epigram  the  poet  Crinagoras  addresses 
Eros  in  chains  as  one  punished  for  his  misdeeds  : — 

Yes,  cry  and  sob,  thou  traitor,  now  that  thy  hands  are  tied  ;  it 
becomes  thee  to  weep.     No  one  shall  release  thee.     Do  not  look  to 


XXVI 


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641 


one  side.  Thou  hast  made  many  eyes  glisten  with  tears,  shooting  thy 
arrows  into  hearts,  while  thou  distillest  the  poison  of  desires  from 
which  one  cannot  escape.  O  Eros  !  The  sorrows  of  mortals  seem  to 
thee  matters  for  laughter.  Very  well,  now  thou  sufferest  as  thou  hast 
made  others  suffer.    There  is  good  in  justice. 

May  we  not  believe  that,  in  writing  these  lines,  the  author 
had  before  his  eyes  a  beautiful  intaglio  (in  13  /)  that  repre- 
sented Eros  disarmed,  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back,  and  in 
confusion  because  of  his  mishap  ?  On  another  gem  (also  in 
13  f)  Eros  is  torturing  Psyche,  the  image  of  the  soul,  by 
burning  it  with  his  torch  (cf.  the  figurine  of  this  subject,  p.  698). 
This  motive  is  found  in  an  epigram  of  Meleager : — 

If  thou  too  oft  dost  burn  the  soul  that  hovers 
About  thy  flame  with  moth-like  flutterings, 
At  last  she  will  take  flight,  O  Love — remember, 
Cruel  one  that  thou  art,  she  too  has  wings. 

"  Engraved  stones  make  known  to  us  a  whole  phase  of  Greek 
thought  that  was  developed  principally  in  the  Macedonian 
epoch,  where  are  observed  refinement  in  taste  pushed  to  play- 
ful affectation,  extreme  subtlety,  and  rare  facility  in  putting 
into  ingenious  forms  the  fine  analysis  of  sentiment  "  (Collignon's 
Greek  Archaeology,  p.  340  ;  and  see  The  Story  of  Psyche,  by 
Elizabeth  Strutt,  with  designs  in  outline  by  John  Gibson). 

Among  the  gems  engraved  with  other  mythological  or 
typical  figures  we  may  notice  Hyacinthus  (so  inscribed)  in  the 
attitude  of  the  Discobolus  (see  p.  49)  of  Myron  (13  c,  B.M.C. 
742) — "the  finest  representation  of  this  subject  on  a  gem 
anywhere  known"  (King's  Antique  Gems  and  Rings,  ii.  63)  : — 

¥  From  the  name  on  this  gem  we  learn  that  the  disk- thrower  is  not 
an  actual  athlete,  but  the  legendary  hero  who  was  killed  in  playing  at 
disk-throwing  with  Apollo,  and  from  whose  blood  sprang  the  hyacinth. 
There  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  the  true  name  for  Myron's  statue 
was  also  Hyacinthus.  With  his  habit  of  observing  nature  he  had  been 
caught  with  the  beauty  of  the  attitude  of  the  disk-thrower.  He  next 
looked  round  among  the  known  legends  of  heroes  for  a  subject  which 
would  allow  him  to  use  this  attractive  motive"  (Murray's  Handbook 
of  Greek  Archeology,  p.  154). 

A  young  Faun  and  vase  (14  c,  B.M.C.  1028)  is  remarkable 
for  its  stone — a  rare  variety  of  plasma  (Pliny's  jasftis  mono- 
grammos).  This  stone  is  highly  valued  in  the  East  (says  King) 
as  an  amulet,  and  is  declared  by  magicians  to  be  of  service  to 

2  T 


642 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


orators.  A  late  gem,  inscribed  "  Assembly  of  the  Gods  in 
Olympus"  (14  e,  B.M.C.  1102),  is  noteworthy. 

Of  the  gems  containing  designs  of  incidents  in  daily  life, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  is  a  sard  (U  31,  bottom  row),  en- 
graved with  a  man  playing  a  water-organ  : — 

"  The  performer  stands  before  the  row  of  pipes ;  at  each  side  stand 
workmen  at  the  hydraulic  pumps  which  force  the  water  into  the  great 
brazen  cylinder,  and  thereby  condense  the  air  within,  and  which 
answers  the  purpose  of  the  wind-chest  in  the  modern  instrument.  The 
description  of  the  hydraulis,  first  invented  by  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria, 
as  given  by  Athenoeus  (iv.  75),  exactly  applies  to  the  instrument  before 
us  :  e  The  hydraulic  organ  seems  to  be  something  after  the  nature  of 
a  water-clock.  Perhaps  it  ought  to  be  termed  a  wind  instrument, 
inasmuch  as  the  organ  is  filled  with  breath  by  means  of  water  ;  for  the 
pipes  are  bent  down  into  the  water,  and  the  water  being  pounded  by 
the  attendant,  whilst  tubes  pass  through  the  body  of  the  organ  itself, 
the  pipes  are  filled  with  wind,  and  give  forth  an  agreeable  sound. 
The  instrument  resembles  in  shape  a  circular  altar,'  The  letters  in 
the  field  seem  to  form  the  word  Vivam,  *  Success  to  myself ! '  and  as 
no  proper  name  is  added,  this  interpretation  has  much  to  recommend 
it,  supposing  it  to  refer  to  the  owner  of  the  gem "  (King's  Antique 
Gems  and  Rings,  ii.  62). 

CAMEOS 

{Arranged  in  Coinpartments  48-55,  Table-case  X) 

We  now  pass  to  a  second  division  of  engraved  gems — the 
cameos.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is  unknown.  Its 
meaning  is  a  small  sculpture  in  low  relief  cut  in  any  material, 
but  more  particularly  in  stones  of  different  coloured  layers. 
There  are  cameos  on  stones  of  single  colours,  such  as  the  large 
head  of  Medusa  on  an  amethyst  (in  Compartment  50);  but 
what  is  more  generally  thought  of  as  a  cameo  is  a  relief  cut 
in  different  layers.  For  this  purpose  the  ancients  used  the 
onyx,  the  agate,  and  other  stones,  and  especially  the  sardonyx. 
The  onyx  is  a  variety  of  agate  consisting  of  layers  of  variegated 
chalcedony,  arranged  in  parallel  bands.  The  colours  of  these 
strata,  superimposed  one  on  the  other,  vary ;  in  the  typical 
onyx  they  are  black  and  white.  If  one  of  the  layers  consists 
of  the  brown  chalcedony  known  as  "  sard  "  or  the  red  variety 
called  "  carnelian,"  the  resulting  stone  is  called  a  sardonyx. 
It  was  probably  this  kind  of  stone  that  originally  suggested 
the  name  onyx  (Greek  for  "  nail "),  since  the  contrast  between 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


643 


its  layers  remotely  resembles  that  between  the  flesh-coloured 
part  of  the  finger-nail  and  the  white  half-moon  at  its  root.  Of 
a  sardonyx  cameo  the  large  head  of  Augustus  (in  Compartment 
53)  is  a  very  beautiful  example.  The  natural  onyx  is  formed 
by  the  gradual  infiltration  of  water  charged  with  silicious 
particles  into  hollows  in  trap-rock ;  if,  when  the  stone  was 
forming,  there  were  traces  of  oxide  of  iron  in  the  water  of 
infiltration,  a  natural  sardonyx  is  produced.  In  old  times  the 
onyx  was  imported  from  India,  and  the  possibility  of  colouring 
stones  by  an  artificial  absorption  of  metallic  oxides  was  not 
unknown  to  the  ancients.  In  Europe  the  principal  locality  for 
the  onyx  is  the  neighbourhood  of  Oberstein  on  the  Nahe,  a 
river  which  flows  into  the  Rhine  at  Bingen.  The  quarries  are, 
however,  now  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of 
larger  and  finer  stones  in  South  America.  These  are  imported 
to  Oberstein  and  there  cut,  polished,  and  coloured. 

In  the  cutting  of  cameos  the  artists  employed  were,  as  in 
the  case  of  intaglios,  Greeks  ;  but,  whereas  ancient  intaglios 
are  essentially  Greek,  cameos  are  Roman.  The  elements  of  a 
coloured  cameo  existed  indeed  from  earlier  times.  The  onyx 
was  used  for  intaglios,  and  reliefs  were  engraved  on  the  back 
of  scarabs.  We  have  already  seen  a  gem  in  which  the 
material  and  work  in  relief  were  combined  (in  39  a,  see  p.  620). 
The  oldest  examples  of  cameos,  in  the  sense  of  gems  with 
work  in  relief,  are  some  Greek  or  Etruscan  representations  of 
a  Gorgon's  mask  (in  10  d,  see  p.  640).  It  was,  however,  only 
under  the  Roman  Empire  that  cameo  -  cutting  came  into 
fashion. 

The  reader  will  notice  that  the  antique  cameos  in  our  col- 
lection are  much  less  numerous  than  the  intaglios.  Stones 
suitable  for  intaglios  are  much  less  rare,  and  are  more  easily 
worked.  Which  is  the  more  beautiful — a  fine  intaglio  or  a 
fine  cameo  ?  It  is  a  question  of  taste.  Here  are  two  opinions 
on  the  artistic  merit  of  the  cameo,  which  may  serve  to  suggest 
some  points  of  view  : — 

"  On  the  whole,"  says  Middleton,  "  the  Roman  love  for  cameos  cut 
out  of  stratified  gems  had  a  degraded  influence  on  the  glyptic  art.  It 
was  rather  a  tricky  sort  of  ingenuity  that  was  fostered  by  the  wish  to 
have  gems  with  the  design  worked  out  of  three  or  four  layers  of 
different  colours,  the  background  being  one  colour,  the  flesh  of  the 
head  another,  the  hair  a  third,  and  perhaps  a  wreath  round  the 
head  in  a  fourth — the  uppermost  stratum.     Great  skill  is  often  shown 


644 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


by  the  way  in  which  the  artist  has  designed  his  subject  to  suit  the 
successive  layers  of  varied  colour,  but  he  was  usually  seriously 
hampered  by  the  exigencies  of  the  thin  strata  ;  and  the  work  of  this 
elaborate  kind  has  an  awkward  flatness  of  modelling,  and  necessarily  a 
complete  want  of  graceful  modulation  in  passing  from  one  plane  to 
another  of  the  relief.  However,  cameos  such  as  these  are  showy  and 
highly  decorative  at  a  distance,  and  that  is  what  Roman  taste  seems  to 
have  preferred  in  all  branches  of  art "  {Ancient  Gems,  p.  64). 

That  is  a  depreciation  of  the  cameo.  We  must  listen  next 
to  an  appreciation  : — 

"The  larger  cameos  were  always  very  interesting  as  wonderful 
works  of  art  only,  and  also  because  they  often  bear  portraits  of  great 
personages.  In  regard  to  cameo  portraiture  in  onyx,  if  there  can  be 
any  certainty  as  to  the  person  represented,  it  is  always  most  valuable, 
because  of  the  marvellous  quality  of  permanence  in  the  material  in 
which  it  is  cut.  No  existing  form  of  portraiture  is  so  strong  and,  at 
the  same  time,  so  delicate  and  beautiful  as  that  to  be  found  on  a  first- 
rate  antique  onyx  cameo.  Such  portraits  were  cut  by  masters  in  their 
art,  and  are  comparable  with  the  finest  art  of  any  age  or  executed  in 
any  medium.  A  coin,  however  finely  cut,  cannot  compare  with  a  fine 
cameo,  because  at  best  it  is  only  stamped,  it  has  no  master's  touch 
upon  it,  and  the  exquisite  beauty  of  the  stone  is  wanting.  Also  there 
may  be  many  specimens  of  the  coin,  undistinguishable  one  from  the 
other,  but  the  cameo  is  unique.  Ordinary  sculpture,  compared  to 
such  a  gem,  appears  coarse.  Antique  cameos,  if  not  actually  broken, 
are  nearly  always  in  perfectly  good  condition  in  all  material  particulars  " 
(Cyril  Davenport's  Cameos,  p.  19). 

The  portrait  of  Augustus,  already  referred  to,  shows  the 
cameo  in  its  highest  beauty.  It  is  a  beauty  different  from  that 
of  the  intaglio — "the  bold  cameo  speaks/'  says  an  old  writer, 
"  the  soft  intaglio  thinks ;;  ;  but  the  beauty  is  undeniable. 

The  instruments  used  by  the  ancients  for  cameo-cutting 
were  much  the  same  as  those  which  we  have  already  described 
in  the  case  of  intaglios.  Nor  is  there  any  technical  difference 
between  a  cameo  cut  by  Pistrucci  in  the  nineteenth,  and  a 
cameo  cut  by  a  Greek  artist  at  Rome  in  the  first,  century. 
The  fabrication  of  modern  "  antique  cameos 79  is  therefore 
easy.  But  in  one  respect  the  modern  artists  are  at  an  advan- 
tage. Modern  saws  have  made  it  much  easier  to  cut  off  large 
flat  pieces  of  the  stone.  Hence,  there  is  a  distinction  between 
ancient  and  modern  cameos,  which  may  sometimes  assist  the 
judgment  of  the  connoisseur.  In  ancient  cameos  there  is 
generally  only  a  very  narrow  margin ;  the  design  is  made  to  come 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


645 


as  near  up  to  the  edge  as  possible.    In  mediaeval  and  modern 

cameos  large  margins  are  often  found,  and  very  well  they  look. 
There  is  force  in  what  Dr.  Billing  says,  that  the  preference  for 
the  other  style  is  only  a  mistaken  devotion  to  the  imperfect 
methods  of  the  ancient  craftsmen.  Ancient  cameos  are  some- 
times signed  by  the  artists.  If  the  signature  is,  like  the  rest 
of  the  design,  in  relief,  it  must  have  been  cut  by  the  original 
engraver.  If  it  is  incised,  then  the  same  doubts  arise  as  in 
the  case  of  intaglios. 

In  the  matter  of  use  cameos  differ  fundamentally  from 
intaglios.  The  latter  were  intended  for  use  as  seals.  Cameos 
were  from  the  first  intended  only  as  beautiful  works  of  art. 
Sometimes  they  were  used  as  personal  adornments — very 
small  ones  being  set  in  rings,  larger  ones  being  worn  as  fasten- 
ings for  cloaks  or  brooches.  It  may  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  the  spirit  of  the  cameo  is  altogether  congenial  to  use 
as  personal  jewellery.  We  may  say  of  a  fine  cameo  what 
Professor  Henry  Smith  used  to  say,  with  a  smile,  of  some  dis- 
covery in  pure  mathematics  :  "  The  great  beauty  of  it  is  that  it 
cannot  be  of  the  slightest  practical  use  to  any  human  being." 
The  place  of  the  cameo  is  in  the  cabinet  or  the  shrine. 

The  most  beautiful  cameo  in  the  collection,  and  perhaps  in 
the  world,  is  the  profile  bust  of  Augustus,  cut  out  of  a 
sardonyx  of  three  layers  (in  the  centre  of  Compartment  53, 
Case  X,  B.M.C.  1560)  :— 

This  celebrated  gem  was  formerly  in  the  Strozzi  and  Blacas  collec- 
tions, and  in  it  all  the  essentials  of  a  cameo  are  seen  in  their  perfection, 
It  is  Grseco- Roman  work,  probably  of  the  time  of  Augustus  himself, 
and  is  in  the  same  fine  condition  to-day  as  when  it  left  the  artist's 
hands.  (The  diadem  in  gold  and  gems  was  added  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  restored  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  the  stones 
in  it  are  emerald,  beryl,  cameo  head  of  Artemis,  topaz,  cameo  head  of 
boy,  emerald,  cameo  head  of  satyr,  garnet  and  diamond.  This 
diadem  overlies  a  plain  one  cut  in  the  original  stone,  of  which  the 
bands  show  at  the  back  of  the  head.)  In  the  classical  features  of 
Augustus  the  artist  had  an  admirable  subject,  and  there  is  no  finer 
portrait  of  the  Emperor  in  existence  than  on  this  gem.  The  expres- 
sion of  the  countenance  is  brought  out  with  great  delicacy  and  refine- 
ment, and  the  colours  and  shades  of  the  stones  are  taken  advantage  of 
with  the  utmost  skill.  In  front  of  the  Emperor's  breast-plate  (which 
is  in  a  light-brown  layer  of  the  stone)  is  a  large  cameo  head  of  Medusa. 
Of  actual  gems  of  Medusa  which  once  were  worn  in  this  way  there  are 
specimens  in  our  collection  (see  below,  p.  648). 


646 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


Equally  famous,  and  in  some  respects  more  remarkable, 
though  not  more  beautiful,  is  the  largest  of  the  four  antique 
gems  from  the  Marlborough  collection  which  were  acquired 
for  the  nation  in  1899.1  This  cameo,  which  represents  an 
Emperor  and  an  Empress  facing  each  other,  is  one  of  the 
five  largest  cameos  in  the  world,  and  of  all  these  it  is  the  most 
remarkable  as  a  stone,  if  we  consider  the  quality  of  its 
brilliantly-hued  layers  and  the  parallelism  in  which  they  lie 
superimposed.  The  gem  is  a  fine  example  of  that  opulent 
effect  which  the  old  gem-engravers  sought  in  the  combination 
of  rich  colour  and  rich  material : — 

The  price  of  the  gem  in  1899  was  ^"3300.  The  cameo  has  at 
some  time  been  broken  into  four  pieces,  and  some  of  it  has  dis- 
appeared. The  missing  part  has  been  restored  in  silver  gilt  ;  the  four 
pieces  have  been  cleverly  joined,  and  the  whole  is  kept  together  in  a 
silver-gilt  setting.  The  stone  on  which  the  cameo  is  cut  is  in  three 
layers.  The  Emperor's  hair,  eyebrows,  beard,  and  mantle,  and  the 
Empress's  hair,  eyebrows,  ear-rings,  necklace,  and  part  of  the  dress,  are 
cut  in  the  upper  brown  layer  ;  this  shows  as  dark  or  pale,  according  as 
it  is  left  thick  or  thin.  The  flesh  is  in  the  creamy  white  of  the  central 
layer  ;  the  background,  a  dark  gray.  It  is  one  of  the  pleasures  derived 
from  the  art  of  cameo-cutting  to  notice  in  the  finer  specimens  how 
ingeniously  the  artist  handles  his  material  so  as  to  give  the  most  con- 
trasted effects  to  the  various  layers  of  the  stone.  Another  point  will 
be  noticed  :  "  The  first  impression  given  by  this  cameo  is,  I  think,  its 
curious  flatness.  This  is,  of  course,  due  to  the  necessities  of  the 
stone  itself,  and  something  of  the  same  effect  may  be  seen  in  almost  all 
cameos,  except  those  on  a  very  small  scale.  The  coloured  layers  in 
the  onyx  stone  are  seldom  thick,  and  the  larger  the  cameo  the 
thinner  the  layers  are  in  proportion  "  (Cyril  Davenport,  in  the  Anglo- 


1  George,  third  Duke  of  Marlborough,  formed,  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  one  of  the  finest  collections  of  gems,  intaglios,  and 
cameos  ever  made  in  England.  He  had  purchased  two  existing  collec- 
tions entire — the  Arundel  and  the  Bessborough  ;  the  rest  of  his  collection 
he  had  acquired  piece  by  piece,  aided  by  his  own  knowledge  and  taste,  and 
by  his  long  purse.  The  Duke  evidently  desired  that  posterity  should 
know  him  in  his  character  of  a  collector  of  gems,  as  in  the  large  family 
group  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  at  Blenheim  he  caused  himself  to  be  shown 
holding  in  his  hand  his  favourite  sardonyx  with  a  cameo  head  of  the 
deified  Augustus.  It  fetched  ^2350  at  the  recent  sale.  Near  him  Lord 
Blandford  holds  one  of  the  ten  red  jewel-cases  in  which  the  collection  was 
kept.  The  collection  was  sold  in  1875  to  Mr«  David  Bromielow  for 
35,000  guineas.  On  his  death  it  was  dispersed  in  1899.  The  gems 
fetched  in  all  ^34, 827.  It  is  sad  to  think  that  the  Arundel  collection  of 
gems  were  at  one  time  offered  to  the  British  Museum  for  ^10,000,  and 
refused. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


647 


Saxon  Revieiv,  Sept.  1899).  With  regard  to  the  execution  in  other 
respects,  the  modelling  of  the  heads  is  excellent,  and  all  the  accessories 
are  cut  with  great  delicacy  and  skill.  These  accessories  do  not,  unfor- 
tunately, suffice  to  identify  the  portraits.  The  Emperor  (on  whose  brow 
are  a  ram's  horn  and  oat  wreath)  is  represented  as  Jupiter  Ammon  ; 
the  Empress  (with  wheat-ears,  pomegranate,  and  poppy-heads)  as  Isis. 
Circular  escutcheons  in  the  upper  corners  of  the  setting  bear  the  names 
Didius  Julianus  Augustus  and  Manlia  Scantilla  Augusta — the  sexa- 
genarian usurper  who  bought  the  purple  at  auction,  inspired  by  his 
wife's  ambition,  and  who  was  murdered  after  a  disturbed  reign  of  sixty- 
six  days  (193  B.C.).  The  portrait  is  too  young  for  that  worthless 
Emperor,  and  the  shortness  of  his  reign  makes  the  attribution  addition- 
ally improbable.  A  work  of  this  magnitude  requires  several  months  of 
unremitting  labour  to  complete.  This  objection,  however,  is  not  con- 
clusive, for  the  work  might  have  been  begun  during  the  reign,  and 
finished  afterwards.  Some  critics  find  a  likeness  in  the  portraits  to 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Faustina  the  Elder  ;  there  is  an  intaglio  of  them 
at  St.  Petersburg,  the  design  of  which  resembles  our  cameo.  Others 
identify  the  heads  with  Commodus  and  Crispina  (his  wife)  or  Marcia 
(his  concubine)  ;  or  with  Julian  the  Apostate  and  his  wife,  Helena. 
On  the  back  of  the  setting  is  the  following  inscription  :  "  Ingens 
anaglyphicum  opus,  olim  Sannesiorum  ducum,  nunc  vero  pretio  acqui- 
situm  in  Fontesiano  cimelio  asservatum."  The  cabinet  referred  to  is 
probably  that  of  the  Marquis  de  Fuentes,  Portuguese  ambassador  to 
Rome  in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  is  known  to  have  been  a  gem- 
collector,  and  from  him  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  may  have  obtained 
the  cameo. 

The  other  antique  gems  from  the  Marlborough  collection 
must  be  noticed  more  briefly.  A  head  of  Agrippina  the  Elder 
is  a  noble  gem  of  the  Augustan  age,  in  an  exquisite  cinque- 
cento  setting ;  the  work  is  "  very  fine  and  worthy  of  the 
magnificent  stone  on  which  it  is  cut.55  It  was  in  the  Earl  of 
Arundel's  collection;  price  in  1899,  ,£370  (No.  416  in 
Marlborough  Catalogue).  Another  Arundel  gem  is  the  cameo 
bust  of  Claudius  (No.  423,  ^100).  More  elaborate  is  the 
bust  of  Marciana,  sister  of  Trajan,  cut  on  chalcedony  of 
mottled  yellow  ;  she  is  represented  in  the  character  of  Juno 
being  conveyed,  seated  on  the  back  of  a  peacock,  to  the 
abode  of  the  gods.  This  gem  was  once  in  the  collection  of 
the  Dukes  of  Medina  (^620).  The  nation  also  acquired  four 
post-classical  gems  at  the  Marlborough  sale.  With  these  we 
shall  deal  presently  (p.  667). 

We  now  return  to  inspect  the  collection  of  ancient  cameos 
in  order  of  arrangement,  noticing,  however,  only  a  few  of  the 
more  beautiful  or  interesting  specimens  (Case  X,  Compartments 


648 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


48  to  55).  Among  the  Bacchanalian  subjects,  the  Drunken 
Faun  (48  /),  dancing  and  brandishing  a  thyrsus,  is  the  most 
remarkable ;  the  design  is  thoroughly  Greek.  The  small 
sardonyx  cameo  (48  d)  with  the  head  of  a  Maenad  is  fine. 
The  Silenus  (49  b)  is  cut  on  a  very  pretty  stone,  corundum. 
In  the  same  row  is  a  cameo  (B.JI.C.  1237)  of  a  centauress 
recumbent,  suckling  an  infant  foal,  "  engraved  after  the  Greek 
manner  in  a  peculiar  and  flat  relief."  It  is  interesting,  "as 
there  is  the  best  reason  to  suppose  it  preserves  to  us  a  copy 
from  the  picture  by  Zeuxis  of  the  same  subject  so  minutely 
described  by  Lucian.  His  account  of  that  portion  of  the 
painting  would  serve  literally  for  this  cameo  n  (King).  In  the 
next  row  (49  c)  is  a  Hermaphrodite  reclining  ;  a  fine  example 
of  the  grace  and  finish  which  may  be  imparted  to  a  minute 
cameo.  Another  of  the  chief  beauties  to  be  found  in  cameos 
— the  skilful  adaptation  of  means  to  end — may  be  studied  in 
the  chariot-groups  (49  f).  The  "  Minerva  in  a  Biga ;;  shows 
a  spirited  design,  and  the  artist  has  ingeniously  employed 
the  different  colours  of  the  sardonyx  to  give  the  goddess  a 
pair  of  black  and  white  steeds.  Similarly,  in  the  "Victory  in 
a  Quadriga,"  each  of  the  four  horses  is  of  a  distinct  colour. 

The  head  of  Medusa,  cut  in  an  amethyst  (in  Compartment 
50,  B.M.C.  1240),  is  "of  exceptional  size  and  brilliancy  for 
this  material."  It  is  a  fine  Roman  work.  It  was  found  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  a  peasant  in  a 
vineyard  at  the  foot  of  the  Aventine  in  Rome.  The  exquisite 
Medusa  intaglio  described  above  (p.  622)  was  also  found  in 
a  Roman  vineyard.  Those  were  the  old  days  of  collecting, 
never,  perhaps,  to  return,  when  priceless  treasures,  picked  up 
by  peasants,  were  still  to  be  picked  up  also  by  amateurs  with 
modest  purses.  An  old  collector,  the  late  Count  Tyszkiewicz, 
has  left  some  interesting  memories  of  those  glorious  times  : — 

"At  the  Villa  Massimo,  for  instance,  opposite  St.  John  Luteran, 
dwelt  a  certain  Checco,  who  acted  as  porter.  Every  morning  this  little 
old  man  took  a  walk  among  the  vineyards,  and  had  a  gossip  with  the 
owners  and  their  vine-dressers.  He  heard  of  any  discoveries  they 
had  made  in  the  course  of  their  work,  and  he  was  able  to  buy  what- 
ever he  wanted  for  only  a  few  sous.  Any  collector  who  called  upon 
Checco  at  home  was  sure  of  finding  something  in  the  way  of  gems  or 
coins.  The  old  man  was  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  value  of  what  he 
sold,  but  he  had  good  taste  and  good  luck,  and  a  happy  instinct  led 
him  to  buy  the  best  stones  only.  There  was  another  Checco  who  kept 
a  tobacconist's  shop  in  the  Piazza  Barberini.     Like  Checco  I.,  he  was 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


649 


a  daily  visitor  to  the  vineyards,  and  was  kept  well  supplied  with 
antiquities  by  the  peasants,  who  came  on  Sundays  to  buy  his  cigars. 
Fine  gems  were  his  speciality  also." 

The  Count  mentions  another  superb  cameo  of  Medusa, 
which  was  thus  sold  in  the  Rome  of  old  days  for  a  few  half- 
pence. But  visitors  to  the  Museum,  if  they  are  troubled  with 
qualms  on  the  morality  of  "expertising,"  may  enjoy  the  good 
things  here  provided  with  an  easy  conscience.  Museums  do 
not  make  sharp  bargains.  Before  a  gem  reaches  a  cabinet 
such  as  this  it  has  generally  changed  hands  many  times  for 
very  valuable  consideration.  We  have  seen  the  large  prices 
paid  for  the  Marlborough  gems.  The  other  principal  treasures 
before  us  came  from  the  Blacas  collection,  and  for  that  the 
British  tax-payer  paid  ,£48,000. 1  The  Medusa  now  before 
us  is,  among  single-coloured  gems,  one  of  the  grandest  in 
existence.  It  is  supposed  that  its  primary  destination  was  to 
decorate  the  imperial  cuirass,  as  is  shown  in  the  cameo 
portrait  of  Augustus.  Another  head  of  Medusa  in  this  com- 
partment— in  three-quarter  face,  on  a  large  and  fine-coloured 
sardonyx — should  be  noticed.  It  is  very  much  of  the  type 
made  famous  by  the  picture  ascribed  to  Leonardo  at  Florence. 

The  place  of  honour  in  the  next  compartment  (51)  is 
given  to  a  large  sardonyx  portrait  (from  the  Carlisle  collection) 
of  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus,  partially  idealised  as  Diana — 
somewhat  damaged,  but  very  fine  in  style. 

Note  in  this  same  compartment  (51  a)  a  portrait  of  Socrates, 
cut  on  nicolo  (a  variety  of  onyx),  and  mounted  as  a  finger-ring. 

In  the  next  compartment  (52)  is  a  beautiful  cameo  of  two 
profile  heads,  supposed  to  represent  Julia,  only  daughter  of 
Augustus,  and  Li  via,  his  third  wife.  The  foremost  head, 
that  of  Julia,  is  in  the  character  of  Minerva,  and  wears  the 
helmet  and  aegis  ;  the  latter  is  cut  in  a  light-brown  layer  of 
the  stone.  This  fine  work  (which  has  been  broken  and 
mounted  on  an  agate  back)  comes  from  the  Carlisle  collection 
which  was  purchased  for  the  nation  in  1 900-1.  It  was  formed 
by  the  fourth  Earl  ( 1694-17 5 8);  and  a  letter  of  Horace 
Walpole,  written  from  Rome  in  1740,  lets  us  into  some  of 
the  secrets  of  collecting  as  it  was  once  practised  by  English 
"  milords  "  : — 


1  This  collection  included  also  coins,  vases,  terra-cottas,  sculptures,  and 
silver. 


650 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


"  There  are  now  selling  no  less  than  three  of  the  principal  collections, 
— the  Barberini,  the  Sachetti,  and  Ottoboni ;  the  latter  belonged  to  the 
Cardinal  who  died  in  the  Conclave.  When  Lord  Carlisle  was  here  last 
year,  who  is  a  great  virtuoso,  he  asked  leave  to  see  the  Cardinal's 
collection  of  cameos  and  intaglios.  Ottoboni  gave  leave,  and  ordered 
the  person  who  showed  them  to  observe  which  my  Lord  observed 
most.  My  Lord  admired  many  ;  they  were  all  sent  him  next  morn- 
ing. He  sent  the  cardinal  back  a  fine  gold  repeater  ;  who  returned 
him  an  agate  snuff-box,  and  more  cameos  of  ten  times  the  value. 
'  Voila  qui  est  Jini!^  Had  my  Lord  produced  more  gold  repeaters 
it  would  have  been  begging  more  cameos." 

The  exquisite  cameo  which  we  were  last  examining  prob- 
ably came  from  Cardinal  Ottoboni.  Another  beautiful  cameo 
here  is  the  head  of  Julia,  daughter  of  Titus,  on  an  agate  (52 
B.M.C.  1607).  This  is  apparently  copied  from  the  famous 
stone  at  Paris,  which  is  signed  with  the  name  Euodos,  and 
which  can  be  traced  back  to  Charlemagne.  The  authenticity 
of  our  cameo  as  an  antique  is  doubtful. 

In  the  next  compartment  (53)  the  great  attraction  is  the 
magnificent  portrait  of  Augustus,  which  we  have  already  dis- 
cussed. Very  fine  also  is  the  onyx  cameo  of  Germanicus 
(53  d>  B.M.C.  1589) — another  gem  of  the  Blacas  col- 
lection, always  greatly  esteemed,  says  Sir  Charles  Newton, 
for  the  beauty  of  its  workmanship,  and  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  very  few  genuine  examples  of  artists'  signatures  on  gems. 
The  name  inscribed  (in  Greek  characters)  is  Epitynchanus  (see 
for  a  discussion  of  this  signature,  Catalogue  of  Gems,  p.  37). 
This  gem  belonged  to  Fulvio  Orsini,  and  an  engraving  of 
it  was  published  as  early  as  1598. 

A  beautiful  sardonyx  cameo  (53  a1,  B.M.C.  1532)  represents 
the  heads  of  a  youthful  king  and  queen.  These  have  been 
called,  without  any  good  reason,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and 
Arsinoe.  "  In  no  cameo  in  this  collection  is  the  hard  and 
ungrateful  material  more  skilfully  dealt  with  than  in  this 
beautiful  work"  (Newton).  It  is  in  a  Renaissance  setting  of 
gold,  enamels,  and  gems.  Another  beautiful  cameo  in  pale 
onyx  (53  b)  has  a  head  of  Livia  (?),  the  finest  female  head  in 
the  collection.  A  fragment  of  what  must  once  have  been  a 
magnificent  cameo  should  be  noticed ;  this  is  a  figure  of 
Livia  as  Ceres,  enthroned,  seated  on  a  cornucopia,  held  up 
by  the  hand  of  a  figure  now  lost  (53  b,  B.M.C.  1 5 7 1 ). 
The  head  of  Augustus  (53  e,  B.M.C.  1561),  though  broken, 
is  very  fine  ;  so  is  the  unknown  youthful  head  (53  /,  B.M.C. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


651 


1599).  These  last  are  in  Renaissance  settings  of  gold  and 
enamel. 

The  other  ancient  cameos  (54-55)  are  of  slighter  interest. 
They  belong  to  the  same  class  as  the  later  intaglios,  and  show 
us  Cupid  in  a  trap,  or  being  flogged,  or  playing  the  flutes,  or 
with  the  butterfly.  Note  (in  54  c)  an  onyx  from  the  Carlisle 
collection  (formerly  in  the  possession  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni), 
representing  Cupid  leading  the  panthers  that  drew  the  chariot 
of  Bacchus.  This  is  a  fine  ancient  gem  ;  the  alleged  artist's 
signature  (Sostratus)  is  probably  a  modern  addition.  A  fine 
but  broken  head  of  Ceres  is  worth  noticing  (in  55  a).  Another 
fine  fragment  is  from  a  cameo  representing  Actaeon  attacked 
by  his  hounds  (54  /). 

Motto  Cameos  (Compartment  56). — Not  the  least  interest- 
ing class  of  cameos  consists  of  those  with  mottoes  which  came 
into  vogue  in  the  days  of  the  later  Roman  empire.  These 
stones  present  short  sentences  enclosed  within  a  myrtle  wreath, 
or  taking  up  the  whole  surface.  The  words  show  that  they 
were  designed  for  ornamenting  rings  and  other  small  jewels 
intended  for  new  year's  gifts  or  birthday  presents  (King's 
Handbook  of  Engraved  Gems,  p.  77).  An  onyx  cameo  in 
the  Marlborough  collection  appears  to  have  been  a  love  gift 
from  a  lady.  It  is  engraved  with  a  hand  pinching  an  ear, 
and  the  inscription  : — 

Remember  me,  your  pretty  love. 
Good  luck  to  you,  Sophronius. 

In  our  collection  there  is  a  cameo  from  Cyzicus  with  a 
similar  inscription,  "  Remember  me,  your  darling,  wherever 
you  are."  Here  also  there  is  a  hand  pinching  an  ear.  The 
ear,  according  to  the  then  popular  notion,  was  the  seat  of 
memory,  and  several  of  the  cameos  here  bear  this  device,  with 
the  word  "  Remember,"  the  ancient  equivalent  of  our  "  Forget- 
me-nots." 

Some  inscriptions  are  simpler,  conveying  only  "  Good  luck," 
or  "  Long  life  to  you."  One  ring  says,  "  Good-bye,  my  love  "  ; 
another,  "  A  gift  to  my  pretty  darling."  Others  are  perhaps 
betrothal  rings,  as,  for  instance,  the  one  on  a  nicolo,  show- 
ing two  hands  clasped  and  inscribed  "  omonoia,"  "  alliance  " 
(56  c,  B.M.C.  2147).  On  a  ring  from  the  Carlisle  collection 
there  is  also  "  alliance,"  with  a  design  of  a  vase  and  bird. 
Lastly,  some  preach  a  moral  and  give  good  advice  to  the 


652 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


recipient.  A  common  inscription  is,  "  They  say  what  they 
like.  Let  them  say.  I  care  not  "  (56^,  B.M.C.  2154-55). 
The  maxim  might  well  be  the  motto  of  all  men  in  all  ages 
who  seek  to  possess  their  souls  in  patience.  A  free  transla- 
tion of  it  is  inscribed  over  the  doors  of  various  houses  in 
Scotland  built  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  : — 

They  have  said, 
What  say  they  ? 
Let  them  say. 

Sometimes  a  ring  seems  to  have  come  with  good  advice  to 
a  lover,  as  on  a  sardonyx  here  (56  by  B.M.C.  2168),  on  which 
the  inscription  seems  to  say,  "  If  you  are  in  love  say  nice 
things,  and  without  actually  perverting  embroider." 


PASTES 

{In  the  frames  in  the  windows) 

In  the  windows  are  arranged  three  frames  containing 
" paste  gems"  ;  those  in  two  of  the  frames  are  pastes  of  the 
Roman  period,  those  in  the  third  were  made  by  J.  Tassie, 
1 791.  In  all  cases  they  are  imitations  of  ancient  gems. 
"  Paste,"  it  should  be  explained,  is  only  another  word  for  the 
finest  sort  of  glass.  It  was  made  with  great  skill  by  the 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  ;  and  in  Roman  times  it  was 
very  largely  used  for  glass  gems,  in  order  to  meet  the  taste  of 
the  poorer  classes.  "  Glass  gems  from  the  rings  of  the 
multitude,"  Pliny  calls  them.  "  Through  these  ingenious 
multiplications,  which  afforded  almost  the  full  enjoyment  of  all 
the  artistic  merit  of  the  originals,  the  poorest  were  enabled  to 
gratify  both  taste  and  vanity  at  a  very  trifling  outlay."  We 
read  in  Martial  of  "  the  well-dissembled  emerald  "  on  the  finger 
of  a  dandy  who,  after  asking  the  price  of  all  the  most  expen- 
sive articles  in  a  jeweller's  shop,  was  glad  to  sell  his  ring  for 
two  shillings  to  get  himself  a  dinner.  In  most  cases  antique 
pastes  were  no  doubt  innocently  manufactured  as  cheap  substi- 
tutes for  the  use  of  the  poorer  classes  ;  but  Pliny  speaks  also 
of  imitations  by  lying  glass,  and  says  that  he  refrains  from 
divulging  the  secrets  known  to  him  for  fear  of  propagating  this 
fraud — thus  showing  that  forged  gems  were  rife  in  his  time. 
It  may  be  added  that  ancient  pastes  are  in  turn  themselves 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


653 


forged,  and  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  genuine 
antique  pastes  from  imitations. 

The  ordinary  method  of  making  a  paste  intaglio  was 
simple  : — 

"  A  mould  was  made  from  an  engraved  gem  by  pressing  it  against  a 
mixture  of  clay  which  had  been  ground  in  a  mortar,  together  with  a 
large  proportion  of  finely  powdered  pottery,  till  it  was  a  perfectly 
smooth,  plastic,  and  homogeneous  mass.  The  clay  mould,  with  the 
impression  of  the  original  intaglio  in  relief,  was  very  carefully  baked 
in  a  potter's  kiln,  and  then  a  red-hot  lump  of  the  glass  or  paste,  in  a 
soft  pasty  state,  was  gently  pressed  upon  the  mould  till  it  received  the 
complete  imprint  of  the  original  gem.  If  done  carefully,  by  a  skilful 
glass-worker,  the  result  was  almost  an  exact  facsimile  of  the  original 
intaglio.  .  .  .  The  material  of  which  pastes  were  composed  was  a 
pure,  hard  glass,  without  any  admixture  of  lead — what  is  now  called 
'flint  glass.'  The  chief  pigments  used  to  colour  them  were  various 
metallic  oxides  and  salts"  (Middleton's  Ancient  Gems,  pp.  115,  153). 

Clay  moulds  for  making  paste  gems  have  been  discovered. 
When  the  paste  had  cooled,  its  ragged  edges  were  cut  smooth 
and  polished.  In  our  collection  there  is  a  large  colourless 
paste,  with  a  head  of  Aristippus,  which  has  not  been  thus 
finished  off ;  its  ragged  border  is  just  as  it  came  from  the 
mould  {B.M.C.  518).  The  colours  o£  ancient  pastes  are, 
as  will  be  seen,  often  very  magnificent.  -They  are  sometimes 
bought  by  Italian  jewellers,  Mr.  Middleton  tells  us,  to  sell, 
when  cut  in  facets,  as  real  gems.  Our  examples  (obtained 
mostly  from  the  Townley  collection)  include  some  of  the  largest 
and  finest  of  their  kind.  The  sharpness  of  impression  and 
splendour  of  colour  frequently  give  them  real  artistic  merit. 

The  modern  pastes,  here  exhibited,  are  inferior  in  these 
respects  to  the  ancient.  They  are  also  much  softer.  The 
quality  of  hardness  is  one  of  the  tests  by  which  a  paste  may  be 
known  from  a  stone  ;  and  similarly  "  a  fragment  of  an  antique 
paste  will  scratch  a  modern  one  as  easily  as  rock  crystal  will 
scratch  flint  glass."  James  Tassie  (173 5-1 799),  the  maker  of 
the  pastes  here  shown,  was  the  best  modern  imitator  of  antique 
gems;  he  imitated  in  all  more  than  16,000  pieces  (catalogue 
by  R.  E.  Raspe).  "He  sold  intaglios  from  is.  6d.  to  2s.  6d., 
and  cameos  from  10s.  6d.  to  42s.,  and  these  pastes,  unless 
exceptionally  fine,  can  be  bought  now  for  much  the  same 
price.  His  colours  were  very  like  those  used  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  the  blues  especially  being  almost  identical,  but  his 


654 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


reds  are  much  more  brilliant ;  his  glass  is  usually  beautiful 
transparent"  (C.  Davenport's  Cameos,  p.  27). 

THE   PORTLAND  VASE 
{Above  Table-case  T) 

We  now  turn  to  a  production  which  may  be  called  a  paste- 
cameo  on  a  large  scale.  The  "  Portland  "  vase  of  dark-blue 
glass,  with  cameo -like  designs  in  white,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  objects  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  remarkable 
as  a  fine  specimen  of  a  rare  art,  for  its  own  intrinsic  beauty, 
and  also  for  its  eventful  history.  It  is  the  finest  specimen 
extant  of  what  is  called  "  cameo  glass."  "  In  this  process  a 
bubble  of  opaque  white  glass  was  formed  at  the  end  of  the  tube 
used  by  the  glass-blower  •  this  was  coated  with  transparent 
blue  glass,  and  that  again  with  opaque  white,  and  the  vessel 
was  formed  from  this  threefold  globe.  The  outer  coat  was 
then  removed  from  that  portion  which  was  to  constitute  the 
ground,  leaving  the  white  for  the  figures  and  other  orna- 
mentations ;  these  were  then  sculptured  by  means  of  the 
gem-engraver's  tools."  The  process  is  referred  to  by  Pliny 
(xxxv.  26,  66).  But  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  carving  in 
glass  and  the  brittle  nature  of  the  material,  which  might  at  any 
moment  break  in  the  hands  of  the  artist,  works  of  this  kind 
are  of  great  rarity. 

The  delicacy  of  workmanship  in  the  vase  before  us  is 
most  remarkable.  Its  66  points"  in  this  respect  are  well  ex- 
plained by  Josiah  Wedgwood,  the  famous  English  potter,  one 
of  whose  principal  works  was  an  accurate  copy  in  clay  of  this 
glass  vase  : — 

"  It  is  apparent  (wrote  Wedgwood  to  Sir  William  Hamilton)  that 
the  artist  has  availed  himself  very  ably  of  the  dark  ground  in  producing 
the  perspective  and  distance  required,  by  cutting  the  white  away  nearer 
to  the  ground  as  the  shades  were  wanted  deeper,  so  that  the  white  is 
often  cut  to  the  thinness  of  paper,  and,  in  some  instances,  quite  away, 
and  the  ground  itself  makes  a  part  of  the  bas-relief ;  by  which  means 
he  has  given  to  his  work  the  effect  of  painting  as  well  as  sculpture  ; 
and  it  will  be  found  that  a  bas-relief,  with  all  the  figures  of  a  uniform 
white  colour  upon  a  dark  ground,  will  be  a  very  faint  resemblance  of 
what  this  artist  has  had  the  address  to  produce  by  calling  in  the  aid 
of  colour  to  assist  his  relief.  That  hollowness  of  the  rocks,  and  depth 
of  shade  in  other  parts,  produced  by  cutting  down  to  the  dark  ground, 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


655 


and  to  which  it  owes  no  small  part  of  its  beauty,  would  all  be  wanting, 
and  a  disgusting  flatness  appear  in  their  stead.  It  is  here  that  I  am 
most  sensible  of  my  weakness,  and  that  I  must  of  necessity  call  in  the 
engraver  to  my  assistance,  in  order  to  produce  the  highest  finished 
and  closest  copies  we  are  capable  of  making.  But  in  this  resource 
difficulties  arise,  and  I  fear  insurmountable  ones  ;  for  how  few  artists 
have  we  in  this  branch  whose  touches  would  not  carry  ruin  with  them 
to  these  beautiful  and  high  wrought  figures  !  And  suppose  one  or 
two  could  be  found  equal  to  the  task,  would  such  artists  be  persuaded 
to  quit  a  lucrative  branch  of  their  profession,  and  devote  half  a  life  to  a 
single  work  for  which  there  is  little  probability  of  their  being  paid  half 
so  much  as  they  earn  by  their  present  employment,  for  I  do  not  think 
^5000  for  the  execution  of  such  a  vase,  supposing  our  best  artists 
capable  of  the  work,  would  be  at  all  equal  to  their  gains  from  the 
work  they  are  now  employed  in  "  (Eliza  Meteyard's  Life  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood^  ii.  578). 

It  is  in  the  delicacy  of  the  cameo-like  work,  rather  than  in 
the  shape  of  the  vase  itself,  that  its  beauty  consists  : — 

"  I  suppose  it  is  admitted  (continues  Wedgwood)  that  the  form  of 
the  vase  is  not  so  elegant  as  it  might  be  made  if  the  artist  had  not 
been  possessed  of  some  very  good  reason  for  contenting  himself  with 
the  present  form.  Either,  perhaps,  that  he  would  engage  the  un- 
divided attention  of  the  spectator  to  his  sculpture — the  vase  itself 
being  the  production  of  an  inferior  artist,  the  Verrier  ;  or  because  the 
material  made  use-  of  under  the  circumstances  necessary  for  the  dis- 
play of  his  art — that  is,  the  body  being  made  of  one  colour,  and  the 
surface  covered  over  to  a  due  thickness  with  another,  was  not  capable 
of  taking  a  form  with  those  delicate  parts  on  which  its  beauty  as  a 
simple  vase  would  in  a  great  measure  depend,  and  which  might  be  given 
to  a  vessel  of  any  metal  or  more  manageable  materials"  (ibid.  p.  579). 

The  subjects  of  the  figures  have  been  much  discussed,  and 
the  interpretation  is  still  doubtful.  On  one  side  is  a  woman, 
seated ;  she  is  approached  by  a  lover,  who  is  led  on  by  Cupid. 
This  group  is  supposed  to  represent  Thetis  consenting  to  be 
the  bride  of  Peleus  in  the  presence  of  Poseidon — a  subject 
which,  somewhat  differently  treated,  we  have  seen  on  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  Greek  painted  vases  (E  424,  p.  361). 
The  group  on  the  other  side  is  supposed  to  represent  Peleus 
watching  his  bride  Thetis  asleep,  while  the  goddess  of  love 
presides  over  the  scene.  The  inverted  torch  held  by  Thetis 
is  the  symbol  of  sleep.  On  the  bottom  of  the  vase,  which  is 
detached,  is  a  bust  of  Paris  wearing  a  Phrygian  cap.  This 
bas-relief  had  belonged  originally  to  some  other  vase  or  frag- 
ment, and  had  been  ground  down  and  inserted  on  our  vase. 


656 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


The  history  of  this  "  Portland "  or  "  Barberini  "  Vase  is 
remarkable.  It  was  discovered  during  the  pontificate  of 
Urban  VII.  (Cardinal  Barberini),  1 623-1 644  A.D.,  enclosed  in 
a  marble  sarcophagus  (now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Capitol) 
in  the  Monte  del  Grano,  about  three  miles  from  Rome, 
on  the  road  to  Tusculum.  This  has  been  supposed  to  be 
the  sarcophagus  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  Severus,  and 
his  mother  Julia  Mammaea,  who  were  both  killed  in 
the  year  235  A.D.,  and  to  that  period  it  almost  certainly 
belongs.  The  date  of  the  Portland  Vase,  however,  is 
unquestionably  earlier.  The  "  Vase  des  Vendanges  "  in  the 
Naples  Museum,  which  is  of  similar  workmanship,  was  en- 
tombed in  Pompeii  in  79  A.D.  ;  to  about  that  time,  or  a  little 
earlier,  must  be  assigned  the  production  of  the  finest  glass 
work  ever  accomplished.  For  many  years  after  its  discovery 
our  vase  was  a  conspicuous  ornament  of  the  Barberini  Palace 
at  Rome.  In  1770  it  was  bought  by  a  connoisseur,  to  whose 
taste  the  British  Museum  owes  so  many  of  its  treasures,  Sir 
William  Hamilton.  When,  in  December  1784,  he  paid  one 
of  his  visits  to  England,  the  vase  came  with  him  ;  its  fame 
had  preceded  him,  and  had  already  excited  the  desires  of 
many  virtuosi.  Among  these  was  the  Dowager  Duchess  of 
Portland,  whose  passion  for  increasing  her  museum  amounted 
almost  to  monomania.  She  at  once  began  to  lay  siege  to  the 
vase,  approaching  a  niece  of  Sir  William  Hamilton  in  the 
matter.  The  two  ladies  transacted  the  business  in  the  most 
secret  manner  by  whispers,  signs,  and  confabulations,  with  an 
air  of  mystery  and  solemnity  greater  than  the  ambassador 
would  have  thought  necessary  in  concluding  a  secret  treaty 
(see  Autobiography  of  Mrs.  Delany,  ii.  191,  199,  etc.). 
At  last  Sir  William  Hamilton  consented  to  sell  the  vase  for 
the  sum  of  1800  guineas.  "  I  hear,"  wrote  Horace  Walpole, 
"  that  Sir  William  Hamilton's  renowned  vase,  which  had 
disappeared  with  so  much  mystery,  is  again  recovered;  not  in 
the  tomb,  but  in  the  treasury  of  the  Duchess  of  Portland,  in 
which,  I  fancy,  it  had  made  ample  room  for  itself."  The 
Duchess,  however,  only  lived  to  enjoy  her  treasure  for  a  few 
weeks.  At  the  sale  of  her  collections  in  June  1786,  the  vase 
was  bought  in  by  the  Duke  of  Portland  for  ^1029.  In  18  10 
it  was  lent  by  the  third  Duke  for  exhibition  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  it  has  remained  ever  since,  on  loan  from 
successive  holders  of  the  title. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


657 


On  February  7,  1845,  ^is  unique  treasure  was  maliciously 
broken  by  a  visitor  to  the  Museum.  The  culprit,  who  was 
described  as  a  theatrical  scene-painter,  threw  a  stone  at  the  vase, 
which,  with  the  glass  case  containing  it,  was  shattered  to  atoms. 
The  man  was  at  once  arrested  and  was  charged  at  Bow  Street 
Police  Court  four  days  later.  He  said  that  he  had  been  drinking 
heavily,  that  he  was  "  suffering  from  a  kind  of  nervous  excite- 
ment," and  that  "  whatever  punishment  might  be  inflicted  on 
him,  he  would  have  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  that  it  had  been 
richly  deserved."  Curiously  enough,  it  was  necessary,  owing 
to  an  ambiguity  in  the  existing  law,  to  charge  the  miscreant 
with  the  destruction  not  of  the  priceless  vase,  but  of  "  a  certain 
glass  case,  value  £3"  He  was  sentenced  to  two  months' 
imprisonment.  This  one  act  of  wanton  violence  in  1845  ls>  I 
believe,  the  only  instance  of  serious  injury,  arising  from  open 
exhibition  to  all  comers,  which  the  annals  of  the  Museum  re- 
cord. The  vase  was  thus  broken  into  one  hundred  pieces. 
It  was,  however,  so  skilfully  joined  together  by  a  craftsman  in 
the  service  of  the  Museum  that  the  beauty  of  its  design  and 
execution  may  still  be  appreciated  almost  as  well  as  when  it 
was  intact.  The  base  was  not  replaced  ;  it  is  shown  separately. 
A  water-colour  drawing,  showing  the  fragments  to  which  the 
vase  was  reduced,  is  exhibited  in  this  room.  This  accident  to 
the  vase  lent  additional  interest  to  the  copies  which,  as  already 
related,  were  made  before  its  fracture.  In  the  Glass  Room  of 
the  Museum  (Case  64)  may  be  seen  a  plaster  cast,  and  an 
early  copy  in  Wedgwood's  Jasper  Ware.  Wedgwood  took 
an  infinity  of  trouble  in  the  matter,  and  it  was  three  years 
before  a  satisfactory  result  was  obtained.  In  studying  the 
vase  closely,  he  discovered,  by  the  way,  that  it  had  been 
previously  broken  and  repaired.  Wedgwood's  copy  was 
regarded  as  a  great  triumph  of  his  art,  and  the  first  speci- 
men was  exhibited  as  a  proof  of  his  skill  at  many  foreign 
courts.  The  copies  first  issued,  at  the  price  of  £50,  were  all 
finished  by  hand  work,  and  examples  are  now  of  great  scarcity. 
The  subsequent  copies,  cast  from  moulds,  are  of  no  special 
value. 

Immediately  below  the  Portland  Vase  is  a  graceful  gold 
vase  of  the  Roman  period,  which  was  dredged  up  off  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor.  An  inscription  on  the  foot  gives  its  weight  as 
two  pounds  and  half  an  ounce. 

Costly  cups  were  much  admired  by  the  wealthy  connoisseurs 
2  u 


658 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


of  Imperial  Rome  ;  and  we  may  here  notice  two  other  remark- 
able examples  in  this  sort  which  the  Museum  is  fortunate  in 
possessing.  Of  similar  workmanship  to  the  Portland  Vase 
is  the  "Auldjo"  Vase  in  the  Glass  Room  (Case  C),  which 
also  has  been  broken,  though  not  wantonly.  It  was  found  at 
Pompeii,  in  the  House  of  the  Faun.  Some  fragments  were 
bequeathed  by  Miss  Auldjo  in  1859  ;  others  were  subsequently 
acquired,  and  the  vase  has  now  been  cleverly  restored.  It  is 
ornamented  with  a  beautiful  spray  of  vine,  bearing  grapes,  a 
motive  very  appropriate  to  a  drinking -cup  or  decanter.  The 
same  motive  appears  on  another  of  the  treasures  of  the 
Museum — the  "  Rothschild  Vase"  of  mottled  agate  in  the 
Waddesdon  Room  : — 

The  body  is  an  example  of  ancient  Roman  cameo  work,  while  the 
mounts  are  in  the  most  elaborate  style  of  the  Italian  Renaissance, 
and  the  whole  is  in  the  most  perfect  state  of  preservation.  The  skill 
of  the  Roman  lapidary  was  fully  equal  to  that  of  his  later  collaborator, 
though  the  nature  of  his  material  exacted  a  broader  treatment.  It  is 
somewhat  rare  to  find  an  ancient  vase  of  hard  stone  so  symmetrical 
and  graceful  in  outline,  and  it  is  probably  this  quality  that  led  the  gold- 
smith of  the  Renaissance  to  bestow  his  skill  upon  it.  The  body  is 
formed  of  a  single  piece  of  honey-coloured  stone  of  great  beauty,  hol- 
lowed, with  handles  carved  in  the  form  of  heads  of  Pan,  while  the 
surface  has  vine  branches  and  grapes  in  relief.  The  enamelled  decora- 
tion of  the  gold  mounts  is  of  unusual  richness,  and  in  a  wonderful 
state  of  preservation.  The  enamel  is  partly  encrusted  and  partly 
translucent,  the  latter  being  used  to  fill  engraved  designs.  The 
designs  on  the  mounts  cany  out  the  Bacchanalian  ideas  suggested  by 
the  vine  of  the  vase  itself — figures  of  satyrs,  Bacchus,  grapes,  and 
rams'  heads  {Guide  to  the  Waddesdon  Bequest,  No.  68;  Davenport's 
Cameos,  p,  43,  where  a  coloured  picture  of  the  vase  is  given). 

This  vase,  the  most  beautiful  known  specimen  of  its  kind, 
belonged  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  was  in  1897  ex- 
hibited by  him  with  four  other  cups  (Xos.  69-72)  at  the 
Burlington  Fine  Arts  Club.  "  They  had  emerged  from  a 
cabinet  at  Devonshire  House,  where  nobody  took  much 
notice  of  them.  An  agent  of  Baron  Ferdinand  de  Rothschild's 
approached  the  owner  and,  much  to  his  amazement,  offered 
him  the  irresistible  price  of  ^25,000  for  the  five  pieces.  The 
curious  thing  is  that  if  they  we're  put  up  to  auction  they  would 
certainly  bring  the  same  figure  again,  so  numerous  are  modern 
millionaires  and  so  eager  to  obtain  anything  that  reaches 
the  necessary  standard  of  rarity,  beauty,  and  workmanship " 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


659 


(Times,  April  9,  1900).  The  early  history  of  the  vase  is 
unknown.  "  It  may  date,"  says  the  same  writer,  "  from  the 
age  of  Domitian  or  Hadrian,  and  have  been  made  by  Greek 
workmen  for  some  amateur  like  Martial's  Instantius  Rufus, 
the  owner  of  the  phiala,  which  the  poet  describes  in  the  most 
famous  of  his  epigrams." 

RENAISSANCE  AND  MODERN  GEMS,  Etc. 

{Arranged  in  Table-case  W) 

We  now  turn  from  antique  gems  to  those  of  later  times. 
Together  with  this  portion  of  the  collection  of  gems  there  are 
exhibited  various  objects  of  Mediaeval  Renaissance  and  modern 
jewellery — objects  in  all  cases  precious  in  themselves  (for  cost- 
liness of  material,  or  artistic  merit,  or  both),  and  often  of  great 
historical  interest.  On  the  revival  of  the  art  of  making  en- 
graved gems,  Vasari  has  some  interesting  remarks  : — 

"  Since  the  art  of  engraving  oriental  stones  and  of  cutting  cameos  was 
carried  to  such  perfection  by  the  Greeks,  whose  works  in  that  manner 
may  be  called  divine,  I  should  consider  myself  to  commit  no  slight 
error  if  I  were  to  pass  over  in  silence  the  men  who,  in  our  own  times, 
have  imitated  those  admirable  artists,  although  there  has  been  none 
among  the  moderns,  as  it  is  said,  who,  in  this  present  and  fortunate 
age,  have  surpassed  the  ancients  in  delicacy  and  beauty  of  design.  .  .  . 
Many  years  passed  over  during  which  the  art  was  lost,  no  one  occupy- 
ing himself  therewith,  or  if  at  times  anything  was  done,  it  was  not  in 
a  manner  which  renders  the  result  worthy  to  be  taken  into  account ; 
and,  so  far  as  is  known,  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Pope  Martin  V. 
and  Pope  Paul  II.  that  any  one  was  found  who  began  to  do  well  in 
this  matter  ;  but  after  that  period  there  was  a  gradual  progress  down 
to  the  time  of  the  magnificent  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  who  took  much 
pleasure  in  the  engravings  of  antique  cameos,  and  between  himself  and 
his  son  Piero  a  large  number  was  collected.  .  .  .  They  then  resolved 
to  attempt  the  establishment  of  this  art  in  their  city,  and  to  that  end 
they  invited  masters  from  divers  countries,  when  these  men  not  only 
restored  the  stones  which  Lorenzo  or  Piero  then  possessed,  but  executed 
many  other  beautiful  works  of  the  kind.  .  .  .  The  labours  of  these 
masters  brought  that  very  difficult  art  to  such  a  state  that  Giovanni  da 
Castel  Bolognese,  Valerio  Vicentino,  Matteo  dal  Nassaro,  and  others 
have  been  enabled  to  produce  the  admirable  works  of  which  we  will 
now  proceed  to  record  the  memorial "  {Lives  of  the  Painters^  Bonn's 
edition,  1874,  iii.  469). 

What  Vasari  says  of  Valerio  Vicentino  may  be  applied  to 
the  gem-engravers  of  the  modern  time  generally  :  "  Had  nature 


66o 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


imparted  to  him  as  much  power  in  design  as  she  gave  him 
patience,  care  and  rapidity  in  carving,  and  diligence  in  bring- 
ing his  works  in  completion,  he  would  not  only  have  equalled 
the  ancients,  which  he  did,  but  would  have  very  greatly  sur- 
passed them.55 

We  begin  our  inspection  with  the  Table-case  W,  Compart- 
ment 15.  Here  we  find  five  large  intaglios,  of  the  School  of 
Valerio  (died  1546),  "with  the  usual  flat  treatment  of  that 
school,  compositions  crowded  with  figures  in  violent  action.55 
These  come  from  the  Carlisle  collection.  Here  also  are  several 
vessels  of  rock-crystal,  much  in  favour  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  so-called  "  Cellini  cup55  is  a  German  work  of  that  period. 

The  cameos  in  the  next  compartment  (16)  are  of  various 
interest.  Some  are  set  in  very  graceful  mounts,  enriched 
with  enamels  and  precious  stones  ;  some  are  cut  on  shells — a 
material  which  gives  a  pleasant  softness  of  colour,  but  lacks 
the  hard  durability  of  the  onyx  ;  others  are  used  as  the  lids  of 
snuff-boxes.  There  are  also  some  fine  intaglios  here,  notably 
that  of  a  Caesar  engraved  on  an  amethyst,  set  in  a  French 
mount  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Among  the  jewels  and  relics  of  historical  interest  we  may 
notice  :  a  pattern  five-broad  piece  of  Charles  I.,  usually  known 
as  the  "  Juxon  medal,"  said  to  have  been  presented  by 
Charles  I.  to  Bishop  Juxon  on  the  scaffold  : — 

"  Since  the  coin  was  sold  in  public  (at  the  Montagu  sale  for  £700) 
some  further  interesting  facts  have  been  ascertained  connecting  it  with 
Archbishop  Juxon,  from  whom  it  descended  to  his  great-great-niece, 
Miss  Henrietta  Gythens  of  Gloucester,  who  in  her  will,  dated  1 751, 
states  that  it  was  'given  by  King  Charles  I.  on  the  scaffold  to  my 
great-great-uncle,  Archbishop  Juxon.'  Miss  Gythens  bequeathed  the 
coin  to  the  Rev.  James  Commeline,  vicar  of  Haresfield,  Gloucester- 
shire, and  from  him  it  descended  to  his  grandson,  who,  in  1835,  sold 
it  to  Lieut. -Colonel  John  Drummond.  Since  that  time  it  has  passed 
through  several  well-known  collections,  and  finally  was  purchased 
by  Mr.  Montagu  "  {Athencemn). 

A  book  of  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer  in  English,  made 
by  the  Lady  Elizabeth  Tirwitt,  1574,  in  enamelled  gold  cover, 
on  which  are  the  Brazen  Serpent  and  the  Judgment  of  Solomon. 
This  belonged  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  Gold  signet-rings  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  ;  a  watch,  said  to  have  belonged  to  Oliver 
Cromwell ;  a  gold  watch  and  snuff-box  of  Gibbon  the  his- 
torian ;  two  snuff-boxes  presented  by  Napoleon  to  Lady 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


661 


Holland  and  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Darner.  "  The  former  was  pre- 
sented by  Pius  VII.  to  Napoleon  upon  the  occasion  of  the 
Treaty  of  Tolentino.  The  lid  is  set  with  an  excellent  antique 
cameo  on  a  sardonyx  of  many  strata ;  the  subject,  in  flat  relief, 
is  a  young  Faun  riding  upon  a  goat,  well  drawn  and  minutely 
finished.  This  precious  antique  was,  doubtless,  chosen  by  the 
tasteful  Pontiff  to  grace  his  offering  as  really  surpassing  in 
value  the  diamonds  that  usually  adorn  such  testimonies  of 
regard"  (King's  Handbook,  p.  162).  The  other  snuff-box  was 
given  to  Mrs.  Darner  as  a  "  souvenir  "  in  consequence  of  her 
having  presented  the  Emperor  with  a  bust  of  Mr.  Fox  executed 
in  marble  by  herself.  The  bust  had  been  promised  at  the 
Peace  of  Amiens,  was  finished  in  1812  and  sent  to  France, 
where  it  remained,  but  was  not  presented  till  May  1,  1815, 
when  Mrs.  Darner  had  an  audience  for  that  purpose  at  the 
Elysee.  The  history  of  this  relic  is  told  in  an  inscription  on 
the  lid  of  the  gold  box. 

A  Buddhist  relic  casket  in  gold  (presented  by  the  India 
Office,  1900)  is  an  object  of  the  highest  interest  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  Indian  art,  and  illustrates  the  wide  diffusion 
of  Greek  influence  : — 

It  was  found  by  Mr.  Masson  in  one  of  the  Buddhist  topes  built  on 
the  sandstone  slopes  which  stretch  away  westward  from  Jellalabad  in 
the  Cabul  valley  towards  the  Lughman  hills.  It  was  found  in  a  vase, 
and  the  casket  itself  was  filled  with  burnt  pearls  and  fragments  of 
precious  stones.  By  some  coins  found  beside  it,  Professor  Wilson 
{Ariana  Antiqua,  p.  71)  fixed  the  date  of  the  relic  to  the  dynasty  of 
Graeco-barbaric  kings  who  ruled  in  this  part  of  India  about  50  B.C. 
"The  upper  and  lower  rims  of  the  casket  are  studded  with  rubies,  and 
the  whole  is  executed  in  the  finest  style  of  beaten  goldsmith's  work. 
Like  all  the  Buddhistic  remains  found  in  the  Panjab  and  Afghanistan, 
it  is  strikingly  Byzantine  in  its  general  character  ;  and  the  storks  or 
cranes  with  outstretched  wings  in  the  spaces  between  the  arches  in 
which  the  apostle-like  figures  are  niched,  recall  at  once  the  figures  of 
angels  carved  in  the  spaces  between  the  arches  in  Christian  churches. 
The  peaked  arches  resemble  Venetian  Gothic.  But  the  date  of  this 
casket  shows  that  its  European  character  must  have  been  due  to  the 
Greek  influence,  which  came  in  the  wake  of  Alexander's  invasion.  It 
was  probably  executed  by  an  Indian  v/orkman  from  Greek  designs  or 
models  "  (Sir  George  Birdwood's  Industrial  Arts  of  India,  i.  144-47). 
"  The  exterior  of  the  casket  is  embellished  with  eight  figures,  or  two 
sets  of  four  figures  repeated,  evidently  intended  for  Gautama  in  the  act 
of  teaching,  and  having  on  his  right  a  reli  gious,  and  on  his  left  a 
lay,  follower  ;  the  fourth  figure  is  a  female  disciple  "  {Magazine  of  Art, 
1900,  p.  561). 


662 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


The  tope,  it  may  be  mentioned,  is  a  shrine  peculiar  to  the 
Buddhist  religion  ;  those  who  wish  to  obtain  some  idea  of  the 
sculptures  which  adorned  such  shrines  need  only  pause  upon 
the  principal  staircase  of  the  Museum  ;  for  there,  arranged  on 
the  walls,  are  some  of  the  sculptures  from  the  great  Buddhist 
tope  at  Amaravati,  chiefly  collected  by  Sir  Walter  Elliot, 
and  presented  by  the  India  Office  several  years  ago.  The 
relic-caskets,  such  as  the  one  before  us,  were  the  holy  of  holies 
of  the  shrines.  "  The  relics  generally  found  in  Afghanistan  are 
mostly  discovered,"  says  Mr.  Masson,  "  in  small  recesses  or 
apartments  in  the  centres  of  the  buildings,  enclosed  in  caskets. 
These  vessels  usually  contain  smaller  cylindrical  cases  of  gold 
or  silver,  often  of  both,  distinct  or  enclosed  one  within  the 
other.  In  one  of  these  will  generally  be  found  a  fragment 
or  two  of  bone,  and  these  appear  to  have  been  the  essential 
relics  over  which  the  monuments  were  raised." 

On  the  top  of  these  cases  stands  a  most  valuable  and  inter- 
esting Reliquary  of  Christian  origin.  This  had  for  some  time 
been  lent  to  the  Museum  by  Mr.  George  Salting,  who,  in 
1902,  presented  it  to  the  nation.  Relics  of  the  Passion  of  our 
Lord  and  of  the  saints  formed,  as  is  well  known,  part  of  the 
recognised  commerce  of  mediaeval  Christendom.  The  most 
sainted  kings  encouraged  it ;  and,  when  a  holy  relic  was  ob- 
tained, all  the  resources  of  the  art  of  the  time  were  employed  to 
give  it  a  worthy  setting.  The  reliquary  before  us  resembles 
a  small  oval  locket.  The  sides  are  of  amethyst  set  in  gold. 
Between  them  is  an  oval  box  with  a  lid.  In  a  narrow  central 
compartment  this  box  contains  what  purports  to  be  a  spine 
from  the  Crown  of  Thorns.  The  sides  of  the  box  and  the 
inner  sides  of  the  locket  are  enriched  with  scenes  from  the 
Passion,  in  translucent  enamel  (see  below,  p.  664).  This 
reliquary  is  stated  to  have  been  given  by  St.  Louis  (who 
bought  the  alleged  Crown  of  Thorns  from  the  Venetians)  to  a 
king  of  Aragon  :  but  the  style  of  the  work  is  believed  to  be  half 
a  century  later  than  the  time  of  St.  Louis,  who  died  in  1270. 

A  vervel  in  gold  of  the  time  of  Henry  IV.  (1399-14 13)  is 
curious.  The  vervel  was  a  ring  fastened  to  a  hawk,  as  in 
Colonel  Lovelace's  poem,  The  Falcon  : — 

Free,  beauteous  slave,  thy  happy  feet 
In  silver  fetters,  vervails  meet, 
And  trample  on  that  noble  wrist. 
The  gods  have  knelt  in  vain  to  kiss. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


663 


Our  specimen  was  found  near  Biggleswade,  about  1795. 

A  celebrated  cameo  of  unusual  excellence  and  interest  (from 
the  Carlisle  collection)  is  to  be  seen  in  the  next  compart- 
ment (17)  : — 

An  oval  cameo  in  a  sardonyx  of  three  layers  ;  a  composition  of  nine 
figures  of  excellent  design.  The  subject,  Noah  and  his  Family  about 
to  enter  the  ark,  the  foreground  filled  with  the  various  animals  that 
accompanied  them.  Noah,  in  full  robes,  an  angel  hovering  over  his 
head,  holds  open  one  of  the  folding-doors  of  the  ark,  resembling  a 
mediaeval  shrine.  Noah's  sons  and  the  four  wives  are  artistically 
grouped  upon  the  other  side.  On  the  doors  of  the  ark  is  inscribed, 
"LAUR.  MED.,"  showing  that  the  gem  was  made  for,  or  belonged 
to,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  It  is  probably  the  work  of  one  of  the  Italian 
artists  of  the  quattro-cento  period,  possibly  Domenico  de'  Camei  (for 
whom  see  Vasari,  iii.  468).  King  suggests  Pollaluolo,  but  there  is 
much  to  remind  one  of  the  earlier  Niccola  Pisano  (King's  Handbook  of 
Engraved  Gems,  p.  52  ;  A.  W.  Franks  in  British  Museum  Return, 
1890-91,  p.  79). 

There  is  also  here  a  notable  intaglio  (from  the  Carlisle 
collection),  on  a  sard,  with  a  battle  between  Greeks  and 
Trojans.  The  work  is  ascribed  to  Matteo  del  Nassaro,  who 
was  for  some  time  in  the  service  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  and 
of  whom  Vasari  has  left  us  a  very  interesting  account  (iii.  473- 
476).  The  sard  has  been  broken,  and  the  fractures  have  been 
ingeniously  strengthened  and  concealed  on  the  back  by  an 
elegant  monogram  in  enamelled  gold  of  K.B.,  possibly 
Katherine,  Duchess  of  Buckingham,  daughter  of  James  II. 
Among  other  gems  we  may  notice  a  sardonyx  cameo  of  Diana 
of  the  Ephesians  ;  a  bloodstone  intaglio  with  a  hunting  scene 
(showing  a  large  amount  of  blank  "  field, v  a  characteristic  of 
Renaissance  work  ;  see  above,  p.  645)  and  a  fine  cameo  head 
of  Medusa.    This  is 

44  exquisitely  carved  by  a  clever  hand  of  the  last  century  out  of  one 
large  and  perfect  Peruvian  emerald.  So  beautiful  a  work  has  obtained 
a  setting  of  equal  merit  in  its  way,  being  mounted  with  true  Parisian 
taste  in  an  enchdssure  of  the  most  appropriate  character  that  could 
be  imagined.  Numerous  serpents  in  enamelled  gold  continuously 
entwining  produce  a  broad  open-work  frame  that  much  augments  the 
effect  of  the  Gorgon  in  their  midst.  The  brooch  was  presented  by  the 
late  Due  de  Blacas  to  his  daughter,  who  was  unfortunate  enough  to  lose 
possession  of  the  gift,  in  consequence  of  its  having  remained  in  the 
cabinet  at  the  time  the  gems  were  valued  for  sale"  (King  in  Arch.  J. 
xxiv.  34). 


664 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


Enamelled  gold  cup  of  the  Kings  of  England  and  of 
France. — Above  the  table-case  is  a  very  remarkable  cup  of 
fine  gold,  weighing  nearly  sixty-eight  ounces.  This  cup,  one 
of  the  gems  of  the  Gem  Room,  is  celebrated  alike  for  the  per- 
fection of  its  workmanship  and  for  its  long  historical  record. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  existing  specimens  of  the  process  known 
as  translucent  eiiamel  on  relief.  In  this  process  the  design  is 
chased  in  very  low  relief  on  the  metal,  and  is  then  covered 
with  powdered  enamels  of  various  colours.  Differences  of 
shade  are  obtained  by  the  varying  thickness  of  the  enamels  in 
different  parts  of  the  design.  The  details  are  produced  by  the 
work  beneath.  It  is  only  on  gold  that  the  fine  ruby  colour 
can  be  produced.  As  may  be  imagined,  the  process  of  fusing 
by  heat  requires  the  greatest  possible  care,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  colours  running  together.  On  the  cover  and  bowl  of  the 
drinking-cup  are  ten  subjects  from  the  martyrdom  of  Saint 
Agnes.  On  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  are  enamelled 
the  symbols  of  the  four  evangelists,  below  which  is  a 
coronal  of  leaves  and  pearls.  A  similar  ornament  that  sur- 
rounded the  cover  is  now  lost,  as  well  as  the  knop  (boss), 
which  was  originally  a  bunch  of  jewels,  and  later  an  arched 
crown.  The  stem  has  been  lengthened  by  the  insertion  of  a 
portion  with  enamelled  Tudor  roses,  over  the  upper  part  of 
which  has  been  placed  a  band  with  a  Latin  inscription.  The 
history  of  the  cup  is  believed  to  be  as  follows  : — 

"  It  was  probably  made  to  be  presented  to  Charles  V.  (the  Wise),  King 
of  France,  who  was  born  on  the  feast  of  St.  Agnes,  January  21,  1337, 
and  who  had  a  special  devotion  for  that  saint.  He  died  in  1380  ;  and 
in  1 39 1  the  cup  was  given  by  his  brother  Jean,  Due  de  Berry,  to  his 
nephew  Charles  VI.,  in  whose  possession  it  remained  at  any  rate  till 
1400,  as  shown  by  the  French  inventories.  From  Charles  VI.  it 
passed  to  his  grandson  Henry  VI.,  King  of  England,  who  certainly 
possessed  the  cup  in  1449-51,  when  it  was  included  in  schedules  of 
plate  to  be  pledged  for  loans. 

"  We  next  find  it  in  the  inventories  of  King  Henry  VIII.,  by  whom 
the  addition  to  the  stem  and  the  alteration  in  the  knop  were  probably 
made.  It  is  also  found  in  the  inventories  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  in 
documents  of  James  I.,  by  whom  the  cup,  with  a  large  quantity  of 
other  plate,  was  given  in  1604  to  Don  Juan  Velasco,  Ducque  de  Frias 
and  Constable  of  Castile,  when  he  came  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  peace 
between  England  and  Spain. 

[This  is  the  gift  recorded  in  the  inscription  : — 

Gaz^:  sacr^e  ex  anglia  reliquias,  pacis  inter  reges  fact^: 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


665 


MONUMENTUM,  CRATERA  AURO  SOLIDUM,  IOAN  VELASQ.  COMESTAB., 
INDE  R.  B.  G.  REG1ENS,  XPO  PACIFICATOR1  DD.] 

"The  Constable  gave  it  in  16 10  to  the  nunnery  of  Santa  Clara  de 
Medina  de  Pomar  near  Burgos  ;  and  a  few  years  since  the  abbess  sent 
it  to  Paris,  where  it  was  sold  to  the  well-known  collector,  Baron 
Pichon,  from  whom  it  was  purchased  by  Messrs.  Wertheimer  "  ( Guide 
to  the  Exhibition  Galleries^  1896,  p.  195). 

A  movement  was  set  on  foot  to  secure  so  famous  a  work  of 
art  for  the  British  Museum.  Messrs.  Wertheimer  ceded  it  for 
that  purpose  at  cost  price  (,£8000)  in  1892.  The  Treasury 
contributed  ^2830.  The  remainder  was  raised  by  sub- 
scriptions. The  principal  subscribers  were  the  Goldsmiths' 
Company,  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  the  Earl  of  Crawford, 
Lord  Savile,  Lord  Iveagh,  Mr.  C.  E.  Drury  Fortnum,  Sir  A. 
W.  Franks,  and  Mr.  S.  Wertheimer  (.£500  each). 

In  the  compartment  below  this  cup  (18)  are  jewels  from 
the  Castellani  collection  (purchased  in  1872),  including  a  fine 
necklace,  with  pearls  and  rubies,  of  Italian  seventeenth-century 
workmanship. 

Anglo-Saxon  and  other  gold  ornaments  occupy  the  next 
compartment  (19).  Of  the  Merovingian  jewellery  of  the  fifth 
century  and  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  a  later  date,  "  the 
characteristics  are  thin  plates  of  gold,  decorated  with  thin 
slabs  of  garnet,  set  in  walls  of  gold  soldered  vertically  like 
the  lines  of  cloisonne  enamel,  with  the  addition  of  very 
decorative  details  of  filigree  work,  beading  and  twisted  gold  JJ 
(Wallis).  The  Anglo-Saxon  patterns,  it  will  be  seen,  are 
largely  geometrical.  Thus  an  ornament,  found  near  Little 
Hampton  (Worcester)  together  with  a  skeleton  and  a  Saxon 
sword,  consists  of  elegant  pieces  of  gold  filigree  linked  together 
with  shorter  pieces,  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  figure  8.  In 
the  centre  of  the  circular  ornament  in  the  midst  is  a  garnet, 
from  which  proceed  eight  lines  forming  a  wheel  pattern  {Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries ,  2nd  ser.,  iii.  27).  On 
the  gold  piece,  found  near  Lancaster  with  coins  of  Canute,  a 
human  head  is  figured,  but  it  is  in  the  very  rudest  style  of 
workmanship  (ArchcEologia,  xviii.  pi.  17).  The  Anglo-Saxon 
jewellers  ultimately  attained  great  skill,  and  enjoyed  a 
European  reputation.  They  were  also  held  in  great  repute 
at  home,  as  we  may  tell  from  a  poem  in  the  collection  known 
as  the  Exeter  Book  : — "  For  one  a  wondrous  skill  in  gold- 
smith's art  is  provided,  full  oft  he  decorates  and  well  adorns 


666 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


a  powerful  king's  nobles,  and  he  to  him  gives  broad  land  in 
recompense." 

Here  also  is  the  gold  ring  of  Ethelwulf,  King  of  Wessex 
(836-858)  and  father  of  Alfred  the  Great : — 

"  This  precious  relic  of  antiquity  was  discovered  by  a  most  fortunate 
accident  during  the  summer  of  1780,  in  the  parish  of  Laverstock, 
Wilts,  not  far  from  Salisbury.  It  had  been  pressed  out  of  a  cart-rut 
in  a  field,  and  was  picked  up  by  a  labourer  who  sold  it  to  a  silver- 
smith in  Salisbury  for  34s.,  the  value  of  the  gold.  The  ring  bears 
some  resemblance  to  a  bishop's  mitre,  and  bears  the  legend  \  Ethelvvlf 
R(ex) '  which  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  ownership.  Above  this  is  a 
device,  filled  in  like  the  inscription,  with  niello,  representing  two 
peacocks  pecking  a  tree  ;  the  work  is  somewhat  rude,  but  is  evidently 
an  attempt  to  reproduce  a  piece  of  symbolism  common  on  early 
Christian  monuments"  {Catalogue  of  the  Alfred  the  Great  Millenary 
Exhibition ,  1901,  p.  13). 

Another  gold  finger -ring  consists  of  a  plain  hoop  with 
pearled  edges,  bearing  around  it  in  gold  letters  on  a  nielloed 
ground  an  inscription  recording  the  name  of  the  owner  Ethred, 
and  the  maker,  Eanred.  This  ring  was  found  in  Lancashire. 
Another  (found  near  Peterborough  in  the  river  Nene)  is 
peculiar  for  having  two  facets  (on  one,  interlaced  triangles  ; 
on  the  other,  flowing  curves).  The  ornaments  are  engraved 
and  inlaid  with  niello  (for  a  description  of  this  process,  see 
above,  p.  606).  Three  rings — of  gold,  agate,  and  bronze 
respectively — are  engraved  with  Runic  letters.  The  inscrip- 
tions are  supposed  to  be  charms,  and  it  has  been  suggested 
that  the  rings  were  used  to  hang  from  the  handles  of  swords. 
The  gold  ring  was  found  in  1 8 1 7  at  Kingmoor  near  Carlisle. 
Its  inscription  has  been  interpreted  as  "  Whether  in  fever  or 
leprosy  let  the  patient  be  happy  and  confident  in  the  hope  of 
recovery"  (see  Archceologia^  xxi.  25). 

Among  other  gold  ornaments  here  are  four  pieces  which 
show  enamelled  work,  and  more  or  less  resemble  the  famous 
"Alfred  Jewel"  (in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford).  One 
of  our  pieces  is  a  gold  medallion  with  a  half-figure  of  Christ 
having  a  cruciform  nimbus,  and  a  book  in  the  left  hand,  the 
right  hand  raised  in  the  act  of  benediction.  The  figure  is 
executed  in  cloisonne  work  (see,  for  this  process,  p.  748  n)  ; 
filled  with  translucent  enamels  of  various  colours.  A  gold 
brooch,  ornamented  with  filigree  and  set  with  pearls,  has 
medallions  of  translucent  enamel,  divided  by  lines  of  gold. 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


667 


Another  gold  brooch  (found  in  Southern  Italy)  is  decorated 
with  enamels  and  threaded  pearls.  In  the  centre  is  a 
medallion  with  a  bust,  in  a  very  rude  style.  The  fourth 
specimen  is  a  brooch  of  gold  filigree,  set  with  four  pearls,  and 
having  in  the  centre  a  medallion  (found  in  Thames  Street, 
London) : — 

6 6  The  bust  in  this  jewel  has  the  almost  grotesque  air  not  uncommonly 
seen  in  enamels  of  this  time  and  make.  The  head-dress  is  remarkable, 
and  has  been  thought,  with  good  reason,  to  be  a  crown,  surmounted  by 
three  globes  or  pearls  ;  from  the  crown,  near  the  ears,  proceed  two 
simple  scrolls,  while  the  dress  worn  by  the  figure  is  classical  in 
appearance,  and  seems  to  be  fastened  on  the  right  shoulder.  .  .  . 
There  is  as  much  difference  artistically  between  the  style  of  the  Alfred 
jewel  and  any  one  of  the  three  human  figures  now  shown  as  there  is 
among  the  latter  themselves.  These  differences  seem  to  accentuate 
the  difficulty  of  tracing  the  origin  of  this  enamelled  work.  It  may 
well  be  that  some  of  it  was  executed  in  this  country  by  the  craftsmen 
in  the  employ  of  King  Alfred  ;  but  it  may  fairly  be  assumed  that  on 
the  journeys  to  Rome  and  elsewhere,  undertaken  by  Ethelwulf,  Alfred, 
and  Ethelswitha,  they  and  their  suites  would  acquire  jewellery  of  this 
class,  which  must  have  been  comparatively  common  in  Rome,  and  in 
other  important  centres  at  that  time  "  {Catalogue  of  the  Alfred  the  Great 
Millenary  Exhibition ,  190 1,  Nos.  17-20). 

The  Renaissance  Gems  bought  from  the  Marlborough 
collection  are  in  the  next  compartment  (20).  They  are  of 
great  merit  as  gems,  and  are  also  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  the  setting  and  for  their  historical  interest.  One  is  a  double 
cameo,  with  a  head  of  Hercules  on  one  side  and  of  Omphale 
on  the  other.  Such  combinations  were  often  made  when  the 
thickness  of  the  stone  was  sufficient.  It  used  to  be  supposed 
that  the  head  of  Hercules  was  antique,  the  Omphale  being 
added  later.  More  probably,  however,  both  cameos  are  of 
the  Renaissance  period,  the  heads  being  portraits  of  contem- 
porary personages  in  those  characters.  The  gem  is  mounted 
in  a  broad  gold  plaque  edge,  set  with  diamonds  and  rubies 
arranged  alternately,  and  enriched  on  the  edge  with  a  twist  of 
vine  branches  and  leaves  in  black  enamel  on  gold.  It  has  the 
historical  interest  of  having  been  a  gift  to  the  Pope  Clement 
VII.  from  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
afterwards  given  by  the  Pope  to  the  Piccolomini  of  Siena.  It 
was  acquired  by  the  Earl  of  Bessborough  from  the  collection  of 
Medina  (a  Jew  of  Leghorn),  and  from  the  Earl  passed  to  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  (No.  309  ;  ,£483).    A  cameo  of  Lucius 


668 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


CHAP. 


Verus  is  mounted  in  a  very  beautiful  setting,  and  is  further 
remarkable  for  its  perfect  preservation.  "The  mount  is  an 
ingenious  collection  of  enamel  and  jewels,  arranged  in  an  open- 
work of  an  intricate  design.  The  back  is  modelled  in  low 
relief  and  coated  with  brilliant  enamels,  producing  a  rich  and 
harmonious  effect "  (No.  478;  £700).  The  third  of  the 
cinque-cento  gems  is  a  fine  portrait  cameo  of  a  male  head, 
said  to  be  from  the  hand  of  Alessandro  Cesati  (II  Greco). 
The  work  is  of  unusual  force  and  vigour.  The  delicate  pierced 
mounting,  daintily  enamelled  with  flowers,  is  in  striking  con- 
trast to  the  severe  lines  of  the  portrait,  and  was  probably 
added  in  the  seventeenth  century  (No.  538  ;  ^300).  The 
works  of  II  Greco,  says  Vasari  (iii.  480),  excelled  all  others. 
"  Michelangelo  himself,  looking  at  them  one  day,  while 
Giorgio  Vasari  was  present,  remarked  that  the  hour  for  the 
death  of  art  had  arrived,  since  it  was  not  possible  that  a  better 
work  could  be  seen."  The  other  Marlborough  gem  is  an 
intaglio  in  nicolo,  representing  the  Dioscuri  (No.  256). 
Towards  the  purchase  of  these  gems  Mr.  Charles  Butler  con- 
tributed ^1000. 

Among  other  objects  in  this  compartment  (20)  is  a  pom- 
ander case  (found  in  the  Thames)  of  sixteenth-century  work- 
manship. Perfume  balls,  carried  in  cases,  were  worn  as 
amulets.  "  I  have  sold  all  my  trumpery,"  says  Autolycus  in 
The  Winter* s  Tale  (Act  iv.  Sc.  4),  "  not  a  counterfeit  stone, 
not  a  ribbon,  glass,  pomander,  brooch,  table-book,  ballad, 
knife,  tape,  glove,  shoe-tie,  bracelet,  horn-ring,  to  keep  my 
pack  from  fasting." 

There  is  also  here  a  collection  of  Anglo -Roman  Gold 
Ornaments.  On  a  gold  plaque  found  at  Colchester  is  a  por- 
trait of  the  Empress  Faustina  the  elder.  Of  late  Roman,  or 
of  Celto-Roman  work,  is  a  heavy  gold  brooch,  found  in  a 
garden  at  Odiham  (Hants).  Several  ornaments  here  exhibited 
were  found  inside  an  elegant  silver  vessel,  resembling  a  sauce- 
pan, on  the  handle  of  which  is  an  inscription  recording  its 
dedication  to  the  Deae  Matres,  divinities  worshipped  by  our 
ancestors  in  those  days,  and  supplicated  for  fruitfulness  in  the 
seasons.  The  wheel,  so  often  introduced,  may  have  been 
symbolic  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  prosperity,  or  the  revolution  of 
the  seasons  (see  E.  Hawkins  in  Arch,  J.  viii.  35).  The  gold 
neck-chain  with  wheel  was  found  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Backworth  (Northum- 


XXVI 


ENGRAVED  GEMS 


669 


berland).  Another  similar  ornament  was  turned  up  by  the 
plough  at  Llandovery.  Among  the  Irish  ornaments  are  a 
chain  and  two  bracelets  found  in  1842  by  a  labouring 
man  within  a  few  yards  of  the  entrance  to  the  caves  at  New 
Grange,  Co.  Meath  (Archceologia,  xxx.  p.  xii.).  A  gold -wire 
bracelet  was  dug  up  at  Virginia,  Co.  Cavan,  in  1833  {Arch.  J. 
v.  154).  We  may  also  notice  an  important  acquisition  from 
Wales,  viz.  "  a  broad  gold  bracelet,  ornamented  with  applied 
wires,  with  enamelled  clasps,  displaying  Celtic  scroll-work ;  an 
incomplete  pair  of  gold  bracelets  in  quadrangular  panels,  set 
with  garnets  and  sapphire  pastes,  and  a  heavy  gold  ring  set 
with  an  onyx  intaglio  of  an  ant — all  found  together  at  Rhay- 
ader, Radnorshire"  {Brit.  Mus.  Return,  1900,  p.  73). 

Passing  to  the  other  side  of  the  Table-case,  we  find  in  the 
first  compartment  (21)  a  collection  of  Kenaissance  Cameo 
Portraits  (many  of  them  from  the  Carlisle  collection).  One 
of  the  most  interesting  is  a  contemporary  portrait  of  Rene, 
Duke  of  Anjou  and  titular  King  of  Sicily  (1409-80).  The 
execution  is  very  fine.  King  Rene  was  a  great  patron  of  art 
of  all  kinds,  and  is  said  himself  to  have  engraved  gems. 
There  are  also  portraits  of  Francis  I.  of  France  (1494-1547)  ; 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  first  Duke  of  Florence  (1 510-1537); 
and  Philip  II.  of  Spain  (1 527-1 598).  The  collection  of 
Renaissance  and  modern  gems  is  continued  in  Compartments 
22,  24,  and  25.  (In  23  are  the  antique  Marlborough  gems 
already  described.)  In  Table-case  U  26  and  27  are  modern 
intaglios.  Several  of  the  later  are  signed  by  well  -  known 
engravers  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

We  now  leave  the  Room  of  Gold  Ornanients,  and,  passing  out 
of  the  Etruscan  Saloon,  enter  the  Room  of  Terra-cottas. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


THE  ROOM   OF  TERRA-COTTAS 

Despise  nte,  Mercury,  because  I'm  only  clay — 

Cheap  product  of  the  potter's  art  ! 
/glory  in  my  humble  birth,  and  say 

t6  I  only  saw  the  humble  giver's  grateful  heart.5' 

(From  the  Greek  Anthology ',  translated  by  Miss  Hutton.) 

"The  statuettes  of  terra-cotta  from  Tanagra  constitute  a  little  world 
by  themselves  of  infinite  variety.  They  reveal  an  art  which  is 
quite  new  to  us,  with  whose  methods  we  were  scarcely  acquainted, 
and  whose  perfection  we  did  not  suspect.  They  introduce  us  to 
the  everyday  life  of  ancient  Greece,  and  they  are  charming  in 
themselves  "  (Diehl's  Excursions  in  Greece). 

The  room  of  terra- cottas  is  often  treated  by  visitors  as  a 
passage  only.  This  is  a  pity,  for  it  contains  some  of  the 
prettiest  and  most  interesting  objects  in  the  Museum.  They 
are,  however,  small  in  scale  ;  they  do  not  readily  catch  the 
eye  ;  they  are,  from  the  artistic  point  of  view,  very  unequal  in 
merit ;  and  the  light,  it  may  be  added,  is  often  very  bad.  We 
propose,  therefore,  to  look  first  at  some  of  the  prettiest  objects 
here  exhibited,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  an  attractive  hold  of 
our  subject  at  the  outset.1 

TANAGRA  FIGURINES 

The  most  famous  and  characteristic  of  the  ancient  terra- 
cottas are  the  Tanagra  figurines — the  little  figures,  that  is, 

1  A  charming  companion  to  the  study  of  the  terra-cotta  room  is  Greek 
Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  by  Miss  C.  A.  Hutton  ("  Portfolio  Monograph" 
series),  5s.  It  contains  numerous  illustrations  from  specimens  in  the 
Museum.     Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  by  Marcus  B.  Huish  (John 

670 


chap,  xxvii     THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


671 


found  at  Tanagra  (Cases  16-24).  The  best  collection  of  these 
is  in  the  Louvre,  but  here  also  are  several  capital  specimens. 
Looking  at  them  for  a  while,  we  shall  find  ourselves  in  a  new 
world  of  familiar  domesticities  and  of  dainty  grace.  Look, 
for  instance,  at  the  row  of  quaint  little  children  with  wings 
and  fans  (Case  14,  C  39  and  40) ;  the  old  nurse  with  the 
child  on  her  ample  knees  (Case  16,  C  279);  the  two  ladies 
having  a  cosy  chat  on  the  sofa  (Case  26,  C  529)  ;  the  girl 
with  her  pet  bird  (Case  23,  C  248)  ;  the  lady  in  her  out- 
door cloak  and  curious  peaked  hat  (Case  22,  C  264).  These 
are  all  marvels  of  airy  grace,  and  will  at  once  appeal  to  the 
spectator.  They  are  small  and  they  are  trifles.  "  Can  any  one 
be  imagined,"  asks  Socrates,  "  who  would  compare  Zeuxis  or 
Parrhasius  to  the  painters  of  ex  votos  or  Phidias  to  a  maker 
of  figurines  ?  "  No  one  would  do  so  ;  yet  these  figurines  have  a 
charm  that  is  all  their  own.  Among  these  laughing  boys  and 
pretty  ladies,  we  are  far  removed  from  the  world  which  the 
great  sculptors  peopled  for  us.  We  have  descended  from  the 
majesties  of  Olympus  to  the  playfulness  of  home.  From  the 
Greek  vases  also,  these  terra-cottas  are  quite  distinct ;  there  is 
here  little  of  the  legendary  lore,  nothing  of  the  conventional 
treatment,  little  of  the  decorative  severity  which  characterise  the 
vases.  The  transition  from  sculpture  to  figurines  is  like  the 
change  from  the  tragedies  of  ^Eschylus  to  the  songs  of  the 
Greek  Anthology — from  the  lofty  rhyme  of  Milton  to  the  vers 
de  sodete  of  Praed  or  Austin  Dobson  ;  and 

Why  should  little  things  be  blamed  ? 
Little  things  for  grace  are  famed. 
Love,  the  winged  and  the  wild, 
Love  is  but  a  little  child.  1 

These  little  Tanagra  figures  constitute,  it  has  been  said,  a 
world  of  their  own,  and  it  is  a  world  which  none  of  the  other 
remains  of  antiquity  bring  before  us  so  vividly.  Greek  art — 
and,  to  a  large  extent,  Greek  literature — reflects  only  the  public 
life  of  the  Greeks,  It  brings  before  us  the  life  of  the  battle- 
field, the  senate,  the  temple,  the  philosopher's  porch,  and  the 

Murray),  is  also  a  valuable  work,  on  a  more  elaborate  scale  ;  its  illustra- 
tions include  specimens  from  other  collections.  One  of  the  best  chapters 
in  M.  Charles  Diehl's  fascinating  volume  Excursions  in  Greece  (H.  Grevel) 
is  devoted  to  the  Tanagra  figurines. 

1  From  the  Greek  Anthology,  translated  by  T.  P.  Rogers. 


672 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- CO TTA S 


CHAP. 


gymnasium  ;  it  does  not  introduce  us  into  the  home.  Let  us 
enter  there  by  the  aid  of  these  figurines,  and  make  the  ac- 
quaintance of  some  Greek  children,  their  elder  brothers  and 
sisters,  and  their  mothers. 

How  charming  is  the  picture  (Case  17,  C  278)  of  "a  grace- 
ful young  mother  in  her  high-backed  chair,  singing  her  baby  to 
sleep"  !  This  little  group  has,  it  has  been  truly  said,  c< all  the 
sweet  serenity  of  a  mediaeval  Madonna." 

•  Sometimes  the  babe  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a  nurse, 
though  the  Greek  poets,  like  our  own  Shelley,  were  much 
against  the  practice.  In  a  figurine  here  before  us  (Case  16, 
C  279)  the  old  nurse  is  treated  in  a  grotesque  spirit ;  but,  as 
we  know  from  an  epigram  by  Theocritus,  nurses  were  some- 
times held  in  high  honour  : — 

The  babe  Medeius  to  his  Thracian  nurse 

This  stone,  inscribed  '  To  Cleita,'  raised  in  the  mid  highway. 

Her  modest  virtues  oft  shall  men  rehearse, 

Who  doubts  it  ?  Is  not  'Cleita's  worth'  a  proverb  to  this  day  ? 

(Calverley's  translation.) 

In  the  same  spirit  of  caricature  is  the  statuette  of  the  tutor 
engaged  in  giving  a  writing  lesson  (Case  16,  C  214). 

Up  to  the  age  of  seven,  a  Greek  boy  remained  at  home,  and 
the  world  of  childhood,  which  the  statuettes  have  opened  up 
to  us,  is  full  of 

"laughing  and  refractory  little  ones,  who  busy  themselves  with 
charming  naivete  and  grace  with  their  childish  games.  Sometimes 
seated  on  a  square  altar,  scantily  clad  in  a  little  shirt,  the  child  holds 
in  his  hand  the  net  containing  his  ball  or  the  bag  with  his  knuckle- 
bones. Sometimes  he  is  trundling  a  hoop  or  spinning  a  top,  and  at 
other  times  he  has  harnessed  himself  to  a  little  carriage,  or  is  gravely 
wearing  a  comic  mask,  or  carrying  a  musical  instrument.  The 
greatest  pleasure  of  these  children  is,  however,  to  play  with  their 
favourite  animals.  We  find  them  sitting  astride  geese,  cocks,  and 
rams,  generally  on  very  bad  terms  with  their  steeds,  and  struggling 
with  them  with  all  the  strength  of  their  little  arms  "  (Diehl's  Excur- 
sions in  Greece ,  p.  393). 

Many  examples  in  this  sort  may  be  seen  in  Table-case  A. 
Here  we  may  notice  the  boy  in  a  peaked  cap  mounted  on  a 
horse  (Case  15,  C  32),  and  another  boy  riding  apparently  on 
a  dog  (Case  10,  B  257).  But  none  of  the  statuettes  of 
children  is  more  charming  than  that  of  the  laughing  boy 
(C  334  in  Case  22). 


xxvii  THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


673 


At  the  age  of  seven  a  boy  passed  into  the  care  of  an 
elderly  male  servant,  called  a  pedagogue,  who  had  no  literary 
duties,  but  whose  function  it  was  to  attend  his  pupil  to  and 
from  school  and  teach  him  the  ordinary  rules  of  good 
behaviour.  The  statuette  (C  281,  Case  17)  is  amusing;  it 
shows  Dionysus,  as  a  good  little  boy,  being  taken  to  school 
by  Silenus  :  the  old  rascal  has  not  left  his  wine-jar  behind. 
Among  other  duties  the  pedagogue  had  to  teach  a  child  how 
to  wear  the  big  cloak  which  was  his  outdoor  dress — a  mode 
seen  in  the  pretty  statuette  C  334  :  the  boy  here  is  in  his 
Sunday-go-to-meeting  clothes.  Another  lad  not  far  off  (C  324, 
Case  24)  is  off,  no  doubt,  to  play  with  a  school-fellow  ;  he  has 
in  his  hand  a  bag  of  knuckle -bones,  the  marbles  of  the 
ancients. 

At  fourteen  a  boy  began  his  gymnastic  training  ;  at  eighteen 
he  became  a  citizen,  and  entered  on  his  two  years'  military 
service.  He  put  away  childish  dress,  and  donned  the  garb  of 
man's  estate.  He  put  off  the  great  mantle  and  fillet  which 
formed  the  boy's  dress  and  assumed  the  chlamys,  or  short 
cloak,  which  was  the  traditional  dress  of  the  ephebe.  He  also 
"  sported  his  straw,"  as  our  public-school  boys  say — he  put  on, 
that  is  to  say,  the  straw  sun-hat  which  we  see  in  so  many  of 
these  statuettes.  Male  costume  in  Greece,  we  may  observe, 
was  very  simple.  The  chlamys,  introduced  from  Thessaly, 
was  principally  worn  by  travellers  and  soldiers.  The  usual 
costume  worn  by  men  was  a  chiton  of  wool  held  in  at  the 
waist  by  a  belt.  In  later  times  sleeves  were  added,  and 
amongst  the  better  classes  linen  formed  the  material.  He 
also  wore  the  himation.  This  was  worn  in  many  ways  : 
sometimes  like  a  Scotch  plaid,  sometimes  like  a  cloak  ;  some- 
times it  was  worn  without  any  garment  beneath  it.  From 
Macedonia  came  a  large  and  thick  cloak,  like  our  ulster, 
which  was  used  on  journeys  ;  it,  may  be  that  which  is  illus- 
trated in  the  cloaked  figure  C  322  (Case  23).  Usually  the 
Greek  went  about  bareheaded.  He  often  also  went  bare- 
footed. At  other  times  he  wore  sandals,  and  in  hunting, 
buskins  (Huish,  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes^  p.  223).  It  will 
be  noticed  that  among  these  statuettes  representations  of  men 
are  much  rarer  than  those  of  women.  The  feminine  type 
was  the  more  popular,  for  several  reasons  presently  to  be  dis- 
cussed. Statuettes  of  elderly  men  are  generally  caricatures. 
When  the  statuette-makers  represented  men  at  all,  it  was  the 

2  x 


674 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- CO TTA S 


CHAP. 


young  man  in  his  strength  and  beauty  that  Greek  taste 
required.  The  type  is  pleasantly  illustrated  in  the  Tanagra 
figurine  (C  323  in  Case  23)  of  a  youth,  clad  in  straw  hat  and 
chlamys,  on  his  way  to  the  training-ground  with  the  scraper 
and  oil-flask  in  his  hand. 

The  education  of  girls  was  conducted  entirely  at  home,  and, 
as  they  married  young,  they  had  little  knowledge.  "Was  it 
likely,"  says  Ischomachus  in  Xenophon's  Econo7nist,  "that  my 
wife  should  have  such  knowledge  when  I  took  her  away,  seeing 
that  she  came  to  me  before  she  was  fifteen,  and  after  living 
under  the  most  watchful  care  that  she  might  see,  hear,  and 
say  as  little  as  possible  ? "  There  is  a  pretty  figure  of  a 
demure  little  girl  (C  321,  Case  23)  "dressed  in  her  best, 
seated  on  a  square  stool,  quivering  all  over  with  suppressed 
excitement  at  the  prospect  of  some  outing"  (Hutton,  p.  50). 
Some  years  older  are  the  maidens  (C  246  and  248)  strolling, 
it  may  be  in  the  garden,  with  their  pet  birds  cooing  on  their 
shoulders : — 

Sweet  pet  it  was  :  the  darling  bird 

Knew  her  as  well  as  she  her  mother  : 
It  never  from  her  bosom  stirred, 
But  hopped  about, 
And  in  and  out, 
Nor  twittered  to  another. — From  Catullus. 

Of  the  life  and  still  more  of  the  dress  of  Greek  women,  the 
figurines  have  much  to  tell  us.  We  have  called  attention 
already  to  a  charming  group  of  mother  and  child.  Of  two 
women  at  an  afternoon  call,  what  a  pretty  picture  is  brought 
before  us  in  the  group  from  Myrina  (C  529,  Case  26)  of  two 
ladies  seated  on  a  sofa,  enjoying  a  confidential  chat.  It  is,  as 
Miss  Hutton  happily  remarks,  the  plastic  representation  of  the 
opening  scene  between  Gorgo  and  Praxinoe  in  the  idyll  of 
Theocritus  : — 

Praxinoe. — My  dear  Gorgo,  at  last  !  Yes,  here  I  am.  Do  sit 
down. 

Gorgo. — I  could  hardly  get  to  you,  Praxinoe,  through  all  the  crowd 
and  all  the  carriages.  Nothing  but  heavy  boots,  nothing  but  men  in 
uniform.  And  what  a  journey  it  is  !  My  dear  child,  you  really  live 
too  far  off. 

Praxinoe, — It  is  all  that  insane  husband  of  mine.  He  has  chosen 
to  come  out  here  to  the  end  of  the  world,  and  take  a  hole  of  a  place 
— for  a  house  it  is  not  —  on  purpose  that  you  and  I  might  not  be 
neighbours. — M.  Arnold's  translation. 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


675 


Afternoon  calls  played,  we  may  suppose,  a  large  part  in 
the  average  woman's  life  then  as  now.  Not  less  important,  we 
may  be  sure,  was  the  great  question  of  dress  ;  nay,  more  im- 
portant, since  the  materials  were  home-made.  "  It  was  more 
than  enough,"  says  Ischomachus  in  describing  his  choice  of  a 
wife,  "  to  find  in  her  one  who  could  turn  a  fleece  into  a  gar- 
ment, and  one  whose  eyes  had  taught  her  how  to  set  her  hand- 
maidens at  their  spindles."  Nothing  was  more  simple  than 
the  dress  of  a  Greek  woman,  but  the  simple  pieces  of  broad 
stuff  of  which  it  consisted  were  capable,  as  these  figurines 
show  us,  of  numerous  and  graceful  dispositions.  In  the 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  we  see  Greek  costume  ideal- 
ised. In  these  statuettes  we  have  exact  representations  of 
everyday  dress.  "  From  the  variety  of  costume  with  which 
they  are  clothed,  they  evidently  reflect  the  fashions  of  the 
time "  ;  and  under  this  aspect  we  may  examine  them  as 
"  fashion-plates  of  a  couple  of  thousand  years  ago"  (Huish, 
p.  215).  The  ordinary  indoor  dress  of  a  Greek  woman  was 
the  chiton,  somewhat  resembling  the  long,  embroidered  gar- 
ment still  worn  by  Albanian  women.  This  dress  was  skirt 
and  bodice  in  one.  Sometimes  it  had  short  sleeves  ;  some- 
times it  was  open  at  the  top  and  buttoned  on  the  shoulders. 
The  girl  in  the  statuette  C  246  (Case  16)  wears  the  chiton 
gracefully.  But  perhaps  the  best  example  of  it,  in  its  very 
simplest  form,  is  in  a  statuette  from  Tarentum,  D  143  (in 
Case  45).  Here  the  garment  is  not  even  fastened  between 
the  breasts.  "  As  a  rule  it  was  white  with  a  coloured  border, 
and  was  confined  with  a  girdle.  Young  girls  put  it  round 
their  waists,  so  as  to  make  the  chiton  cling  closely  to  the  body 
and  reveal  its  outline,  while  married  women  wore  it  higher, 
after  the  fashion  which  the  Directorate  borrowed  from  classical 
times."  This  somewhat  scanty  and  careless  attire  was  sup- 
plemented by  the  himation,  or  shawl — a  large  rectangular 
piece  of  stuff,  sometimes  white  and  sometimes  coloured.  This 
shawl  was  often  worn  indoors,  as  for  instance  by  the  pretty 
lady  with  a  wreath  in  her  hair,  who  is  standing  against  a  pillar, 
robed  in  a  blue  himation  (C  254,  Case  19).  When  a  Greek 
lady  went  out  the  himation  was  de  rigueur;  and  the  figurines 
show  us  in  how  many  different  ways  it  might  be  worn.  "If 
the  weather  were  warm  and  she  wished  to  be  at  her  ease,  a 
Greek  woman  would  allow  her  shawl  to  fall  down  behind 
to  her  waist,  only  keeping  it  up  by  her  folded  arms  and  letting 


676 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- CO TTA S  chap. 


the  ends  fall  at  either  side,  or,  taking  up  one  of  these  ends,  she 
would  throw  it  carelessly  over  her  left  shoulder.  It  was  then 
nothing  more  than  an  elegant  scarf,  an  excuse  for  graceful 
attitudes"  (Rayet).  The  lady  from  Corinth  (C  7  in  Case  14) 
is  an  example  of  such  easy  grace.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
Greek  woman  wished  to  drape  herself  more  closely,  she  placed 
the  piece  of  stuff  on  the  top  of  her  head,  and  threw  the  right 
end  over  the  left  shoulder,  so  as  to  let  it  hang  down  behind. 
The  garment  clung  close  to  the  breast  and  left  one  hand  at 
liberty.  Of  this  arrangement  there  are  numerous  instances 
in  the  figurines  before  us.  None  is  more  graceful  than  the 
lady  from  Tanagra  (C  215  in  Case  17).  With  such  ex- 
amples of  good  taste  and  elegance  before  him,  the  poet  may 
well  have  asked  of  a  more  careless  or  less  well  bred  lady, 
"  What  hinders  you  from  walking  well  ?  WTe  put  no  tax  upon 
it,  and  it  costs  nothing.  Those  who  possess  this  advantage 
do  themselves  honour  and  give  pleasure  to  the  passers-by.  If 
you  are  wise  you  should  always  try  to  gain  it." 

Sometimes  a  large  straw  hat  is  worn  over  the  hood  formed 
by  the  shawl — as,  for  instance,  in  C  263  (Case  21).  This 
round  hat,  almost  flat  but  rising  to  a  peak  in  the  centre,  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  Tanagra  figurines.  This 
was,  no  doubt,  the  straw  hat  which  Praxinoe  wore  when  she 
went  out  with  Gorgo  (0oAta,  wrongly  translated  as  "  parasol55  by 
Calverley).  The  hat  illustrates  also  the  passage  in  the  GZdipus 
Coloneus  of  Sophocles,  where  Ismene  enters  wearing  "  a  Thes- 
salian  hat  to  shield  her  from  the  sun.55  Equally  important  in 
a  Greek  lady5s  toilet  was  the  fan,  shaped  like  a  lotus -leaf, 
which  we  see  on  so  many  of  these  figurines  (see,  e.g.  C  215 
and  247  in  Case  17).  It  is  not  unlike  those  which  our 
aesthetic  ladies  sometimes  carry,  made  of  dried  palm-leaves, 
and  is  one  of  the  accessories  which  give  so  very  modern  an 
effect  to  these  terra-cottas. 

"  Another  very  important  feature  in  the  toilette  was  the 
style  of  dressing  the  hair,  and  it  is  strange  to  see  how  fashion 
in  its  changes  always  comes  round  to  the  same  point.  The 
coiffure  of  a  fashionable  lady  of  Tanagra  would  do  no  discredit 
to  a  Parisian  elegante,  and  it  would  often  be  easy  to  tell  its 
modern  name.  Thus  in  many  of  the  figurines  the  hair  is 
drawn  back  from  the  forehead,  not  at  all  in  what  is  considered 
Greek  style,  but  rather  a  PEugenie,  as  we  used  to  say  when 
we  were  young55  (MahafTy).     Three  styles  are  most  frequently 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


677 


met  with.  In  the  first,  the  hair  is  carried  up  to  the  top  of  the 
head  and  there  tied  with  a  fillet,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  tuft  or 
bunch.  This  is  the  style  noted  by  a  Greek  dilettante,  Dicaear- 
chus,  of  the  third  century,  who  has  left  us  his  impression  of 
the  women  of  Tanagra — an  impression  which  forms  an  in- 
teresting commentary  on  these  figurines.  "  Their  height, 
beauty,  and  graceful  carriage  make  them,"  he  says,  "  the 
fairest  and  most  elegant  women  in  all  Greece.  Their  method 
of  wearing  the  shawl  over  the  head  is  such  that  only  the  eyes 
show,  the  rest  of  the  face  is  veiled.  This  shawl  is  always 
white.  Their  hair  is  auburn,  and  they  wear  it  twisted  up  in  a 
knot  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  local  name  of  this  coiffure 
is  lampadion  (the  torch).  Their  shoes  are  thin,  cut  low,  red 
in  colour,  and  so  neatly  fitted  to  the  foot  that  it  looks  almost 
bare/7  A  pretty  example  of  this  style  is  the  half-draped  girl 
with  auburn  hair  (C  316  in  Case  24).  In  a  second  style,  the 
bunch  of  hair  is  worn  much  lower  down  (as  in  C  254  and 
C  529),  sometimes  on  the  nape  of  the  neck  (as  in  C  75). 
This  style  was  much  in  favour  among  English  beauties  in  the 
'seventies,  and  may  be  seen  in  several  of  Millais's  pictures. 
In  other  cases  the  hair  is  curled  and  parted  (as  in  C  6).  By 
the  side  of  these  simple  and  graceful  coiffures,  we  find  others 
which  are  much  more  elaborate,  showy,  and  complicated.  In 
some  cases  the  elaborate  head-dresses  may  represent  a  sur- 
vival from  those  archaic  and  conventional  modes  which  we 
shall  presently  examine.  In  others  the  elaborate  superstructure 
is  a  monument  of  the  ostentation  of  professional  beauties, 
singers,  dancers,  and  the  like. 

Lastly  we  may  notice  the  mirrors  which  many  of  the  ladies 
hold  in  their  hands — mirrors  such  as  we  have  already  seen 
among  the  bronzes.  The  lady  in  C  211  (Case  17)  is  looking 
in  the  mirror  as  she  tidies  her  hair.  It  was  not  only,  however, 
for  doing  the  hair  that  mirrors  were  needed.  A  fashionable 
Greek  lady  had  also  to  study  the  effect  of  painting  or 
enamelling  her  face.  Among  the  vases  and  the  bronzes,  we 
have  already  become  familiar  with  these  secrets  of  the  toilette 
— secrets  of  which  a  stern  husband  did  not  always  approve. 
"  I  one  day  saw,"  says  Ischomachus  in  Xenophon's  Economist^ 
"  that  my  wife  had  a  quantity  of  white  lead  rubbed  into  her 
skin  to  make  her  look  whiter  than  she  really  was,  as  well  as  a 
quantity  of  rouge  to  make  her  look  redder  than  she  really  was, 
while  she  had  on  high-heeled  shoes  to  make  her  look  taller 


678 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS  chap. 


than  she  realiy  was.'5  Ischomachus  converted  his  wife  to  see 
the  error  of  her  ways  by  an  appeal  alike  to  first  principles,  and 
to  the  fear  of  detection  ;  for  "  though  these  deceits  may  pos- 
sibly escape  the  passing  stranger,  and  he  be  deceived  by  them, 
still  those  whose  life  is  spent  together,  must,  if  they  attempt  to 
deceive  one  another,  ever  be  caught  in  so  doing — either  when 
they  rise  in  the  morning,  before  the  deceit  is  renewed,  or,  if 
not  so,  the  sweat  of  their  brow  convicts  them,  or  tears  put 
them  to  the  test,  or  again,  whilst  bathing,  some  eye  is  upon 
them,  and  they  are  unmasked  and  seen."  So  far  the  worthy 
Ischomachus.  But  we  at  least  are  strangers,  and  need  not 
grudge  to  the  pretty  ladies  of  Tanagra  any  of  their  piquant 
coquetry  or  studied  daintiness.  Such  things  only  enhance 
their  bewitching  realism,  their  marvellous  modernity. 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  FIGURINES 

This  account  of  some  of  the  Tanagra  figurines  here  exhibited 
will  serve  to  illustrate  their  interest  as  historical  documents. 
Their  artistic  grace  and  charm  the  visitor  will  have  noted  for 
himself.  The  romance  of  their  discovery  was  another  factor 
in  the  furore  caused  by  these  exquisite  and  fragile  marvels  : — 

"The  unexpectedness  of  their  wonderful  preservation,  and  their 
tardy  discovery,  add  to  their  interest.  Whilst  the  priceless  marbles, 
fashioned  by  the  greatest  of  all  plastic  artists,  have,  from  their  size 
and  material,  been  the  object  of  every  indignity,  being  mutilated  from 
sheer  wantonness,  and  finally  thrown  into  kilns  erected  on  the  site  of 
every  temple  by  utilitarians  desirous  of  obtaining  the  lime  which  they 
contained,  the  modest  statuette  of  the  unknown  "  dollmaker,"  formed 
of  common  mother  earth,  is  preserved  in  its  entirety,  and  even  with  its 
original  colouring,  thanks  to  the  singular  fortune  which  consigned  it 
for  a  couple  of  thousand  years  to  the  seclusion  of  a  grave  or  the  igno- 
miny of  a  temple  rubbish-heap.  Wars,  revolutions,  and  recurring 
inroads  of  barbarians  have  only  added  to  the  secure  hiding-place  of 
the  uncared-for  statuette  by  heaping  fresh  ruins  upon  its  burial-place. 
Whilst  for  centuries  unique  masterpieces  of  Greek  art  have  graced  the 
palaces  and  galleries  of  Europe,  the  Tanagra  statuette  has  had  no  place 
in  either  until  nigh  upon  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago.  Its  reappearance 
has  been  as  startling  an  irruption  as  that  of  Japanese  art  "  (Huish,  p.  4). 

It  was  in  1870  that  a  Greek  from  Corfu,  Giorgios  Any- 
phantis,  better  known  under  his  nickname  of  Barba-Jorghi 
(old  George),  heard  a  report  of  discoveries  of  statuettes  made 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


679 


accidentally  by  some  peasants  while  tilling  their  fields  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Tanagra  in  Bceotia.  He  hurried 
to  the  village,  and  speedily  made  some  splendid  hauls.  En- 
couraged by  his  example,  the  peasants  left  their  farms  and  also 
began  to  excavate,  and  the  windows  of  the  Athenian  dealers  in 
antiquities  soon  contained  a  large  number  of  lovely  figurines. 
The  prodigious  success  which  they  met  with  in  Europe,  and 
the  rapid  increase  in  price  which  followed  in  consequence, 
brought  sudden  riches  to  the  people  and  redoubled  their  zeal. 
The  excavations  furnished  the  public  and  private  collections 
of  Europe  with  thousands  of  exquisite  figures.  The  Greek 
Government  came  upon  the  scene  only  when  most  of  the 
tombs  had  already  been  rifled — with  zeal  but  without  any  scien- 
tific method  or  record.  The  British  Museum,  though  it  was  left 
behind  by  the  French  Government  in  this  matter,  has,  as  we 
have  seen,  been  fortunate  in  securing  several  good  examples, 
both  from  Tanagra  and  other  places. 

MEANING  OF  THE  FIGURINES 

The  interest  excited  by  the  discovery  of  the  charming  Tana- 
gra figurines  was  heightened  by  the  mystery  surrounding  them. 
With  what  object  were  they  made  ?  What  beings  did  they 
represent  ?  To  what  uses  were  they  put  ?  Lively  contro- 
versies, not  yet  composed,  have  raged  round  these  questions. 
Perhaps  he  will  be  nearest  the  true  point  of  view  who  does  not 
press  such  questions  too  far.  "  Suspended  between  the  ideal 
and  the  real  world,"  as  a  French  writer  has  gracefully  said, 
"  many  of  these  figures  remain  in  an  uncertainty  which  forms 
part  of  their  charm.  They  are  fragile  and  delicate  things, 
which  science  must  not  touch  with  too  heavy  a  hand  lest  it 
should  crush  them."  It  would,  perhaps,  be  a  mistake  to  seek 
for  any  deep  meaning  in  these  dainty  little  figures  with  their 
piquant  air  and  exquisite  grace.  They  were  meant  to  charm, 
and  that  is  enough  : — 

Like  memory  of  music  fled, — 
Like  aught  that  for  its  grace  may  be 
Dear,  and  yet  dearer  for  its  mystery. 

Yet  the  large  number  of  terra-cotta  statuettes  collected  in 
this  room,  and  their  scientific  arrangement,  compel  us  to 
penetrate  somewhat  into  the  mystery,  to  consider  the  place  of 


68o 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


the  Tanagra  figurines  in  the  evolution  of  the  statuette,  and  to 
discuss  their  raison  d^etre.  Broadly  speaking,  there  are  two 
rival  theories  in  the  field,  and  the  truth  probably  lies  some- 
where between  them.  According  to  one  theory,  the  Tanagra 
figurines  have  a  religious  and  spiritual  meaning,  and  under 
their  mundane  appearance  are  concealed  the  great  and 
mysterious  divinities  of  the  lower  world.  According  to  the 
other  theory,  they  are  representations  of  daily  life,  mere  genre 
subjects.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  statuettes  conformed 
originally  to  the  former  type,  and  gradually  passed  into  the 
phase  assumed  by  the  latter  theory.  In  the  earlier  statuettes, 
which  we  shall  presently  examine,  the  religious  and  symbolical 
intention  is  indisputable,  and  the  same  types  survived  into 
later  ages.  But  even  the  most  subtle  ingenuity  fails  to  con- 
vince us  that  any  such  intention  is  to  be  found  in  the  fashionable 
ladies  arranging  their  draperies  or  their  hair,  in  the  children 
at  their  games  or  their  lessons,  in  the  distorted  and  sometimes 
obscene  grotesques.  To  what  uses,  then,  were  the  statuettes 
put  ?  They  have  all  been  found  either  in  the  ruins  of  temples  or 
in  tombs.  Some  were,  no  doubt,  temple  images  ;  others  were 
placed  in  the  sacred  precincts  as  ex  votos — a  custom  of  which 
we  know  from  Plato.  "A  fair  and  shady  resting-place,"  says 
Socrates,  "  full  of  summer  scents  and  sounds.  Judging  from 
the  ornaments  and  images,  this  must  be  a  spot  sacred  to 
Achelous  and  the  Nymphs"  {Phcedrus,  230  B).  Among  the 
statuettes  found  in  the  ruins  of  temples  are,  however,  many  of 
a  genre,  and  even  grotesque,  character.  The  offerings  were 
as  miscellaneous,  and  sometimes  as  inappropriate,  as  those 
which  the  devout  dedicate  at  Catholic  shrines  to-day.  With 
regard  to  those  found  in  tombs,  a  controversy  has  raged 
similar  to  that  already  noticed.  Were  the  statuettes  placed  in 
the  graves  in  order  to  protect  the  dead,  or  in  order  to  provide 
them  with  pleasant  company  ?  Probably  both  explanations 
are  correct.  The  most  ancient  figurines  undoubtedly  repre- 
sented the  guardian  divinities  of  the  dead.  Afterwards, 
figurines  were  placed  in  the  tombs  in  accordance  with  the 
practice  common  in  antiquity  of  burying  with  the  dead  man 
objects,  or  representations  of  objects,  which  had  surrounded 
him  in  life.  In  very  early  times  the  Greeks  buried  with  the 
beloved  dead  their  weapons  of  war  and  stores  of  food  and 
drink,  and  even  slew,  to  send  in  their  company  to  the  next 
world,  their  female  kindred  or  captive  women.     With  the 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


progress  of  more  spiritual  ideas,  these  customs  became  con- 
ventionalised. Empty  vessels  were  substituted  for  real  stores ; 
for  light,  the  dead  were  given  lamps  that  had  never  been  lit ; 
loaves  of  terra-cotta  were  substituted  for  real  bread ;  and, 
similarly,  terra-cotta  images  may  have  been  buried  to  people 
the  solitude  of  the  grave  and  afford  pleasing  companionship 
(see  /.U.S.  ii.  326).  But  it  is  probable  also  that  figurines  were 
purchased  with  no  strictly  symbolical  or  sepulchral  meaning 
simply  as  a  way  of  doing  homage  to  the  dead,  just  as  we  now 
send  flowers  or  wreaths.  It  is  worth  noting  that  different 
places  observed  different  customs  in  this  matter.  At  Athens 
"no  figurines'5  seems  to  have  been  the  rule;  vases  were  the 
common  form  of  offerings  to  the  dead  ;  and,  generally,  tombs 
in  which  few  figurines  are  found  are  rich  in  vases,  whilst  those 
in  which  figurines  are  abundant  contain  hardly  any  pottery: — 

"  It  deserves  to  be  noted,"  says  Mr.  Frazer,  "  that  these  pretty 
statuettes  are  almost  always  found  broken  in  a  purposeful  manner,  the 
head  being  generally  torn  off  and  lying  by  itself.  And  they  are  as 
often  found  in  the  earth  over  and  beside  the  grave  as  in  the  grave 
itself.  Hence  it  has  been  suggested  that  while  the  grave  was  being 
filled  in,  the  friends  of  the  deceased  stood  beside  it  with  these  figures 
in  their  hands,  which  they  first  broke  and  then  threw  down  into  the 
hole  ;  and  this  custom,  it  has  been  conjectured,  may  have  been  a  sub- 
stitute for  an  older  custom  of  sacrificing  human  victims  at  the  tomb, 
the  breaking  of  the  images  taking  the  place  of  the  earlier  slaughter  " 
(Frazer's  Pausanias,  v.  81). 

It  may  occur  to  some  readers  that  the  manufacture  of  these 
dainty  figurines  to  be  broken  and  thrown  into  an  open  grave 
was  very  wasteful.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that 
they  were  the  product  of  common  craftsmen,  and  were  made, 
as  we  shall  see,  from  moulds.  They  must  have  been  far  less 
costly  than  the  wreaths  of  choice  flowers  which  the  piety  or 
ostentation  of  our  own  day  devotes  to  a  like  purpose.  It  is  a 
strange  fortune  that  has  preserved  these  fragile  offerings  of 
pious  respect  to  pique  the  curiosity  and  attract  the  taste  of 
long- subsequent  ages.  But  though  some  of  the  figurines 
may  have  been  expressly  manufactured  for  the  tomb,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  many  also,  and  probably  most  among  the 
later  specimens,  were  originally  intended  for  domestic  ornament, 
and  had  once  adorned  the  dead  man's  dwelling,  like  those 
which  have  thus  been  found  in  the  houses  of  Pompeii.  "  Some 
at  least  were  highly  valued  by  their  owners,  for  two  skeletons 


682 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTA  S 


CHAP, 


were  found  in  the  streets,  fugitives  who  had  gathered  up  their 
treasures  in  haste — one,  a  man,  clutched  his  money,  his 
jewellery,  and  a  statuette  ;  the  other,  a  woman,  was  still  hold- 
ing a  little  female  figure  with  a  child  in  its  arms  55  (Hutton, 
p.  8).  Moreover,  many  of  the  terra-cottas  found  in  tombs 
had,  as  we  shall  see,  obviously  once  served  as  children's  toys. 


METHODS  OF  MANUFACTURE 

How  were  these  figurines  made  ?  What  processes  did  the 
potters  employ  ?  There  are  numerous  examples  in  the  British 
Museum  collection  which  throw  light  on  these  questions,  and 
the  subject  is  interesting  as  illustrating  the  extreme  economy 
of  method  which  characterises  Greek  art.  In  the  case  of  the 
larger  and  more  elaborate  statuettes,  the  figures  were  built  up 
with  clay,  and  worked  like  a  sculptor's  model.  In  the  case, 
again,  of  the  smaller  figures  of  toys,  animals,  and  the  like, 
they  were  rudely  modelled  in  soft  clay,  rolled  in  the  hands, 
and  roughly  pinched  to  the  desired  shapes — just  as  children 
make  shapes  out  of  dough.  But  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  figurines  were  made  from  moulds,  a  collection  of  which  is 
exhibited  on  the  other  side  of  the  room,  with  plaster  casts  taken 
from  each  mould  beside  them  (Cases  62-64).  With  these 
specimens  before  us,  we  shall  have  no  difficulty  in  following 
the  processes  employed  in  the  production  of  the  dainty  little 
figures  which  we  have  been  examining.  (1)  First,  a  figure 
was  built  up  with  clay  and  worked  like  a  sculptor's  model. 
(2)  Then  a  mould  was  taken  from  the  original  model  by 
squeezing  clay  on  to  the  model.  This  mould  was  then  baked, 
and  the  potter's  stock-in-trade  was  ready;  for  (3)  from  the 
mould  numerous  copies  could  easily  be  taken.  Duplicates 
from  the  same  mould  have,  as  we  shall  see,  often  been  found. 
"It  is  easy  to  imagine  how  the  coroplast,  or  maker  of  images, 
set  to  work  ;  with  a  first  layer  of  fine  well-kneaded  clay  he  took 
the  impression  of  the  mould  in  terra-cotta,  by  pressing  the  clay 
with  his  finger  into  all  the  cavities  of  the  mould  ;  then  to  the 
first  layer  he  applied  a  second,  and  so  on,  until  he  obtained 
the  required  thickness.  In  many  statuettes  we  can  still  trace 
the  marks  of  the  workman's  fingers  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
figurine."  In  order  to  make  a  perfect  figure  in  the  round  it  is 
of  course  necessary  to  have  two  moulds,  each  of  which  shall 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTAS 


683 


fit  precisely  to  an  opposite  piece,  the  two  casts  being  carefully 
joined  by  a  little  liquid  clay.  This  plan  was  sometimes 
adopted,  and  there  are  a  few  statuettes  in  the  collection  (e.g. 
C  14,  p.  692),  in  which  the  back  is  modelled  as  carefully  as 
the  front.  But  as  may  be  seen  on  the  moulds  here  exhibited, 
it  was  in  most  cases  the  front  of  the  figure  alone  that  was 
moulded.  The  back  of  the  figure  was  formed  by  affixing  a 
mass  of  clay  and  finishing  it  very  roughly  by  hand.  So  far 
the  processes  of  the  potter  were  almost  mechanical,  and  some- 
times they  ended  here  ;  many  of  the  statuettes  in  this  collec- 
tion are  devoid  of  individuality  or  artistic  merit.  (4)  But  in 
the  figurines  of  the  better  kinds  and  periods,  the  artistic  pro- 
cess now  began.  The  cast,  on  its  removal  from  the  mould, 
which  was  often  worn  by  long  use,  would  naturally  present  a 
rather  rude  appearance.  The  rough-cast  figure  was  therefore 
"  touched  up  with  modelling  tools,  and  completed  and  con- 
nected, so  that  each  figurine  received  an  individual  stamp 
under  the  potter's  hand.  He  emphasised  the  somewhat  lax 
modelling,  he  hollowed  the  folds  of  the  drapery  with  his  grav- 
ing-tool,  rendered  the  head  more  expressive  with  a  touch  of 
his  thumb,  and  delicately  threw  into  relief  the  dainty  edifice 
of  the  hair,  thus  impressing  on  the  work  the  mark  of  his  indi- 
viduality." We  are  fortunate  in  having  in  this  room  two 
statuettes  produced  from  the  same  mould  (C  535-6,  p.  698);  one 
is  not  touched  up,  the  other  is  ;  a  comparison  of  the  two  will 
show  the  visitor  in  a  moment  how  much  of  the  artistic  merit  of  a 
statuette  depended  on  this  stage  in  the  procedure.  (5)  But  there 
was  another  stage  which  also  gave  wide  scope  to  the  individual 
fancy  of  the  maker.  The  head,  feet,  hands,  and  accessories 
of  all  kinds — hats  and  fans,  balls,  wreaths,  wings,  and  the  rest 
---were  often  made  separately.  The  earlier  and  stiffer  statuettes 
were  indeed  made  in  a  piece  from  one  mould  ;  but  in  the  later 
several  moulds  were  employed,  and  various  and  ingenious  com- 
binations thus  became  possible.  The  figurine,  after  emerging 
from  the  principal  mould,  was  dressed  by  means  of  parts  and 
accessories  from  other  moulds  : — 

"The  coroplast  could  adorn  it  to  please  his  fancy.  He  chose  one 
or  another  of  these  little  heads,  attached  its  long  neck  to  the  top  of 
the  statuette,  and  fixed  it  with  a  touch  of  his  finger  ;  then  he  bent  or 
raised  it,  and  bestowed  upon  it,  according  to  his  fancy,  a  dreamy  or 
coquettish,  a  sad  or  gay  expression,  thus  giving  quite  a  different  aspect 
to  two  casts  from  the  same  mould.    He  would  put  a  garland  of  flowers 


684  THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS  chap. 


into  the  hands  of  one,  and  give  a  fan  or  a  mirror  to  another,  and  his 
fancy  combined  the  accessories  of  all  kinds  which  were  at  his  disposal 
with  astonishing  fertility  of  imagination.  Thus  with  a  very  small 
number  of  moulds  the  coroplast  produced  a  display  of  marvellous 
originality  and  novelty,  and  we  cannot  sufficiently  admire  the  change- 
ful fancy  and  the  prodigious  dexterity  with  which  these  unknown 
artists  succeeded,  by  skilful  retouching  and  ingenious  combinations, 
in  giving  infinite  variety  to  a  small  number  of  types"  (Diehl, 
PP-  370-374)- 

There  are  some  examples  here  of  the  way  in  which  figures 
from  the  same  mould  were  thus  diversified  by  varying  the 
accessories  (e.g.  D  81,  82,  p.  703).  (6)  Further  variations 
were  possible  at  another  and  final  stage  in  the  processes 
which  a  figurine  went  through  before  being  offered  for 
sale.  When  it  had  been  retouched  it  was  fired,  and  was 
next  coated  with  a  white  lime-wash  to  make  a  surface  for  the 
painting.  Through  their  long  burial,  most  of  the  statuettes 
have  lost  their  original  brightness,  but  enough  survives  to 
show  that  the  colouring  of  the  figures  was  very  fresh  and 
brilliant.  "  Red-brown  was  used  for  the  hair,  red  for  the  lips, 
rose-pink  for  flesh-tints,  pink  and  blue  for  marks  of  drapery, 
green  for  borders  and  patterns,  and  yellow  or  gold  for  trinkets." 
Thus  decorated  the  toilette  of  the  figurine  was  at  an  end, 
and  it  was  ready  to  stand  on  the  potter's  stall  and  attract  the 
passing  customer. 

FORGED  FIGURINES 

The  method  of  manufacture  thus  described  opens  an  easy 
door  to  the  supply  of  false  antiques,  and  on  this  subject  a  few 
words  of  warning  may  be  of  interest  to  the  connoisseur  and 
collector.  Some  years  ago  genuine  Tanagra  figurines  or  heads 
of  them  could  be  picked  up  cheaply  enough.  Mr.  Huish,  in 
his  work  on  the  subject,  mentions  that  a  "lot,"  consisting  of 
some  charming  little  heads,  fell  to  his  bid  at  Puttick  and 
Simpson's  for  a  few  shillings.  When  once,  however,  the  vogue 
of  the  figurine  set  in,  prices  went  up  by  leaps  and  bounds.  A 
really  choice  specimen  fetches  as  much  as  ^40,  ,£60,  or  even 
£80.  An  admitted  copy,  even  if  well  executed,  would  barely 
be  worth  as  many  shillings.  The  temptation  to  the  forger, 
therefore,  is  considerable.  It  is  not  resisted,  and  the 
manufacture  of  Tanagra  antiques  has,  for  some  time,  been  a 
flourishing  branch  of  modern  industry.     One  process  of  the 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


685 


manufacture  can  hardly  be  described  as  illegitimate  ;  this  is 
the  taking  of  modern  casts  from  ancient  moulds  or  figures. 
Another  and  less  reputable  enterprise  is  the  sale  as  antiques  of 
modern  casts  from  modern  moulds.  Between  the  two  methods 
there  is  a  third,  which  consists  of  putting  together  scattered 
fragments,  and.  by  dint  of  restorations  and  additions,  making 
up  what  we  may  call  semi-modern  antiques.  Many  of  the 
figurines  turned  out  by  the  forgers  are  pretty  enough,  but  they 
are  not  Greek  originals,  and  the  manufacturers  often  betray 
themselves  by  some  irrelevance  or  incongruity.  An  interesting 
instance  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Huish's  pages  (p.  236).  The 
detection  of  forgeries  is,  however,  by  no  means  easy  to  the 
untrained  eye  ;  and  even  among  the  experts  acute  differences 
of  opinion  exist  with  regard  to  the  genuineness  of  particular 
examples.  Even  the  British  Museum  collection  contains 
specimens  which  have  not  escaped  destructive  criticism  from 
other  experts  (see  below,  p.  709). 


Having  now  formed  some  idea  of  the  most  attractive  of  the 
statuettes  and  of  the  methods  employed  in  their  manufacture, 
we  may  proceed  to  examine  the  collection  historically,  iri  the 
order  of  its  arrangement.  On  the  south  side  of  the  room,  in 
Cases  1-37,  are  displayed  terra-cottas  found  in  Greece  and  in 
ancient  Greek  colonies  ;  on  the  north  side,  in  Cases  38-74,  are 
terra-cottas  found  in  Italy,  but  chiefly  on  sites  where  Greek 
influence  had  prevailed.  We  shall  pass  briefly  over  the 
archaic  figures,  which  are  of  small  artistic  interest,  dwelling 
upon  them  enough  only  to  gain  some  idea  of  the  way  in  which 
the  exquisite  little  marvels  we  have  been  examining  were 
gradually  developed  from  primitive  types.  Among  the  later 
statuettes  we  shall  linger  longer,  for  many  of  them  are  of 
intrinsic  value  and  artistic  charm.  We  shall  note  also  some 
of  the  different  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  statuettes 
from  different  places,  and  shall  find  further  points  of  interest 
in  various  mythological  types,  in  methods  of  manufacture, 
and  in  the  story  of  the  discoveries  whereby  these  fragile  pieces 
of  baked  clay  have  found  their  way  into  the  museums  of  the 
modern  world. 

The  history  of  Statuettes  closely  follows  that  of  statues. 
We  have  seen  already  how  the  beautiful  creations  of  the  great 
Greek  sculptors  were  gradually  developed  from  the  stiff  and 


686 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


formal  figures  of  earlier  ages,  and  how  these  in  turn  owed 
much  to  the  influence  of  Eastern  art.  We  shall  now  be  able 
to  trace  the  same  process  in  the  case  of  Greek  statuettes. 
The  origin  of  the  whole  art  of  statuary  is  to  be  found  in  the 
primitive  worship  of  unhewn  stones  and  stumps  of  wood. 
The  stones  were  in  time  given  a  regular  symmetrical  form, 
which  afterwards  began  to  assume  some  rough  resemblance  to 
the  human  figure.  Similarly,  planks  or  trunks  of  leafless  trees 
were,  in  course  of  time,  carved  into  rude,  coarse  figures 
(xoana),  and  these  served  as  the  earliest  images  for  worship 
in  the  temples  of  the  gods.  The  earliest  worship  was  of  natural 
objects  supposed  to  contain  the  divinity  within  them  ;  the  pro- 
gress of  art  in  the  early  ages  consisted,  we  may  say,  in  reveal- 
ing this  hidden  divinity,  in  making  the  dead  stock  and  stone 
into  some  kind  of  living  image.  The  rude  wooden  statues, 
the  xoana  described  above,  were  objects  of  public  worship. 
Corresponding  to  these,  in  private  devotion,  were  little  terra- 
cotta figures  of  rude  workmanship  which  accompanied  the  dead 
man  to  his  grave.  In  these  the  workmanship  is  very  rude  ; 
the  figure  is  cut  out  of  a  piece  of  clay,  generally  in  the  form  of 
a  column,  and  the  arms  are  represented  by  pieces  added  on. 
The  workman  has  sometimes  made  no  further  attempt  to  repre- 
sent the  face  than  by  pinching  the  moist  clay  in  his  fingers  ;  in 
other  instances  the  head  has  been  added  after  the  completion 
of  the  figure,  and  some  crude  resemblance  to  the  human 
figure  is  helped  out  by  means  of  paint. 

Grseco-Phcenician  terra-cottas  from  Cyprus  (Cases  1-3). 
— Of  these  primitive  terra-cotta  idols  some  examples  may  be 
seen  at  the  bottom  of  the  cases  containing  archaic  statuettes 
from  Cyprus  (A  30,  etc.).  Many  of  these  statuettes  show 
very  strongly  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  influences  introduced 
to  the  Greek,  world  through  the  Phoenicians,  who  were  great 
traders  and  art-workers  for  export : — 

A  curious  statuette,  which  comes  from  a  Phoenician  workshop 
in  Cyprus,  well  represents  the  admixture  of  styles.  It  shows  a 
draped  female  figure  in  the  pose  of  the  ushabtiu,  or  i(  answerers," 
of  Egyptian  funeral  ritual  (see  below,  p.  689). 

Assyrian  influence  is  very  marked  in  the  fragments  of  pottery  (A 
107-113)  here  exhibited,  brilliantly  painted  with  figures  and  patterns 
imitating  oriental  embroidery.  In  some  of  them,  figures  of  men, 
animals,  and  winged  monsters  are  worked  into  a  background  of  the 
"  scale  "  pattern,  derived  probably  from  the  scale  armour  of  the  period 
(650-550  B.C.).     Cyprus,  it  may  be  remembered,  was  famous  for  its 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


687 


textiles,  and  these  paintings  may  be  taken  as  representing,  with  vivid- 
ness and  accuracy,  the  celebrated  oriental  woven  stuffs  familiar  in 
literature  as  Babylonian  embroideries  (see  Pausanias,  ii.  n,  6). 

Special  attention  may  be  called  also  to  the  large  painted  statuette 
(A  106)  of  a  man,  whose  right  arm  is  slung  across  the  chest  in  the 
upper  garment,  and  whose  beard  is  treated  in  Assyrian  fashion.  The 
whole  impression  of  the  figure,  though  very  far  from  handsome,  is  not 
without  a  certain  stiff  grotesque  dignity.  "  The  type  of  figure,  the 
attitude,  the  arms,  the  flowers  carried  in  the  hands,  the  dress  and  its 
decoration,  down  to  the  details  of  the  embroidered  patterns,  all  so 
strongly  recall  the  art  of  Assyria  that  one  is  at  first  sight  tempted  to 
imagine  that  the  figures  have  simply  walked  out  of  an  Assyrian  relief. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  they  were  fashioned,  close  by 
where  they  were  found,  out  of  the  river  clay  which  still  supplies 
excellent  material  to  the  potters  of  Varosia.  .  .  .  The  likeness  to 
Assyrian  work  is  only  in  externals  ;  the  features  are  very  far  from 
Semitic,  although  equally  far  from  the  Greek  ideal — are  in  fact 
thoroughly  Cypriote.  There  is,  I  think,  no  reason  to  doubt  that  these 
figures  represent  native  Cypriotes  at  a  period  when  dress  and  manners, 
derived  ultimately  from  Assyria,  spreading  perhaps  from  the  upper 
grades  of  society,  had  become  general  among  them  "  (J.  A.  R.  Munro, 
in  J  M.S.  xii.  151). 

The  huge  head-dresses  are  curious  and  characteristic  of  oriental 
types.     Some  of  them  {e.g.  A  241)  are  very  elaborate. 

Of  the  other  statuettes,  the  greater  number  are  of  female  divinities, 
standing  and  holding  one  hand  upon  the  breast.  This  is  an  oriental 
type,  representing  the  goddess-mother  who  sustains  life  in  the  world 
and  among  human  beings. 

Later  statuettes  from  Cyprus  (Cases  4,  5). — The  later 
specimens  found  in  Cyprus  are  purely  Greek  in  type,  and  some 
are  very  beautiful.  The  best  belong  to  the  fifth  century,  and 
all  the  figurines  of  this  period,  -  whether  they  be  found  in 
Athens,  in  Rhodes,  or  in  Cyprus,  have  something  of  the  grand 
style  of  the  sculpture  of  the  same  period. 

As  types  of  simple  beauty  we  may  instance  the  two  heads  numbered 
A  360,  361  (Case  5)  ;  these  came  from  a  temple  at  Achna,  in  Eastern 
Cyprus,  where  statuettes  were  found  "packed  as  close  as  sardines  in  a 
box,  and  in  such  quantities  that  they  were  used  by  the  children  in  the 
village  as  playthings."  There  seem  to  have  been  basements  or  store- 
rooms attached  to  ancient  temples  where  votive  offerings  were  kept. 
From  time  to  time  the  offerings  were  probably  cleared  out,  and  some- 
times it  is  a  temple  rubbish-heap  that  has  been  excavated. 

For  an  example  of  the  grand  style  in  the  later  terra-cottas  from 
Cyprus,  we  may  direct  attention  to  the  seated  goddess  numbered  A  261 
(Case  4).  The  general  conception  and  pose  of  the  figure  belong  to 
an  archaic  type  of  seated  goddess,  which  we  have  seen  already  and 


688 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


shall  see  again ;  but  stiffness  has  passed  into  grace,  stolid  ty  into 
majesty,  and  emptiness  into  decorative  detail.  This  figurine  was  found 
at  Kition  (now  the  sea-port  Larnaca),  a  town  which  has  yielded  an 
enormous  number  of  terra-cottas,  many  of  them  of  remarkable  beauty. 

Very  graceful  is  the  statuette  numbered  A  423 —  a  representa- 
tion of  the  virgin  goddess,  Pallas  Athena  (see  J. U.S.  ii.  326) — 
possibly  a  reminiscence  in  part  of  the  celebrated  Athena  Lemnia  of 
Phidias,  in  which  statue  the  goddess  is  supposed  to  have  carried  her 
helmet  in  her  hand.  The  statuette  was  found  in  a  tomb  at  Salamis 
(Cyprus),  with  some  twenty  others,  crowded  without  order  or  arrange- 
ment ;  and  as  if  there  were  not  room  enough  inside,  many  more  were 
found  in  the  earth  outside,  buried  in  disorder  and  profusion.  For 
what  cause  were  these  bright  and  beautiful  figurines  buried  thus 
indiscriminately  ?  The  question  remains,  as  we  have  seen  above 
(p.  680),  enveloped  in  doubt  and  mystery. 

Early  Terra-cottas  from  Rhodes  and  other  Greek  Sites 

(Cases  6-13). — The  burial-grounds  of  Rhodes  have  proved 
extremely  rich  in  figurines  of  an  archaic  type.  Excavations 
have  been  carried  on  there,  and  especially  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  town  of  Camirus,  for  many  years,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  find  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  collection 
here  exhibited  is  therefore  very  complete  and  representative, 
and  it  may  be  useful  to  describe  and  distinguish  the  various 
types. 

The  visitor  will  already  have  noticed  that  among  Greek  figurines  at 
large  the  female  type  is  much  commoner  than  the  male.  This  pre- 
dominance continued  in  the  art  of  Tanagra,  where  it  may  have  been 
due  to  considerations  of  technique  as  well  as  of  taste.  "  A  female 
figure,  draped  to  the  feet,  provided,"  says  Dr.  Murray,  "at  once  a 
broad  base  on  which  it  could  stand  without  the  danger  of  being  broken, 
which  a  nude  figure  resting  only  on  its  feet  was  always  liable  to.  That 
this  was  one  of  the  motives  in  question  is  further  apparent  from  the 
fact  that  when  male  figures  as  of  boys  are  represented,  they  are  usually 
made  to  sit  on  a  rock,  so  as  to  secure  a  broad  and  firm  base " 
{Handbook  of  Greek  Archceology,  p.  314).  Originally,  however,  the 
choice  of  the  female  type  was  decided  by  religious  considerations. 
"  Deep-seated  in  the  mind  of  every  primitive  people  there  is  an  in- 
stinctive idea  of  the  earth-mother,  the  principle  of  fertility,  the  type  of 
continual  birth  and  death  ;  and,  therefore,  when  they  wish  to  express 
this  idea  in  a  concrete  form  they  choose  a  woman  for  their  type " 
(Hutton's  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes,  p.  27). 

The  first  type  is  that  of  a  female  bust.  Several  examples  may 
here  be  seen  (on  the  lowest  shelf).  These  masks  are  often  pierced  at 
the  top  with  small  holes,  intended  for  hanging  them  up  on  a  wall — 
apparently  the  wall  of  a  tomb.  In  their  origin  they  may  have  been 
derived  from  Egyptian  coffins,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  moulded  in 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


689 


the  likeness  of  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  dead.  If  so,  the  original 
idea  was  either  misunderstood  or  abandoned,  for  the  greater  number 
of  these  busts  represent  a  veiled  woman  of  majestic  expression,  whose 
gentle  gravity  and  rather  severe  grace  evidently  denote  a  divinity, 
probably  Demeter.  The  figures  cut  off  at  the  waist  may  be  taken  to 
symbolise  the  deities  of  the  lower  world  leaving  their  subterranean 
home  to  ascend  among  the  gods. 

The  second  female  type  is  that  of  a  standing  woman,  with  one 
foot  advanced,  one  hand  pressed  to  her  bosom,  the  other  drawing 
aside  the  skirt  of  the  long  tunic  over  which  she  wears  a  curiously 
pleated  little  mantle.  Of  this  type  there  is  here  a  row  of  statuettes 
(B  211-222).  These  maybe  called  figures  of  Persephone.  Next 
come  a  series  which  may  be  called  Aphrodite,  in  which  the  goddess 
holds  a  leveret  or  some  other  young  animal  in  her  hand.  Some 
of  these  latter  are  brightly  coloured,  as,  for  instance,  B  81.  The 
general  idea  of  these  figures  is  the  same  as  in  those  called  Persephone, 
for  "Aphrodite  is  only  another  name  for  the  earth-mother's  reproduc- 
tive power,  of  which  the  young  leveret  is  a  sign.  .  .  .  The  angular 
lines  of  the  lower  part  of  the  statuette  (B  105),  the  stiff'  position  of  the 
left  foot,  the  timid  rendering  of  the  transverse  folds,  recall  the  time 
when  the  sculptor  was  still  struggling  to  disengage  his  figure  from  a 
block  of  wood  or  marble,  and  the  figure  has  a  curious  reminiscence  of 
the  tree  origin  of  the  statue  in  the  way  in  which  the  drapery  spreads 
out  at  the  feet  like  the  roots  of  the  tree"  (Hutton,  pp.  26,  28). 

The  third  female  type  is  a  seated  woman,  dressed  in  a  long  robe, 
with  a  veil  falling  over  her  shoulders  from  a  high  head-dress,  her 
feet  resting  on  a  footstool,  her  hands  lying  stiffly  in  her  lap.  Of  this 
type  there  is  an  interesting  series  of  examples  from  Rhodes  (B  170- 181), 
arranged  in  a  row  below  those  of  the  standing  goddess.  We  have 
already  seen  the  same  type  in  early  sculpture,  in  the  Branchidae 
statues  (p.  94),  though  the  earlier  of  the  terra-cotta  figures  wear  the 
high  Eastern  head-dress  (e.g.  B  174).  The  archaic  type  is  gradually 
modified,  and  at  last  the  statuette  comes,  as  it  were,  to  life  (see  B  83). 
This  latter  type  of  the  seated  goddess  may  be  said  to  be  half-way 
between  the  archaic  type  and  the  seated  Demeter  of  later  times. 

With  regard  to  all  these  statuettes  of  female  divinities,  the  idea 
with  which  they  were  placed  in  the  tomb  was  that  of  protecting  the 
dead  against  the  dangers  of  their  mysterious  journey. 

"  It  was  for  this  purpose  that  the  Egyptians  placed  '  answerers'  in  the 
tombs  to  answer  the  summons  of  the  departed,  to  aid  him  in  the  culti- 
vation of  the  celestial  fields,  to  form  a  devoted  escort  around  him,  and 
to  secure  him  immortality.  The  Assyrians,  from  a  similar  motive, 
placed  in  the  graves  figurines  designed  to  avert  the  hostility  of  the 
chthonic  powers,  and  this,  too,  is  the  object  of  the  sepulchral  idols 
found  in  ancient  burial-grounds  at  Rhodes  which  represented  the 
guardian  divinities  of  the  tomb,  and  afforded  escort  and  society  for 
the  departed"  (Diehl,  p.  383).  A  somewhat  different  idea  may  be 
traced  in  the  strange  type  which  we  have  next  to  examine. 

2  Y 


690 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS  chap. 


This  is  the  grotesque  figurine,  of  which  we  may  take  B  281  as  an 
example.  The  figure  represents,  it  will  be  seen,  a  little  nude  man, 
unbearded,  squatting  on  his  haunches  with  his  hands  on  an  enormous 
paunch.  Whence,  it  may  well  be  asked,  came  the  idea  of  burying  this 
kind  of  grotesque  with  the  dead  ?  what  purpose  was  the  funny  little 
fat  man  supposed  to  perform  therein  ?  The  type  seems  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  East,  and  has  both  Phoenician  and  Egyptian  affinities. 
Herodotus  (hi.  37)  mentions  certain  Phoenician  figures,  called  pataicoi, 
"  and  for  him  who  has  not  seen  these  I  will  indicate  its  nature, — it  is 
the  likeness  of  a  dwarfish  man."  The  Egyptian  god,  Bes,  was  also  an 
ugly  little  dwarf,  with  grotesque  appearance.  From  Phoenician  traders, 
therefore,  bringing  their  own  and  Egyptian  ideas,  the  type  of  this 
grotesque  was  derived.  Another  grotesque  yet  more  commonly  met 
with  in  Greek  tombs,  is  in  the  form  of  a  satyr  (B  282).  This  bearded 
Silenus  type  appears  sometimes  as  an  old  man  with  shaggy  hair  and 
beard,  and  sometimes  as  a  little  mask  (e.g.  B  538  in  Case  67).  The 
presence  in  the  grave  of  such  grotesques,  always  laughable  and  often 
obscene,  may  well  cause  astonishment  at  first  sight.  But  as  we  have 
seen  already,  in  noticing  the  gay  and  cheerful  figurines  which  the 
people  of  Tanagra  buried  with  their  departed  friends,  it  is  a  mistake 
to  take  too  gloomy  a  view  of  antiquity,  and  to  read  back  into  the 
sepulchral  customs  of  the  Greeks  the  ideas  of  a  more  austere  religion. 
Even  buffoonery  was  believed  to  play  a  useful  part  in  the  grave.  "  It 
was  a  protection  against  the  evil  spirits  and  malevolent  influence  which 
surrounded  the  departed  ;  it  provoked  a  laugh  in  their  gloomy  sub- 
terranean prison,  and  laughter  was  believed  by  t*he  ancients  to  have  a 
beneficent  effect  ;  it  diverted  the  dead,  and  lifted  the  inauspicious 
gloom  of  the  grave.  .  .  .  We  have  an  example  in  the  myth  of  Baubo 
who  succeeded  by  a  broad  joke  in  making  even  the  dolorous  Demeter 
laugh  "  (Diehl,  p.  384  ;  Huish,  p.  82). 

Another  obviously  Egyptian  type  is  the  figurine  of  the  negro,  of 
which  also  there  are  some  examples  here  (e.g.  B  269). 

This  type  brings  us  to  the  class  of  genre  subjects  generally.  Here, 
for  instance,  we  may  note  the  figures  of  a  naked  boy  resting  his  head 
on  his  hand  (B  273),  and  of  a  boy  riding  on  a  horse  (B  257).  The 
latter  type  was  common  in  later  times.  In  the  art  of  Tanagra,  nearly 
all  the  figurines  may  be  described  under  the  head  of  genre.  We  see 
from  these  earlier  terra-cottas  found  at  Rhodes  that,  even  in  the 
archaic  period,  the  potter  did  not  busy  himself  exclusively  with  those 
religious  and  symbolic  types  which  we  have  described  above.  He  also 
gave  some  play  to  his  fancy  in  studies  from  common  life. 

Archaic  Reliefs  in  Terra -cotta  (Cases  6-1 1). — The 
activity  of  the  potter  was  not  confined  to  making  statuettes. 
On  "  the  line JJ  here  are  a  series  of  archaic  reliefs  in  terra- 
cotta. Some  of  them  are  from  early  cemeteries  at  Camirus  in 
Rhodes  ;  others,  from  the  island  of  Melos.     From  their  fragile 


xxvii  THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


691 


character,  the  lowness  of  the  relief,  and  the  delicacy  of  the 
work,  it  is  presumed  that  they  were  made  to  decorate  some 
solid  object  like  a  box  (see  Murray's  Handbook  of  Greek 
Archczology,  pp.  337-338).  With  regard  to  the  subjects  of 
these  reliefs,  B  374  shows  Scylla  with  the  dogs'  heads  spring- 
ing from  her  waist  ;  for  this  subject,  see  p.  137.  B  367 
shows  a  man  grasping  a  lyre  on  which  a  woman  is  playing — 
probably  a  representation  of  the  loves  of  the  poets  Sappho  and 
Alcseus  : — 

Alcceus, — I  fain  would  speak,  I  fain  would  tell, 

But  shame  and  fear  my  utterance  quell. 

Sappho.  — If  aught  of  good,  if  aught  of  fair, 

Thy  tongue  were  labouring  to  declare, 
Nor  shame  should  dash  thy  glance,  nor  fear 
Forbid  thy  suit  to  reach  my  ear. 

B  365  is  Perseus  riding  away  on  horseback  with  the  head  of 
the  Gorgon  Medusa,  whom  he  has  just  decapitated ;  from  her 
neck  issues  Chrysaor,  a  monster  who  sprang  from  Medusa's 
body.  B  364  is  Bellerophon  slaying  the  Lycian  monster 
Chimaera.  His  winged  horse  Pegasus  is  here  represented 
without  wings,  "  partly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  adjusting 
them  to  the  composition,  and  partly  because  of  the  close 
parallelism  between  this  group  and  No.  365."  B  363  is 
Thetis  seized  by  Peleus.  Notice  the  convention  accepted 
in  archaic  art  by  which,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out 
(cf.  p.  92),  moments  properly  consecutive  are  shown  as  if 
simultaneous ;  thus,  here,  the  lion  represents  one  of  the 
transformations  by  which  the  sea-goddess  attempted  to  evade 
her  suitor. 

Terra-cottas  of  later  date  from  Athens  and  other  Greek 
sites  (Cases  14  and  15). — We  now  leave  the  archaic  period 
in  the  potter's  art,  and  come  to  specimens  of  a  later  date,  from 
the  fourth  century  or  a  little  earlier,  to  about  the  first  century. 
The  figures  of  divinities  give  place  to  those  of  creatures  not 
too  bright  or  good  for  human  nature's  daily  food.  Severity 
passes  into  grace  ;  stiffness  into  elegance.  The  change  was 
part  of  a  general  movement  in  the  art  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  maker  of  figurines  at  the  period  to  which  we  have  now 
come,  consulted  the  taste  of  the  time,  and  only  very  small 
alterations  were  necessary  to  convert  the  goddess  of  the  age 
immediately  preceding,  into  a  reigning  beauty  of  the  day. 


692 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS  chap. 


The  first  figure  here  which  is  likely  to  attract  the  visitor's  attention 
is  numbered  C  7.  It  may  be  called,  with  reference  to  archaic  types, 
a  standing  figure  of  a  female  divinity.  The  lady,  who  Comes  from 
Corinth,  is  certainly  stately  enough  for  a  daughter  of  the  gods,  and 
fair  as  Aphrodite.  But  note  the  differences.  The  archaic  head-dress 
has  given  place  to  the  fashionable  coiffure  of  the  day.  The  lady  poses 
also  for  effect — an  impression  which  is  strengthened  by  the  high 
circular  plinth  (characteristic  of  Corinthian  statuettes).  She  might 
serve,  with  her  handsome  figure  and  graceful  pose,  as  a  model  in  the 
art  of  wearing  a  Greek  costume  becomingly. 

A  beautiful  example  from  Athens  is  the  figure  of  a  nude  youth, 
numbered  C  14 — one  of  the  gems  of  the  British  Museum,  and  a  fine 
example  of  the  technical  skill  of  Athenian  potters.  44  This  nude  youth, 
crowned  with  ivy,  is  one  of  those  fifth-century  conceptions  which  hover 
on  the  confines  of  the  real  and  the  ideal  world.  Owing  to  its  beauty, 
the  figure  is  known  as  Ganymede,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  but  it  would 
be  equally  well  adapted  for  the  genius  of  a  banquet,  waiting  with  jug 
and  cup  to  minister  to  the  pleasure  of  the  guests.  The  slender  figure 
is  so  perfectly  balanced,  the  feet  sink  so  naturally  into  the  little  clay 
plinth,  the  still  undeveloped  body  is  modelled  with  such  attention  to 
anatomical  detail  (but  no  undue  insistence  on  it),  the  watchful  attitude 
of  the  willing  cup-bearer  is  so  well  expressed,  that  we  seem  to  have 
before  us  one  of  those  proplasmata  or  sculptor's  models  of  which 
Pliny  speaks  as  commanding  so  high  a  price.  The  technical  skill  dis- 
played in  firing  so  fragile  a  figure  is  no  less  remarkable "  (Hutton, 
PP.  34,  4i,  67). 

Another  Athenian  statuette  of  refined  workmanship  is  C  15,  a  re- 
presentation of  Leda  and  the  swan.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  is  re- 
markable that  Athens  has  not  yet  yielded  any  large  number  of  terra-cottas. 

In  a  lighter  vein  than  the  statuettes  described  above,  is  the  figure  of 
Marsyas  from  Melos,  C  73. 

Very  interesting  is  the  statuette  C  406  (in  Case  25,  farther  on), 
acquired  in  1892,  of  Silenus  carrying  the  infant  Dionysus  on  his  left 
arm,  and  holding  up  a  bunch  of  grapes  in  his  right  hand.  This  is 
remarkable  as  being  a  sort  of  caricature  of  the  statue  of  Hermes  by 
Praxiteles  (p.  145),  and  thus  as  confirming  the  generally  received 
opinion  that  the  missing  right  hand  of  Hermes  has  held  up  a  bunch  of 
grapes.  Here,  instead  of  the  graceful  figure  in  the  prime  of  manly 
beauty,  we  see  an  ugly  old  satyr,  whose  ugliness  is  only  intensified  by 
his  wreath.  The  contrast  between  the  native  ugliness  of  the  satyr  and 
the  childish  grace  of  the  little  god  is  well  expressed  (H.  B.  Walters 
in  Classical  Review,  vi.  77  ;  Hutton,  pp.  39,  75). 

Very  charming  as  studies  in  children  are  the  figures  C  39  and  40. 

Effective  in  its  realistic  genre  is  the  group  numbered  C  41. 
<s  Come  along,  you  dirty  boy,"  we  may  call  it. 

Statuettes  from  Tanagra  and  from  Eretria  (Cases  16- 
24). — We  now  return  to  the  figurines  from  Tanagra,  which  we 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


693 


discussed  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.  They  are  the  most 
attractive  series  in  the  collection,  and  well  deserve  a  second 
inspection.  We  have  already  dealt  with  many  of  their 
characteristics,  and  with  the  phase  of  Greek  life  which  they 
bring  before  us.  A  few  general  remarks,  however,  may  still 
be  made,  and  we  shall  then  call  attention  to  some  of  the 
individual  pieces,  not  hitherto  described,  which  for  one  reason 
or  another  are  of  special  interest.  We  have  already  noticed 
the  surprise  which  was  caused  by  the  novelty  of  the  Tanagra 
finds.  Tanagra  is  in  Bceotia,  and  Athenian  writers  spoke 
contemptuously  of  Boeotian,  as  we  speak  of  Batavian,  grace. 
The  discovery  of  these  wonders  of  taste  and  refinement  in  the 
cemeteries  of  Tanagra  has,  after  many  ages,  amply  avenged 
the  Boeotians  for  the  contempt  of  their  supercilious  neighbours. 
An  interesting  question,  however,  arises  with  regard  to  the 
sources  from  which  the  potters  of  Tanagra  derived  the  models 
and  conceptions  of  their  statuettes.  For  the  maker  of  such 
little  images  is  seldom  an  originator  ;  he  is,  more  probably,  a 
copyist  and  an  adaptor.  Three  answers  have  been  given  to 
the  question,  and  all  of  them  may  be  true.  According  to 
some  authorities,  the  motives  of  the  Tanagra  potters  were  due 
to  the  paintings  of  the  time  (Furtwangler).  According  to 
others,  the  source  of  inspiration  is  literary  (see  Murray's 
Archceology,  p.  323).  Miss  Hutton,  in  her  work  on  Greek 
terra-cottas,  has  given  many  felicitous  and  convincing  illustra- 
tions of  the  resemblance  in  spirit  between  the  Tanagra  figures 
and  the  poetry  of  the  age.  But  in  some  cases,  as  we  have 
already  indicated,  there  is  an  equally  strong  resemblance 
between  the  figurines  and  the  new  ideals  in  sculpture  intro- 
duced by  the  School  of  Praxiteles. 

We  have  spoken  of  all  the  pieces  here  before  us  as 
"  Tanagra  figurines,"  and  indeed  so  great  were  the  fame  and 
abundance  of  the  finds  at  Tanagra,  that  in  popular  usage  this 
generic  term  has  been  applied  to  all  terra-cotta  statuettes.  In 
fact,  however,  several  of  the  figurines  in  these  cases — includ- 
ing at  least  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  whole  collection — 
come  from  Eretria,  in  the  island  of  Eubcea.  The  figures  from 
Eretria  are  said  to  be  "  distinguished  by  a  taste  for  greater 
definiteness  of  subject,  showing  itself  in  the  choice  of  legendary 
subjects  and  of  character  studies  from  real  life  "  (see  for  further 
remarks  on  this  point,  Hutton,  p.  37). 

Let  us  first,  then,  look  at  some  of  the  more  interesting 


694 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS  chap. 


statuettes  of  legendary  subjects  or  of  definitely  recognisable 
divinities.  Many  of  these  are  from  Eretria,  but  we  shall  not 
rigidly  adhere  to  a  geographical  classification  : — 

There  is  no  more  beautiful  statuette  in  the  whole  collection  than 
the  Flying  Eros  (C  199,  Case  18),  which  was  acquired  by  the  Museum 
in  1895,  and  was  said  to  have  come  from  a  tomb  in  Eretria.  44  It  is  in 
perfect  preservation,  and  the  wings  form  an  organic  whole  with  the 
body.  When  first  unearthed,  it  was  brilliantly  painted  in  front,  but 
not  at  the  back  ;  hence  it  is  supposed  that  the  figure  was  intended  for 
hanging  against  a  wall.  It  is  a  masterpiece  alike  in  execution  and  in 
conception.  It  expresses,  with  complete  success,  the  idea  of  rhythmi- 
cal movement.  In  order  to  convey  a  sense  of  backward  and  forward 
motion  the  artist  advances  the  leg  and  draws  back  the  toes  under  the 
foot.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  avoid  any  appearance  of  excessive 
heaviness  in  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  the  arms  are  pressed  close  to 
the  chest  in  the  style  of  Polyclitus,  and  serve  as  a  point  of  support  for 
the  mantle,  the  pendent  folds  of  which  present  the  appearance  of  a 
second  pair  of  wings,  and  assist  the  impression  of  easy  movement.  The 
expression  of  the  god  is  equally  remarkable.  He  is  not  sweetly 
smiling  or  mischievously  laughing,  as  in  later  representations  of  Eros  ; 
he  is  serious  and  reflective,  and  recalls  rather  a  winged  version  of  the 
Hermes  of  Praxiteles  or  the  bronze  Sleep  associated  with  the  same 
sculptor.  Here,  at  any  rate,  an  affinity  between  the  potter  and  the 
sculptor  seems  complete.  The  date  of  the  statuette  may  be  placed 
as  about  340  B.C.,  and  its  creator  must  have  been  an  artist  in  full 
accordance  with  the  traditions  of  Praxiteles  "  (P.  Bienkowski,  in  J.H.S. 
xv.  211). 

Floating  figures  were  very  popular  with  the  makers  of  statuettes, 
and  in  this  connection  we  may  notice  the  figures  of  dancing-girls. 
The  best  is  C  286  (Case  18).  It  represents  one  of  the  performers 
who  were  sometimes  called  in  to  amuse  the  guests  at  a  banquet.  She 
has  balls  in  her  hands,  "and  with  these  she  falls  to  dancing"  (as 
Xenophon  describes),  "and  the  while  she  dances,  she  flings  them  into 
the  air  ;  overhead  she  sends  them  twirling,  judging  the  time  they  must 
be  thrown  to  catch  them  as  they  fall  in  perfect  time." 

Very  different  in  conception  from  the  Flying  Eros  above  noticed 
are  the  Loves  from  Tanagra  (C  192,  etc.,  in  Case  19) — coquettish 
cupids  which  became  very  popular  in  Hellenistic  art.  The  god  of  love 
— under  various  forms — was  very  popular  with  the  makers  of  figurines 
and  their  customers. 

Another  favourite  was  Pan,  one  of  those  familiar  spirits  who  occupy 
the  border-land  of  Greek  mythology,  filling  a  large  place  in  popular 
fancy,  and  especially  to  the  country  folk  being  ever  present  and  very 
real  : — 

"  Homespun  dream  of  simple  people,  and,  like  them,  in  the  unevent- 
ful tenour  of  his  existence,  he  has  almost  no  story  ;  he  is  but  a  presence  ; 
the  spiritual  form  of  Arcadia,  and  the  ways  of  human  life  there ;  the 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTAS 


695 


reflection,  in  sacred  image  or  ideal,  of  its  flocks  and  orchards  and  wild 
honey ;  the  dangers  of  its  hunters  ;  its  weariness  in  noonday  heat  ;  its 
children,  agile  as  the  goats  they  tend,  who  run,  in  their  picturesque 
rags,  across  the  solitary  wanderer's  path,  to  startle  him,  in  the 
unfamiliar  upper  places ;  its  one  adornment  and  solace  being  the 
dance  to  the  homely  shepherd's  pipe,  cut  by  Pan  first  from  the 
sedges  of  the  brook  "  (Pater's  Greek  Studies,  p.  8). 

The  figurine-makers,  themselves  perhaps  having  (i  been  in  Arcadia," 
have  very  well  expressed  the  character  of  this  spirit  of  the  joy  of  wild 
country  life,  whose  appearance  so  charmed  the  gods  in  Olympus,  that, 
as  the  Homeric  Hymn  tells  us,  "  they  call  the  name  of  him  Pan,  because 
he  delighted  them  a//."  The  sense  of  remote  and  wild  nature,  which 
the  Greeks  personified  in  Pan,  is  very  strong  in  the  Homeric  Hymn  : — 
"  Tell  me,  Muse,  concerning  the  dear  son  of  Hermes,  the  goat-footed, 
the  twy-horned,  the  lover  of  the  din  and  of  revel,  who  haunts  the 
wooded  dells  with  dancing  nymphs  that  head  the  crests  of  the  steep 
cliffs,  calling  upon  Pan,  the  pastoral  god  of  the  long  wild  hair.  Lord 
he  is  of  every  snowy  crest  and  mountain  peak  and  rocky  path. 
Hither  and  thither  he  goes  through  the  thick  copses,  sometimes  being 
drawn  to  the  still  waters,  and  sometimes  faring  through  the  lofty 
crags  he  climbs  the  highest  peak  whence  the  flocks  are  seen  below  ; 
ever  he  ranges  over  the  high  white  hills,  and  ever  among  the  knolls 
he  chases  and  slays  the  wild  beasts,  the  God  with  keen  eye,  and  at 
evening  returns  piping  from  the  chase,  breathing  sweet  strains  on  the 
reeds  "  (Andrew  Lang's  translation). 

The  statuette  (C  283  in  Case  16)  is  especially  characteristic,  repre- 
senting Pan  with  goat  and  shepherd's  crook,  seated  on  some  rocky  knoll. 
This  figure  comes  from  Tanagra.  On  another  (C  282,  Case  22),  from 
Eretria,  much  of  the  original  colouring  is  preserved.  Accessories  are 
absent,  but  all  the  characteristics  of  the  god  are  carefully  worked 
out. 

Another  example  of  the  fondness  of  the  Eretrian  potters  for  definite 
mythological  subjects  is  C  335  (Case  21) — a  Nereid  bringing  to  Achilles, 
as  Homer  describes,  "a  weighty  helmet  for  his  head,  fair,  richly 
wrought,  with  crests  of  gold  above."  This  terra-cotta  is  probably  a 
copy  of  some  piece  of  sculpture. 

Many  of  the  statuettes  of  pretty  ladies  have  already  been  noticed. 
We  may  here  call  attention  to  a  few  more.  How  graceful  is  the  girl 
numbered  C  336  (Case  18)  !  She  is  very  tall,  and  has  a  little  head  ; 
the  very  type  of  a  pretty  English  girl,  no  less  than  of  a  Greek.  The 
lady  numbered  C  26  is  more  of  a  languisher,  but  at  any  rate  she  lan- 
guishes daintily.  The  combination  of  a  pretty  girl  with  a  comic  mask 
— "  Beauty  and  the  Beast  "  it  may  be  called — was  much  in  favour  with 
the  Tanagra  potters  (C  316-318  in  Case  24).  It  was  precisely  in 
accord  with  their  piquant  note. 

Very  interesting,  however,  if  not  entirely  convincing,  is  the  theory 
which  Professor  Furtwangler  has  propounded  about  some  of  these 
Tanagra  figures.    The  masks,  and  other  accessories,  to  which  we  shall 


696 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


presently  allude,  were  intended,  he  suggested,  to  identify  the  figures  as 
followers  of  Dionysus.  The  statuettes  were  placed  in  the  tomb  as 
representatives  of  the  happy  state  which  it  is  hoped  the  deceased  would 
enter.  In  Euripides,  the  Bacchantes  proclaim  as  thrice  happy  him  who 
has  received  the  initiation — that  is  to  say,  whose  soul  is  admitted  to 
the  company  of  the  divinity.  "  The  initiated  follow  the  dancing  Iacchus, 
who  leads  them,  torch  in  hand,  as  they  sport  and  play  in  the  flowery 
meads.  Women  and  girls  take  part  in  these  mysteries,  wherein,  to  the 
accompaniment  of  entrancing  music,  the  white  breast  of  a  kindred  spirit 
is  unveiled."  This  is  the  phase  of  popular  belief  about  the  hereafter, 
to  which,  according  to  Furtwangler,  the  later  Tanagra  figurines  were 
meant  to  minister.  "These  Dionysiac  masks  {e.g.  C  253  in  Case  20) 
are  one  of  the  very  numerous  attributes  which  the  potters  gave  them, 
according  to  their  fancy,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  admission  to  the 
number  of  those  fortunate  ones  who  were  admitted  to  the  company  of 
the  god.  Another  method,  in  the  case  of  female  figures,  was  to  divest 
them  of  their  upper  garments,  and  thus  to  elevate  them  to  the  rank  of 
the  ideal  (e.g.  C  317  in  Case  23).  Other  Dionysiac  emblems  which 
were  added  were  the  crown  of  ivy  (C  254,  Case  19),  or  the  heavy 
round  crown  of  flowers,  and  surrounded  with  bands,  similar  to  those 
which  were  in  vogue  at  banquets  "  (La  Collection  Sabotiroff^  par  A. 
Furtwangler,  vol.  ii.,  Introduction,  p.  18). 

Sometimes  the  potter  may  have  intended  the  figure  to  represent 
particular  persons  rather  than  ideal  types.  This  is  Miss  Hutton's 
theory  in  the  case  of  C  336 — a  lady  seated  on  a  rock,  perhaps  in  one 
of  the  shady  Theban  gardens,  of  which  Dicsearchus,  the  traveller, 
speaks  as  the  loveliest  in  Greece.  "  Her  gala  costume,  no  less  than 
her  beauty,  remind  us  of  the  beautiful  Boeotian  poetess,  Coriima,  who 
five  times  won  a  prize  from  Pindar,  and  who  boasted  that  by  her  sweet- 
toned  songs  she  had  brought  great  honour  to  Tanagra's  white-robed 
dames,  though  current  gossip  ascribed  her  victory,  not  to  her  poetry,  but 
to  her  beauty  !    In  one  hand  she  poises  an  apple,  the  lover's  token  : — 

I  throw  an  apple  at  my  fair, 

And  if  she  love  me,  love  me  truly, 
She'll  guess  aright  the  hidden  prayer, 

Accept  it,  and  reward  me  duly." 

(From  the  Greek  Anthology,  cited  by  Hutton,  p.  49. ) 

We  may  now  pass  to  statuettes  which  are  of  a  purely  genre  char- 
acter. One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  comes  from  Eretria,  and 
represents  an  old  woman  scratching  her  chin  (C  216,  Case  16).  This 
is  a  remarkable  piece  of  realism — as  successful  on  a  small  scale  as  the 
life-size  figures  on  the  Sacro  Monte  at  Varallo  by  Tabachetti.  In  the 
same  category  we  may  place  the  groups  of  mother  and  child  (such  as 
C  280,  Case  16),  and  of  the  old  nurse  (C  279).  Even  here,  however, 
the  ingenuity  of  some  scholars  finds  a  symbolic  reference.  The  figures 
of  nurses  are,  it  is  argued,  Greek  varieties  of  Isis  holding  Horus  on 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


697 


her  knees  ;  and  in  the  figures  of  women  walking  (e.g.  C  299  in  Case 
21,  C  263  in  Case  22)  we  are  taught  to  see  Demeter. 

Later  Greek  statuettes  from  Asia  Minor  (Cases  25,  26). 
— In  this  group  the  most  interesting  statuettes  are  those 
which  come  from  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Myrina,  some 
miles  north  of  Smyrna.  The  finds  of  terra-cottas  at  Myrina 
are  indeed  only  less  important  than  -  those  of  Tanagra.  The 
British  Museum,  however,  has  very  few  examples  ;  the  best 
collection  is  in  the  Louvre,  for  the  excavations  were  carried 
on,  under  authority  from  the  Turkish  Government,  by  the 
French  School  at  Athens.  In  one  respect  these  excavations 
(1880-82)  were  more  important  even  than  those  of  Tanagra  ; 
because  at  Myrina  they  were  systematically  and  intelligently 
carried  out.  One  point  established  by  the  Myrina  finds  was 
the  use  of  figurines  as  ornaments  in  the  home.  Some  still 
bear  upon  their  pedestals  their  owner's  name  ;  while  others, 
like  the  group  in  the  Louvre  of  thirteen  figures  of  different 
heights  arranged  systematically  and  forming  a  descending 
series  starting  from  a  central  subject,  evidently  formed  a 
decorative  ensemble  in  the  dead  man's  house,  to  which  he 
was  particularly  attached,  and  which,  on  that  account,  was 
laid  in  his  tomb.  The  first  Myrina  statuettes  found  by 
peasants  were  sold  by  the  Smyrna  dealers  as  Tanagra  ware, 
and,  owing  to  the  differences  in  style,  were  pronounced 
forgeries  by  the  experts.  When  the  evidence  of  systematic 
excavation  showed  them  to  be  genuine,  the  differences  were 
seen  to  be  due  to  the  later  date  of  the  Myrina  statuettes  and 
to  the  influence  of  a  more  decadent  age  and  of  Asiatic  luxury. 
The  Myrina  figures  lack  the  grace  and  simplicity  of  the  best 
Greek  work.  They  display  an  exaggerated  love  of  ornament, 
and  often  exhibit  somewhat  strained  postures.  In  method  of 
manufacture  and  in  general  appearance  at  first  sight  the 
Myrina  terra-cottas  do  not  differ  from  those  of  Tanagra. 
But  "  in  an  artistic  sense  they  are  readily  distinguishable  by  a 
degree  of  coarseness  and  voluptuousness  which  is  wanting 
at  Tanagra,  by  a  greater  love  of  nude  forms,  and  by  a  strong 
desire  for  groups  in  which  accuracy  is  sacrificed  to  picturesque 
effect"  (W.  M.  Ramsay,  in  Classical  Review,  ii.  50;  and 
Murray's  Arch<zologyy  p.  312). 

One  of  the  best  of  the  Myrina  terra-cottas  is  here  :  the  group  of  two 
ladies  enjoying  "a  cosy  chat,"  to  which  we  have  already  referred 


698 


(the  room  of  terra-cottas 


CHAP. 


(C  529).  It  is  as  pretty  as  a  Tanagra  figurine,  though  perhaps  a  trifle 
more  realistic  in  style. 

A  certain  straining  after  effect  in  posture  may  be  noticed  in  the 
Artemis  from  Myrina  (C  530). 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Myrina  figurines  represent  the  god  of 
Love  ;  especially  interesting  are  the  two  numbered  C  535  and  536. 
These  are  obviously  impressions  from  the  same  mould,  and  they  illus- 
trate very  happily  the  importance  of  the  process  of  retouching  in  the 
artistic  result.  Thus  in  the  one  (535)  the  details  are  barely  dis- 
tinguishable, and  the  whole  effect  is  heavy  ;  in  the  other  (536),  which 
has  been  retouched  by  the  artist,  the  details  are  clear,  and  the  whole 
scene  is  instinct  with  life  and  grace.  The  subject  is  "Eros  and 
Psyche."  Eros,  tired  of  his  playmate,  destroys  her.  Eros,  it  will  be 
seen,  is  burning  the  butterfly  over  the  flame  of  an  altar.  The  subject 
is  a  common  one  on  gems  (see  p.  641),  though  the  detail  of  the  altar, 
in  place  of  a  simple  torch,  is  new.  (See  Miss  Hutton,  in  J.H.S. 
xv.  132  ;  and  Greek  Terra-cotta  Statuettes ,  pp.  18,  40.) 

Typical  in  another  kind  of  figure  is  the  ugly  old  man  (C  456).  It 
is  remarkable  that  in  all  these  terra-cottas  there  are  no  figures  of  old 
men  which  are  not  ugly  and  deformed,  or  in  other  ways  grotesque. 
This  affords  another  illustration  from  art  of  a  Greek  characteristic  well 
known  to  us  from  literature — namely,  the  harsh  treatment  of  old  age. 
The  ideal  of  the  Greeks  was  beauteous  youth  ;  old  age  was  sombre 
and  abhorred.    Thus  in  Euripides  : — 

If  the  high  gods  would  give  me  a  guerdon, 

Be  it  youth  ere  its  forces  are  fled  ; 
For  age  is  a  wearisome  burden — 

An  iEtna  that  lies  on  the  head. 

On  Greek  vases  the  artist  drew  the  fight  of  Hercules  against 
monstrous  old  age  ;  in  Greek  terra-cottas  old  age  is  a  subject  only  for 
ridicule  and  caricature. 

Silenus  holding  out  a  bunch  of  grapes  to  the  boy  Dionysus  (C  406, 
Case  25)  has  been  already  described  (p.  692). 

Among  the  statuettes  from  Asiatic  sites  other  than  Myrina, 
are  several  discovered  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  his  excava- 
tions at  Halicarnassus,  Cnidus,  and  Calymnus.  At  the  former 
site  alone  more  than  a  thousand  were  discovered,  but  the 
varieties  of  type  did  not  exceed  thirty,  of  which  the  following 
were  the  most  remarkable  : — (1)  a  figure  either  of  Persephone 
or  her  priestess,  holding  in  her  arms  the  pig  sacred  to  that 
deity  ;  (2)  Persephone,  draped  to  her  feet,  in  her  right  hand 
a  pomegranate  fruit,  her  left  resting  against  her  hip;  (3)  a 
Kanephoros,  bearing  on  her  head  the  sacred  basket  used  in 
the  worship  of  Demeter  j  (4)  a  hydrophoros,  or  draped  female 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTA  S 


699 


figure,  carrying  a  water-pitcher  on  her  head;  (5)  Demeter, 
holding  in  her  left  hand  two  ears  of  corn ;  (6)  Gaia  Kourotrophos 
"  earth  the  nourisher  of  children,55  holding  an  infant  in  her 
arms  ;  (7)  Cybele  seated,  in  her  lap  a  lion  ;  (8)  Aphrodite, 
draped  to  her  feet,  in  her  right  hand  a  dove  ;  (9)  two  vari-eties 
of  the  type  of  Dionysus,  one  bearded,  the  other  youthful. 
Examples  of  most  of  these  types  may  be  seen  among  the 
statuettes  here  exhibited  (C  478,  482,  489,  492,  etc.).  The 
types  from  Cnidus  are  much  the  same.  In  both  cases  they 
belong  to  clearly -defined  religious  types,  and  the  statuettes 
had  no  doubt  been  placed  as  "  ex  votos "  in  temples  con- 
secrated to  the  deities  of  the  under-world.  At  both  places 
Newton  found  the  terra-cottas  in  layers  among  ruins  which 
apparently  belonged  to  a  vaulted  basement.  This  basement 
probably  served  as  a  sort  of  treasury  or  magazine  for  the 
storage  of  votive  offerings.  Such  vaults,  called  by  the  Romans 
favissce,  were,  it  is  known,  employed  for  such  purposes  in 
ancient  temples  (Newton's  Travels  and  Discoveries,  ii.  72, 

184). 

Among  the  other  statuettes,  we  may  notice  a  Diana  with 
many  breasts  from  Ephesus  (C  452),  and  a  head  from 
Pergamum  (C  441),  representing  the  same  heroic  type  that  we 
have  already  seen  in  sculpture  (p.  52). 

Terra-cottas  of  a  late  Period  from  Sites  in  North  Africa, 
(Cases  27-32). — We  have  already  examined  some  statuettes 
in  other  materials  from  the  Greek  city  of  Naucratis  (p.  97), 
and  the  votive  types  of  terra-cottas  here  exhibited  are  in  many 
cases  the  same.  The  figure  of  a  goddess  (C  612),  seated 
in  a  hooded  car  drawn  by  two  horses,  is  curious.  Many  of 
the  terra-cottas  from  Naucratis  are,  however,  grotesque  ;  as, 
for  instance,  the  armed  figures  (C  607,  608).  The  "  Eros 
and  Aphrodite55  (C  596)  is  pretty.  On  the  whole,  the 
Naucratis  terra-cottas  are  not  very  attractive.  In  better 
style  are  some  of  those  (in  Case  28)  from  Thapsos  (the  modern 
Mehedeah),  presented  to  the  British  Museum  by  Sir  A.  W. 
Franks.  The  following  are  worthy  of  notice  :  "  yEgipan  and 
panther  "  (C  689),  and  "  Bacchus  and  Ariadne  55  (C  688). 

The  Statuettes  from  the  Cyrenaica  (Cases  29-32)  will 
at  first  sight  strongly  recall  those  from  Tanagra.  There  is, 
indeed,  no  doubt  that  the  Tanagra  style  and  probably  also  actual 
Tanagra  moulds  were  exported  all  over  the  Greek  world,  and 
thus  reached  the  coasts  of  Africa.    Many  of  these  statuettes 


7oo 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTA  S 


CHAP. 


were  excavated  by  Mr.  George  Dennis,  some  years  before  the 
Tanagra  discoveries  were  made.  His  account  of  his  finds 
reads  like  a  description  by  anticipation  of  those  at  Tanagra  : — 

"  I  must  say  a  word  on  these  terra-cottas  which  are  so  attractive, 
with  the  simple  elegance  of  their  attitudes,  the  graceful  arrangement  of 
their  drapery  and  the  exquisite  beauty  of  their  countenances,  and  which 
are  yet  generally  so  difficult  to  secure.  They  are  often  deposited  in  a 
tomb  in  pairs,  i.e.  duplicates  from  .the  same  mould.  In  one  of  the 
tombs  at  Teucheira  which  I  opened,  I  found  three  such  statuettes 
arranged  on  one  side  and  two  on  the  other  of  the  head  of  the  corpse, 
standing  erect  against  the  wall  of  rock.  The  two  on  one  side 
were  different  representations  of  Persephone,  the  goddess  of  Hades. 
Opposite  to  them  stood  their  exact  counterparts.  But  the  fifth  was  a 
most  singular  figure,  like  nothing  I  have  ever  seen  taken  from  a  Greek 
tomb.  It  represented  a  female,  but  rather  an  Italian  peasant  woman 
of  our  own  time,  than  a  goddess  of  Grecian  mythology,  or  one  of  the 
fair-cheeked  daughters  of  ancient  Hellas,  for  the  head-dress  was  the 
faldetta,  folded  square  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  hanging  down  the 
back  exactly  as  it  is  worn  by  the  women  of  Sonnino  and  other  towns 
of  Southern  Italy  at  the  present  day  "  {Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Literature ,  1867,  ix.  149). 

Some  of  the  figurines  are  graceful  enough  {e.g.  C  767,  761); 
and  some  are  quaint  {e.g.  the  chariot  drawn  by  two  cocks,  C 
751).  But  "  though  the  graceful  draperies  and  playful  motives 
of  the  terra-cottas  of  an  earlier  period  still  survive,  the  work  is 
rougher,  the  colouring  is  more  careless,  and  sometimes  the 
heads  and  bodies  (which  were  separately  moulded  and  stuck 
together)  are  ludicrously  disproportioned "  {Guide  to  the 
Department).  These  terra-cottas  from  Cyrene  include,  as  a 
sort  of  speciality,  a  type  of  female  figure  having  a  modius  on 
her  head  and  an  extraordinary  ornament  stretched  across  and 
covering  her  breast.  The  modius  on  the  head  was  a  symbol 
of  the  goddess  Demeter,  and  possibly  the  curious  breastplate 
was  a  suggestion  of  the  fertility  of  the  earth,  comparable  in  a 
measure  to  the  many  breasts  of  the  Ephesian  Diana  (Murray's 
Archceology,  p.  312).  It  is  interesting  sometimes  to  remember 
the  many  changes  and  chances  which  the  remains  of  antiquity, 
here  neatly  labelled  and  safely  housed,  have  gone  through  on 
their  way  to  the  Museum.  With  regard  to  the  terra-cottas 
from  the  Cyrenaica,  Mr.  Dennis  says  : — 

"These  figures  are  of  the  local  red  clay,  often  insufficiently  baked  or 
merely  sun-dried,  and,  when  found  in  tombs  that  are  choked  with  this 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


701 


clay,  they  are  very  difficult  of  extraction.  The  clay,  which  has  washed 
in  periodically  through  the  crevices  of  the  lid,  has  caked  around  them 
in  a  mass  as  hard  as  chalk,  its  contraction  in  the  long  droughts  of 
summer,  or  possibly  its  pressure,  has  often  broken  them  so  that  they 
fall  to  pieces  when  the  earth  is  removed,  and  the  fragments  are  so  soft 
as  to  require  the  most  careful  handling,  until  they  have  hardened 
somewhat  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  The  excavation  of  these 
statuettes  I  have  almost  invariably  taken  upon  myself,  for  I  have 
learned  by  experience  not  to  delegate  delicate  manipulations  to  men 
not  animated  by  a  due  reverence  for  antiquity,  or  who  have  no  soul  for 
anything  beyond  their  day's  pay.  In  this  tomb  I  lay  for  hours,  clearing 
away  the  hard  clay  from  around  these  terra-cottas,  until  the  fifth  figure, 
with  the  Italian  head-dress,  alone  remained  to  be  extracted.  The  sun 
had  gone  down,  and  I  was  working  by  the  light  of  a  lantern.  Heartily 
weary,  I  sat  up  awhile  to  rest.  The  overseer  of  my  gang,  who  had 
been  watching  my  operations,  with  good-natured  officiousness  offered 
to  relieve  me.  I  refused,  but  ultimately  yielded  to  his  solicitations, 
cautioning  him  particularly  about  the  head.  Hardly,  however,  had  he 
taken  knife  and  trowel  in  hand  than  the  head  rolled  off  its  shoulders  to 
the  loose  earth  at  the  bottom  of  the  tomb.  He  handed  it  to  me  in 
triumph,  but  the  lovely  Greek  features  were  obliterated  for  ever"  {ibid. 
p.  151). 

Statuettes  from  Centorbi  in  Sicily  (Cases  33-37). — The 
examples,  of  a  late  period,  here  collected  from  Sicily,  are  truly 
described  in  the  Guide  to  the  Department  as  "  florid  and  care- 
less "  in  style.  They  present,  nevertheless,  some  points  of 
interest.  Greek  coins  from  Sicily  are  of  great  beauty ;  but  in 
these  late  products  of  the  potter's  art  the  style  is  rather 
modern  Italian  than  ancient  Greek.  A  group  such  as  that 
numbered  D  19 — "the  Kiss" — might  have  been  taken  as  a 
model  for  those  plaster  casts  with  which  Italian  street-vendors 
tempt  the  unwary  to-day.  "An  exception  may  perhaps  be  made,55 
says  Mr.  Huish,  "  in  favour  of  the  design  of  a  winged  Eros  (D  3), 
which  forms  a  kind  of  patera,  and  which  would  appear  to  be  a 
precursor  of  many  of  the  works  in  faience  which  the  Renais- 
sance gave  us  from  Central  Italy."  Among  the  subjects  in 
these  Sicilian  examples  the  most  interesting  is  that  of  one  girl 
carrying  another  on  her  back  (D  21,  22).  Singularly  graceful 
versions  of  this  subject  have  been  found  at  Tanagra ;  the 
specimens  before  us  are  not  so  successful.  The  subject  is 
invested  with  a  sepulchral  significance  by  some  critics,  who 
interpret  it  as  Demeter  carrying  her  daughter  Persephone  from 
the  under-world,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  connect 
the  group  with  a  supposed  statue,  by  Praxiteles,  of  Demeter 


702 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- COTTAS 


CHAP. 


and  Persephone  in  this  attitude.  But  more  probably  the  idea 
was  derived  from  the  favourite  game  called  ephedrismos — the 
Greek  version  of  pick-a-back.  It  consisted  in  throwing  stones 
or  balls  at  a  mark.  Whoever  succeeded  in  hitting  it,  mounted 
the  back  of  the  other,  who,  with  eyes  covered,  had  to  try  and 
deposit  the  rider  at  the  mark.  Amongst  girls  blindfolding 
was  apparently  dispensed  with.  The  game  is  still  played  in 
modern  Greece. 

A  peculiarity  of  technique  remains  to  be  noticed  in  these 
Sicilian  statuettes.  In  many  of  them  the  nude  portions  are 
not  merely  dipped  in  lime-wash  and  then  painted,  but  are 
enamelled  in  colour.  Thus  the  figures  numbered  D  26  and 
28  are  enamelled  in  pink.  The  lurid  purple  of  D  29  is  less 
pleasing,  but  this  method  secured  the  preservation  of  the 
surface;  it  was  occasionally  employed  elsewhere — e.g.  C  15, 
C  217,  C  324. 

Mythological  Figures  from  tombs  at  Canossa,  period  of 
decline,  third-first  century  (Cases  38,  39). — The  two  most 
notable  types  here  represented  are  Scylla  with  three  dogs 
standing  out  from  her  as  spikes  (D  92) — for  the  subject,  see 
p.  137 — and  a  series  (D  88-91)  representing  Aphrodite  rising 
from  the  sea  (Anadyomene)  :  she  is  here  shown  kneeling  in 
a  bivalve  shell.  The  same  subject  has  also  been  found  at 
Tanagra,  and  must  have  been  a  favourite  one  with  terra-cotta 
artists.  In  that  case  it  may  be  cited  as  an  instance  in  which, 
as  suggested  above  (p.  693),  they  derived  their  inspiration 
from  painting.  For  the  most  famous  of  all  the  works  of  the 
great  Apelles  was  his  picture  of  this  same  subject.  In  it  the 
goddess  was  represented  in  the  act  of  pressing  the  water  from 
her  wet  hair,  but  its  charm,  we  are  told,  was  not  so  much  in 
the  attitude  as  in  the  beauty  of  form  and  colouring.  It  is  in- 
teresting that  many  centuries  later,  in  the  new  birth  of  classical 
learning,  this  same  subject  was  painted  by  Botticelli.  His 
"Birth  of  Venus"  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence,  in  which  the 
goddess  rises  in  a  shell  from  the  sea,  affords  us  (says  Pater) 
"  a  direct  inlet  into  the  Greek  temper,"  and  is  fulfilled  with  the 
Greek  spirit.  We  may  here  notice  also  the  Aphrodite  with  a 
vase  of  perfume  (D  88),  one  of  the  innumerable  toilet  scenes 
founded  on  the  nude  Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles. 

Terra-cottas  of  the  later  Grseco-Eoman  period,  "  often 
noticeable  for  their  bright  and  extravagant  decoration"  (Cases 
40-50). — The  large  vases  (D  191,  192)  from  Calvi  are  promi- 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA  -  CO  TTA  S 


703 


nent  examples  of  this  over-charged  style.  The  vases  themselves 
are  in  the  form  of  female  heads,  and  they  are  surmounted  by 
female  statuettes.  The  general  effect  is  heavy  and  florid  ;  in 
this  period  of  decadence,  ornament  is  piled  on  ornament,  and 
statuette  on  vase,  but  the  grace  alike  of  vase  and  of  statuette 
disappears.  The  four  figures  in  pink  drapery  (D  102-5,  in  Cases 
43  and  44)  are  interesting  as  throwing  light  on  the  methods 
of  producing  statuettes.  All  these  four  have  been  taken  from 
the  same  mould,  but  variants  are  produced  by  posing  the  heads 
and  attaching  the  arms  in  different  attitudes.  Reverting  to 
what  we  said  above  about  the  straining  after  effect  in  these 
later  productions  of  the  potter's  art,  we  may  notice  how  much 
larger  in  scale  the  figures  have  now  become.  We  have  traced 
the  same  process  already  in  the  Vase  Rooms,  where,  in  the  period 
of  decadence,  the  vases  become  ever  larger  and  more  florid. 
The  statuettes  here  are  large,  and  the  straining  after  effect 
is  obvious.  The  women  have  now  become  mourners  {e.g.  D 
122,  124,  125) — the  forerunners  of  a  motive  in  the  sepulchral 
art  of  later  ages 

When  Loves  no  more,  but  marble  Angels  moan, 
And  little  cherubs  seem  to  sob  in  stone. 

The  attitudes  here  are  over-strained  and  some  of  the  figures 
are  quite  lumpy  and  ugly  {e.g.  D  130). 

Graeco- Roman  terra -cottas  from  Capua,  Rome,  and 
other  Italian  sites  (Cases  51-61). — Many  of  the  large  terra- 
cotta figures  here  exhibited  were  found  so  long  ago  as  1765  at 
Rome  in  a  dry  well  near  the  Porta  Latina.  They  were 
bought  from  the  workmen,  who  were  digging  gravel,  for  a  trifle 
by  Nollekens,  the  sculptor,  who,  after  his  manner,  restored 
them,  and  sold  them  upon  his  return  to  England  to  Mr. 
Townley.  Nollekens  was  a  wholesale  and  unrestrained 
restorer  of  antiques,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  of 
their  individuality  survives  in  the  figures  before  us.  The  figure 
of  one  of  the  Muses  (D  435  in  Case  56)  is  handsome,  and 
may  recall  to  some  visitors  a  popular  and  beautiful  actress  of 
the  day.  In  the  treatment  of  drapery,  however,  we  may 
notice  in  this  Roman  or  Graeco- Roman  figure  a  decided  con- 
trast to  the  suppleness  and  grace  of  Greek  work  : — 

"There  is  a  stiffness,  a  want  of  beauty,  and  a  lack  of  truth,  which 
make  it  clear  that  no  recourse  has  been  had  to  Nature.  The  folds 
stand  out  in  an  impossible  manner  from  shoulders,  waist,  and  leg,  and 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


in  many  places  assume  concave,  instead  of  convex,  forms,  as  they 
should  if  they  followed  the  lines  of  the  body.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  parody 
of  a  fine  work,  but  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  it  has  been  restored  " 
(Huish,  p.  219). 

These  terra-cottas  from  Rome  formed  part  of  Mr.  Townley's 
collection,  and  were  let  in  to  the  walls  of  his  dining-room. 
The  large  figures  appear  to  have  been  modelled  by  hand, 
instead  of  being  made  from  moulds.  The  smaller  terra-cottas 
of  the  Grseco-Roman  style  do  not  call  for  any  detailed  examina- 
tion. The  old  motives  and  attitudes  are  continued,  but  the 
charm  of  the  Greek  terra-cottas  is  not  present.  Note  as  an 
example  the  statuette  numbered  D  285.  It  is  elaborately  in- 
cised in  the  early  manner,  but  in  the  very  elaboration  the  elusive 
grace  of  the  old  style  has  gone. 

Moulds  (Cases  62-64). — A  series  of  ancient  moulds  for 
terra-cotta  figures,  found  at  Tarentum,  is  of  special  interest,  as 
showing  us  how  the  statuettes  were  made.  We  have  treated 
of  this  subject  above  (p.  682).  Plaster  casts,  taken  from  each 
mould,  are  exhibited  beside  the  originals. 

"Most  of  them,"  says  Dr.  Murray,  "  are  of  a  comparatively  late 
period,  from  the  third  to  the  first  century  B.C.,  and  it  is  curious  to  find 
among  those  of  them  in  the  British  Museum  an  instance  of  a  mould 
which  has  been  expressly  made  to  imitate  an  archaic  phase  of  art  (E  1 5 
in  Case  64).  It  represents  a  draped  female  figure,  and  at  first  sight  has 
the  appearance  of  belonging  to  Greek  art  of  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  But  in  fact  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  among  terra-cottas  of  a 
distinctly  late  period  others  which,  in  general,  would  be  taken  to  be 
archaic.  In  some  cases  the  old  moulds  may  have  been  handed  on 
from  age  to  age  ;  but  mostly  it  was  the  taste  for  a  particular  archaic 
type  of  figure  that  has  survived,  or  been  revived,  new  moulds  being 
made  to  imitate  the  archaic  type  "  {Archceology ',  p.  320). 

We  have  seen  instances  of  similar  revivals  in  Grasco-Roman 
sculpture  (p.  61).  In  the  present  case  the  archaic  elabora- 
tion in  the  folds  of  the  drapery  is  carried  to  almost  ludicrous 
excess. 

Terra-cotta  Antefixes  (Cases  62-71,  upper  shelves). — The 
large  terra-cotta  ornaments,  with  Gorgons'  heads  and  other 
subjects,  were  found  at  Capua,  and  served  as  "  antefixes  " — i.e. 
to  mask  the  ends  of  tile  ridges  on  a  roof,  in  the  manner  shown 
on  the  restored  terra-cotta  roof  in  the  Etruscan  saloon  (p.  484). 
Some  of  these  cornice-ornaments  are  of  conventional  patterns, 
such  as  we  are  all  familiar  with  in  the  cornices  of  buildings  in 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


705 


the  classical  style.  Others  are  in  the  form  of  grotesque 
masks. 

Masks  (Cases  67-71,  and  Table-cases  A  and  B). — Among 
other  small  objects  in  the  Room  of  Terra-cottas  a  large 
number  of  masks  will  be  noticed.  They  are  (with  one  or  two 
exceptions)  very  small  ;  they  could  not,  therefore,  have  been 
themselves  worn  as  masks,  but  are  only  effigies  of  the  real 
thing.  What,  then,  was  their  purpose  ?  The  use  of  masks, 
as  is  well  known,  arose  from  the  custom  of  appearing  in  dis- 
guise at  the  Dipnysiac  carnivals,  where,  at  first,  painting  the 
face  was  resorted  to.  It  was  only  in  later  times  that  they 
became  a  necessity  in  dramatic  representations.  The  little 
masks  here  before  us  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  Silenus,  and  it 
is  the  mystic  connection  of  Dionysus  and  his  rout  with  the 
deities  of  the  under-world  that  explains  the  choice  of  subject. 
For  these  little  masks  were  worn  during  life  as  charms  and 
amulets,  and  were  buried  with  the  dead  in  order  to  protect 
them  from  evil.  We  have  seen  already,  in  the  case  of  the 
Tanagra  statuettes,  that  the  mask  may  have  been  employed  by 
the  potter  as  an  accessory,  marking  the  sepulchral  significance 
of  the  figure.  Certainly  it  is  the  fact  that  many  of  the  terra- 
cotta masks,  here  separately  shown,  were  found  in  tombs.  It 
is  possible  also  that,  like  the  marble  oscilla  which  we  have 
already  seen  (p.  81),  terra-cotta  masks  of  Dionysus  and  his 
fellows  were  used  as  scarecrows  in  vineyards  and  orchards. 
These  satyr  masks  are,  it  will  be  seen,  brightly  coloured  in 
red  and  blue  (B  479,  etc.).  The  Medusa  masks  (B  470,  etc.) 
were  also  favourite  amulets  for  averting  the  evil  eye  and  other 
dangers. 

Statuettes  from  Sardinia  (Cases  73,  74). — Here  we  come 
back  to  the  point  from  which  we  started  ;  for  these  statuettes 
from  Sardinia  are  of  the  same  Graeco-Phcenician  style  as  that 
shown,  in  the  opposite  cases,  in  the  earlier  terra-cottas  from 
Cyprus.  The  Phoenicians,  as  everybody  knows,  traded  in  the 
Mediterranean  as  far  as  Spain  ;  but,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
Sardinia,  on  the  way  thither,  is  the  farthest  point  westward  at 
which  statuettes  of  the  mixed  Graeco-Phcenician  type  have  been 
found.  The  Sardinian  terra-cottas  come  from  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Phoenician  city  of  Tharros,  where  a  cemetery,  first 
unearthed  by  Lord  Vernon  in  185  1,  was  afterwards  ransacked 
by  the  peasants  as  eagerly  "  as  if  they  were  gold-miners  in 
California  or  Australia  "  (see  Albert  de  la  Marmora's  Ifateraire 


706 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-  CO TTA S 


CHAP. 


de  I  He  de  Sardaigne,  i.  582).  The  piece  numbered  B  442  is 
a  good  illustration  of  the  genesis  of  the  statuette  from  the 
primitive  stone  idol.  The  upper  part  only  is  shaped  in  human 
likeness  ;  the  body  is  shaped  like  a  rounded  pillar  of  stone. 

DOLLS  AND  TOYS 

{Table-case  A) 

One  of  the  reflections  which  a  visit  to  a  museum  inevitably 
suggests  is  that  there  is  always  a  good  deal  of  human  nature 
in  man,  and  that  it  is  very  much  alike  in  all  ages  and  countries. 
This  is  true  of  the  greatest  things  and  of  the  smallest — of 
children's  toys  as  well  as  of  men's  religious  beliefs.  In  one 
of  the  rooms  may  be  seen  dolls'-houses  and  toy-shops  which 
amused  little  Egyptians  thousands  of  years  ago,  and  the  like 
of  which  may  be  bought  in  London  shops  to-day.  And  here 
we  have  before  us  a  collection  of  terra-cotta  dolls  and  toys, 
which  again  are  much  the  same  as  those  with  which  our 
children  play  to-day,  and  which  once  amused  the  children  of 
ancient  Greece  : — 

"The  amusements  of  a  Greek  boy  did  not  differ  materially  from 
those  of  any  other  boy.  We  get  a  list  of  his  favourite  toys  from  a  dedi- 
catory epigram,  which  shows  that  boy  tastes  have  not  changed  much 
in  two  thousand  years. 

To  Hermes,  this  fair  ball  of  pleasant  sound, 

This  boxen  rattle  full  of  lively  noise, 
These  maddening  bones,  this  top  well  spinning  round, 

Philocles  offers  here,  his  boyhood's  toys." 

(Quoted  by  Hutton,  p.  59.) 

Greek  girls,  again,  differed  only  from  those  of  to-day  in 
being  a  little  less  advanced.  "  Timareta,"  says  another 
epigram  in  the  Anthology,  "  consecrated  to  Artemis  before  her 
marriage  her  musical  instruments,  the  ball  she  loved  so  much, 
the  net  which  confined  her  hair,  her  dolls  and  their  dresses. 
O  goddess,  it  was  natural  that,  a  young  girl  herself,  she  should 
offer  these  little  ones  to  a  young  girl."  This  offering  of  dolls, 
says  M.  Diehl  truly  enough  (p.  396),  "would  seem  very  tardy 
to  us,  our  young  girls  fin  de  siecle  are  more  precocious,  and 
their  amusements  less  simple."  The  passages  just  quoted 
serve  to  explain  the  discovery  of  terra-cotta  dolls  and  toys 
among  the  ruins  of  sanctuaries.  They  were  deposited  as 
offerings  before  marriage  by  girls,  or  on  the  attainment  of 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- CO TTA S 


707 


years  of  discretion  by  boys,  who  thus  literally  put  away  childish 
things.  Toys  also  found  a  place  in  the  tombs  of  children  as 
being  necessary  for  their  happiness  after  death,  and  it  is  from 
this  source  that  so  many  have  found  their  way  into  our  museums. 

The  collection  of  toys  here  exhibited  consists  largely  of 
dolls  (B  236,  etc.).  These  are  articulated  figures,  and  differ 
very  little  from  the  "  Dutch  doll"  of  to-day.  The  trade  in 
dolls  seems  to  have  been  an  extensive  one  in  Greek  towns. 
It  is  noticeable  that  the  statuette-makers  received  the  name  of 
their  craft  from  this  branch  of  their  business  :  they  were  called 
koroplastai  or  koroplathai,  i.e.  makers  of  dolls,  representing 
girls.  These  articulated  dolls  have  been  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  Greek  world,  and  similar  figures  have  also  come  from 
Assyria — thus  testifying  to  the  universal  craving  of  juvenile 
humanity  for  its  counterfeit  presentment. 

The  other  toys  are  also  very  much  like  those  with  which 
children  of  to-day  are  provided,  although  in  different  materials. 
We  may  notice,  first,  little  groups  representing  scenes  from 
the  kitchen  or  nursery — such  as  a  woman  making  bread 
(B  221,  from  Camirus)  :  "All  roughly  but  cleverly  modelled 
and  wonderfully  true  to  nature :  the  suggestion  of  effort 
with  which  this  little  woman  rolls  out  her  paste  is  very 
well  given,  and  her  paste-board  and  rolling-pin  might  be  the 
basis  of  a  dissertation  on  ancient  kitchen  utensils"  (Hutton, 
P-  30- 

Still  more  popular,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  number  of 
examples  found,  were  figures  of  animals.  Greek  children,  it 
is  clear,  had  their  "  Noah's  arks  "  to  play  with,  no  less  than 
our  own.  Among  the  toy  animals  here  exhibited  we  may 
notice  a  kneeling  camel,  a  clown  riding  on  a  swan  (B  271, 
from  Tanagra),  and  a  boy  on  a  mule  (B  270,  from  Tanagra). 
These  latter  figures  are  very  bright  and  spirited.  A  mule, 
carrying  sacrificial  objects,  is  of  some  mythological  interest 
(B  280,  from  Tanagra).  The  ass  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  worship  of  Dionysus,  as  carrying  corn  and  wine,  and  it 
was  on  an  ass  that  Dionysus  brought  Hephaestus  back  to  the 
company  of  the  gods.  Very  cleverly  executed  are  some  of 
the  toy-tortoises.     On  one  of  them  a  man  is  mounted. 

There  is  also  a  collection  of  terra-cotta  boats.  These  may 
also  have  been  used  as  toys,  but  for  that  purpose  their  material 
was  against  them ;  they  certainly  would  not  have  floated  in 
the  water.      These  boats  were  excavated   at  Amathus  in 


7o8 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- CO TTA S 


CHAP. 


Cyprus.  The  largest  of  the  fleet  shows  a  considerable  amount 
of  detail,  such  as  the  socket  for  the  mast  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  thwarts  ;  it  has  also  the  remains  of  an  iron  steering 
paddle  : — 

"  Boats  and  fragments  of  both  occur  frequently  in  the  tombs  of 
Amathus,  and  it  cannot  be  a  mere  coincidence  that  the  tale  of  the  clay 
fleet  of  Kinyras  (the  King  of  Amathus)  is  connected  with  that  town. 
According  to  Eustathius,  a  fleet  of  fifty  ships  had  been  promised  by 
Kinyras  to  Menelaus ;  but  when  the  time  came  for  fulfilling  the 
promise  only  one  real  ship  was  sent,  the  remainder  being  a  fleet  of 
clay  boats  with  clay  crews.  Such  a  story  must  have  had  its  origin  in 
a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  people  of  Amathus  had  a  liking  for 
such  clay  ships "  (A.  H.  Smith  in  Excavations  in  Cyprus,  p.  113). 
In  our  collection  there  is  also  a  war-galley  from  Corinth,  with  armed 
warriors  seated  in  it, 

On  the  top  of  this  case  is  a  very  interesting  sepulchral 
urn  (C  12),  ornamented  with  lion-headed  gryphons,  which  was 
found  in  a  tomb  at  Athens.  Inside  the  urn  was  found  the 
painted  and  gilded  figure  of  a  siren  tearing  her  hair,  and  also 
a  fragment  of  linen  which  had  enveloped  the  ashes  of  the 
dead  man.  There  is  also  a  fragment  of  his  jaw-bone,  and  to 
this  is  still  attached  the  small  silver  coin  which  was  placed  in 
the  mouth  of  every  corpse  previous  to  burial,  to  pay  the  fee  of 
the  ferryman  Charon  for  conveying  the  soul  of  the  dead  over 
the  waters  of  Acheron.  Few  beliefs  have  been  so  long  held  as 
this  of  the  ferry  across  the  stream  of  death.  Up  to  very 
recent  times  the  custom  of  placing  Charon's  coin  between  the 
lips  of  the  dead  still  prevailed  among  the  Greeks.  Like  so 
many  other  pieces  of  pagan  ritual,  it  was  adapted  rather  than 
abolished  by  Christianity.  Sir  Charles  Newton  records  the 
measures  which  the  Archbishop  of  Mytilene  told  him  he  had 
taken  to  put  an  end  to  it  in  Macedonia,  by  representing  that 
a  Turkish  coin,  inscribed  with  a  quotation  from  the  Koran, 
was  no  fit  object  for  a  Christian  grave.  But  so  tenacious  is 
the  belief,  that  ingenious  methods  of  evading  the  ecclesiastical 
prohibition  may  still  be  found  among  the  Orthodox  peasantry 
(see  Newton's  Travels  in  the  Levant,  i.  289,  and  Rodd's 
Customs  and  Lore  of  Ancient  Greece,  pp.  116,  125).  One 
may  doubt  whether  even  an  inspection  of  the  curious  relic 
here  before  us  would  shake  so  firmly  planted  a  superstition. 
The  man  whose  ashes  were  buried  in  this  urn  made  his  passage 
many  hundreds  of  years  ago,  and  from  that  bourne  no  traveller 


xxvii  THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA ■  CO TTA S  709 


returns.  But  the  ferryman's  fee  still  adheres  to  his  jawbone — 
an  uncanny  relic  to  the  superstitious  ;  for  perhaps  even  now 
the  disturbed  soul,  his  passage  money  unpaid,  haunts  the 
deserted  street  of  the  tombs  at  Athens  or  the  funereal  gloom 
of  museum  corners  in  London. 

GROTESQUE  FIGURES 

(  Table-case  B) 

On  the  top  of  this  case,  at  one  end,  are  unusually  important 
statuettes  of  Athena  Promachos  and  of  Poseidon,  "both  in 
the  manner  of  the  advanced  archaic  period,  about  500  B.C., 
remarkable  for  their  fine  preservation,  and  the  careful  elabora- 
tion of  the  details.  Athena  must  be  completed  with  a  spear 
raised  in  the  right  hand,  and  Poseidon  with  a  trident  or  sceptre 
in  his  left."  Thus  the  Official  Guide  ;  but  some  doubts  have 
been  expressed  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  figures.  They 
were  purchased  in  Athens,  and  were  said  to  have  come  from 
Malesina  on  the  coast  of  Locris.  "It  is  stated  that  no  dis- 
coveries at  Malesina  of  any  importance  have  ever  come  to  the 
ears  of  the  archaeological  societies  at  Athens.  This  is  not  of 
itself  sufficient  to  cast  a  doubt  on  their  genuineness,  but  causes 
them  to  be  examined  with  suspicion,  which  is  not  lessened 
when  we  note  that  their  numerous  fractures  in  neither  case 
extend  to  the  faces"  (Huish,  p.  131). 

The  terra-cotta  figures,  illustrating  the  Greek  comic  drama, 
also  exhibited  on  the  top  of  this  case,  are  curious.  On  one 
side  is  a  series  of  four  figures  from  Canino,  representing  appar- 
ently a  glutton,  a  miser,  a  scribe,  and  a  thief  respectively  : — 

"  The  one  holding  a  ham  clearly  denotes  a  glutton,  and  has  been 
identiried  with  the  Macco  of  the  ancient  Italian  farces,  called  Fabulae 
Atellanse.  Two  other  figures  have,  in  like  manner,  been  compared — 
the  first  to  the  Pappus  or  pantaloon  ;  the  second  to  the  Bucco  or 
clown  of  the  same  farces.  The  fourth  figure  is  evidently  a  thief  trying 
to  hide  a  purse  under  his  cloak.  There  is  a  grotesque  force  and 
originality  about  these  figures"  (Newton,  Castellani  Collection,  p.  5). 

On  the  other  side  of  the  case  are  a  series  of  actors,  with 
the  usual  masks  and  artificial  paunches  of  comic  drama. 
There  is  also  a  comedian  in  a  female  part, — a  clever  and 
amusing  study  which  may  recall  to  some  visitors  certain  im- 
personations by  "  lion  comiques  "  on  our  own  pantomime  stage. 


7io 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


CHAP. 


In  this  same  case,  below,  is  a  further  collection  of  comic  and 
other  masks.  There  are  also  a  number  of  miscellaneous  objects 
in  terra-cotta.  Among  them  we  may  mention  a  case  of  terra- 
cotta heads  found  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  on  the  site  of  the 
Mausoleum  (C  509,  etc.)  ;  ornaments  with  gilding  which  have 
decorated  a  sarcophagus,  from  Naucratis  (C  568);  masks  of 
Medusa,  from  the  same  (C  561) ;  some  elaborately  ornamented 
drinking-bottles  ;  and  covers  of  toilet-boxes.  There  is  also  a 
further  collection  of  Greek  and  Roman  terra-cotta  moulds, 
with  impressions  taken  from  them  (-see  above,  p.  704). 

TERRA-COTTA  LAMPS 
{Table-case  C) 

In  every  museum  there  are  large  numbers  of  terra-cotta 
lamps.  These  belong  for  the  most  part  to  Roman  and  later 
Greek  times.  Greek  lamps,  in  a  style  resembling  that  of 
earlier  times,  are  comparatively  rare  ;  and  Athenaeus  tells  us 
that  the  lamp  was  not  an  ancient  Greek  invention.  The 
Greeks  for  some  centuries  relied  upon  wax  and  tallow  candles 
(of  a  primitive  kind)  or  upon  pine  torches  for  their  domestic 
lighting.  Gradually,  however,  the  oil-lamp  came  into  favour, 
and  among  the  Romans  its  use  was  general.  The  British 
Museum  possesses  many  hundreds  of  specimens,  both  in  terra- 
cotta and  in  bronze.  The  terra-cotta  specimens  here  exhibited 
present  several  varieties,  but  the  general  principle  is  the  same 
in  all.  The  lamp  consists  of  the  oil  reservoir,  either  circular 
or  elliptic  in  form  ;  a  round  hole  on  the  top  to  pour  in  the  oil 
by ;  the  nose  through  which  the  wick  was  pulled,  and  the 
handle.  The  commonest  lamps  have  only  one  nozzle  for  the 
wick  ;  others  have  two  or  more  ;  and  some  of  those  discovered 
by  Sir  Charles  Newton  have  as  many  as  eight  or  ten.  The 
forms  of  bronze  lamps  and  lampstands  was,  as  we  have  seen  in 
the  Etruscan  and  Bronze  Rooms,  often  very  elegant ;  but  in 
other  respects  the  lighting  of  ancient  houses  was  not  on  a  par 
with  their  other  comforts  and  luxuries.  The  use  of  the  glass 
chimney  was  unknown,  and  the  soot  of  the  oil-lamps,  settling 
on  furniture  and  wall-paintings,  had  to  be  carefully  sponged 
off  by  the  slaves  every  morning.  The  smell  of  the  oil  must 
also  have  been  unpleasant,  and  one  is  not  surprised  to  read 
that  perfumed  oil  was  sometimes  burnt.  The  decoration  of 
the  terra-cotta  lamp  was  confined  to  the  front  of  the  handle, 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS 


711 


or  more  commonly  to  the  circular  space  on  the  top.  This 
decoration  varies,  as  the  visitor  will  see,  very  greatly  in 
elaboration,  in  subject-matter,  and  in  artistic  merit.  In  one 
side  of  the  case  are  lamps  illustrating  mythological  and 
legendary  subjects  ;  in  the  other,  scenes  from  daily  life  and 
from  the  contests  of  the  amphitheatre  and  circus.  Among  the 
moulds  in  Case  B,  there  is  one  for  the  relief  on  a  lamp  with  a 
subject  of  two  gladiators,  which  shows  the  rapid  and  easy  way 
in  which  the  Roman  clay  lamps  were  produced. 

But  even  the  rough  relief  on  a  small  hand-lamp  may  some- 
times suggest  points  of  interest  to  archaeologists.  Thus  there  is  a 
lamp  here,  acquired  from  Cyprus  in  1884,  which  represents  the 
contest  of  Athena  and  Poseidon  for  the  soil  of  Attica,  and  which 
is  sometimes  referred  to  in  connection  with  a  vexed  question  : — 

"The  work  is  roughly  moulded  and  slight,  but  the  group  has  the 
interest  which  attaches  to  every  fresh  representation  of  the  strife 
between  Athene  and  Poseidon  as  suggesting  possible  interpretations  of 
the  action  of  the  central  group  of  the  west  pediment  of  the  Parthenon. 
Athene  steps  quickly  forward  from  the  left  with  her  shield  raised  on 
her  right  arm.  Poseidon  on  the  right  appears  to  be  slightly  drawing 
back  ;  his  right  hand  raised  and  extended,  as  if  deprecating  the 
advance  of  Athene.  The  olive-tree  occupies  the  middle  of  the  field. 
The  token  of  Poseidon  is  not  represented.  The  moment  represented 
appears  to  be  that  of  the  accomplished  decision.  Athene  steps  forward 
not  so  much  as  assaulting  Poseidon,  but  rather  as  standing  forth  almost 
in  the  position  of  a  Promachos  to  guard  her  second  token,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  city  she  has  won  against  all  the  world.  It  may  be  sug- 
gested that  this  is  also  a  not  impossible  interpretation  of  the  action  of 
the  central  group  of  the  pediment"  (A.  H.  Smith  in  /.U.S.  xiii.  93). 

From  the  designs  and  inscriptions  on  other  lamps  we  obtain 
a  glimpse  of  social  customs.  A  design  frequently  met  with  is 
that  of  two  figures  of  Victory  holding  between  them  an 
inscribed  disk.  On  one  of  the  lamps  here,  the  inscription  on 
the  disk  is  ANNV  NOV  FAUSTV  FELIX — a  wish  for  a 
Happy  New  Year.  Several  similar  lamps  have  been  found.  It 
would  appear  that  lamps  were  as  much  in  favour  among  the 
Romans  as  New  Year's  gifts,  as  lamps  and  candlesticks  are 
with  us  for  wedding  presents. 

Like  the  statuettes,  terra-cotta  lamps  had  a  religious  and 
a  sepulchral,  as  well  as  a  domestic  use.  We  know  from 
Pausanias  (ii.  22.  4)  that  lighted  lamps  were  offered  to 
Persephone,  and  let  down  into  trenches  or  chasms  consecrated 
to  the  infernal  deities — an  offering  which  had  special  reference 


712 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRACOTTAS 


CHAP. 


of  course  to  the  torch  carried  by  Demeter  when  she  went  forth 
to  search  for  her  daughter.  At  Cnidus  Sir  Charles  Newton 
found  a  large  number  of  terra-cotta  lamps  crowded  in  one  place 
a  little  distance  below  the  surface,  and  it  was  conjectured  that 
there  must  have  been  some  statue  or  altar  at  which  it  had  been 
a  custom  to  have  lamps  burning  at  night.  Again,  we  know 
that  lighted  lamps  were  placed  in  the  tombs  of  the  dead. 
Thus,  on  a  marble  slab  in  the  British  Museum  there  is  a 
Latin  inscription  describing  the  property  which  had  been  left 
by  the  deceased  to  provide,  among  other  things,  that  a  lighted 
lamp  with  incense  should  be  placed  at  his  tomb  three  times 
a  month.  The  use  of  lights  is  one  of  the  many  ritual  ob- 
servances which  Christianity  adopted  from  Paganism.  The 
lighted  lamp  in  Roman  Catholic  churches  continues  the 
tradition  of  the  Erechtheum  on  the  acropolis  of  Athens,  in 
which  a  gold  lamp  was  kept  burning  day  and  night.  To  this 
day,  when  a  Greek  Archbishop  is  buried  in  his  own  diocese,  he 
is  placed  in  the  grave  seated,  with  a  lamp  burning  ;  and  the 
candles  dedicated  in  churches  by  the  devout  Catholics  of  to-day 
are  the  modern  survival  of  the  terra-cotta  lamps  here  collected 
from  the  tombs  and  temples  of  the  ancient  world. 

SAMIAN  OR  ARRETINE  WARE 
(  Table-case  D) 

Lastly  in  the  Room  of  Terra-cottas  there  is  a  collection  of 
vases  in  fine  red  clay  with  subjects  in  relief ;  many  of  them 
are  of  great  beauty  and  of  gem-like  execution.  This  ware  is 
known  as  Samian  or  Arretine.  Most  of  it  has  been  found  on 
the  site  of  the  Etruscan  city  of  Arretium  (the  modern  Arezzo), 
celebrated  in  Roman  times  for  its  small  red  vases  which,  Pliny 
says,  were  equal  to  those  of  the  Greek  island  of  Samos.  The 
style  of  art,  as  well  as  the  makers'  names  inscribed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vases,  show  that  it  was  of  Roman  manufacture 
of  a  date  not  earlier  than  the  first  or  second  century  B.C.  In 
laying  the  foundations  of  a  new  theatre  at  Arezzo  some  years 
ago,  the  workmen  found  a  quantity  of  this  Samian  ware, 
together  with  moulds  for  casting  the  reliefs,  and  remains  of 
vitrified  earth — marking  the  site  of  a  pottery.  Several  moulds 
are  exhibited  in  this  case,  and  we  can  thus  learn  the  method 
of  manufacture  : — 


XXVII 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA- COTTAS 


713 


A  mould  was  first  prepared,  of  hard,  well-burnt  clay,  covered  inside 
with  incuse  designs  ;  these  sunk  patterns  were  made  either  by  hand- 
modelling  or,  more  usually,  with  the  aid  of  stamps  modelled  in  relief. 
Thus  the  inside  of  the  bowl-mould  corresponded  to  the  outside  of  the 
future  Samian  bowl,  which  was  first  turned  on  the  wheel  quite  plain, 
but  of  the  right  size  to  fit  into  the  mould.  Then,  while  it  was  still 
soft  it  was  pressed  into  the  mould,  and  afterwards  both  were  put  upon 
the  wheel  together.  As  the  wheel  revolved,  the  potter  could  at  the 
same  time  press  the  clay  into  the  sunk  ornaments  of  the  mould  and 
finish  neatly  the  inside  of  the  vessel.  In  some  cases  he  raised  the 
walls  of  the  bowl  high  above  the  mould  by  adding  clay,  and  thus,  with 
the  same  mould  could  produce  a  variety  of  forms,  though  the  lower 
or  decorated  portion  always  remained  the  same.  The  vessel  was  then 
removed  from  the  mould,  and  the  reliefs  touched  up  by  hand  (in  the 
finer  specimens)  with  bone  or  wooden  modelling-tools.  In  addition  to 
the  moulded  ware  many  vessels  of  the  same  class  were  made  plain  from 
the  wheel.  It  was  next  covered  with  the  materials  (silica,  soda,  and 
oxide  of  iron)  for  the  red  enamel,  and  fired  in  the  usual  way. 

We  know  from  ancient  writers  that  this  "  Samian  ;5  ware  of 
Arezzo  was  much  employed  for  ordinary  domestic  purposes, 
being  used  for  dry  meats  as  well  as  liquids.  The  better 
specimens  are  of  great  beauty,  both  in  colour  and  in  the 
delicacy  of  the  reliefs  ;  it  is  the  most  artistic  sort  of  pottery 
that  the  Romans  produced.  We  have  seen  that  Pliny  com- 
pared it  to  the  red  ware  of  Samos.  It  seems  to  have  super- 
seded in  Italy  the  use  of  those  vases  of  black  ware  with 
designs  in  relief,  which  we  saw  in  the  Fourth  Vase  Room 
(p.  414).  Among  the  examples  probably  produced  at  Arezzo 
itself  is  a  fine  vase  (from  the  Slade  collection)  with  figures 
symbolical  of  the  seasons,  found  at  Capua.  Among  the  bowl- 
moulds  we  may  notice  one  with  a  design  of  a  Bacchic  proces- 
sion :  the  potter's  name  is  "  Parides,  slave  of  P.  Cornelius  "  ; 
and  another  with  a  scene  of  Alexander's  lion-hunt : — 

"  By  way  of  setting  an  example,  Alexander  exposed  himself  to 
greater  fatigues  and  hardships  than  ever  in  his  campaigns  and  hunting 
expeditions,  so  that  old  Lakon,  who  was  with  him  when  he  slew  a 
great  lion,  said,  'Alexander,  you  fought  well  with  the  lion  for  his 
kingdom.'  This  hunting-scene  was  afterwards  represented  by  Kra- 
terus  at  Delphi.  He  had  figures  made  in  bronze  of  Alexander  and  the 
hounds  fighting  with  the  lion,  and  of  himself  running  to  help  him  " 
(Plutarch's  Life  of Alexander \  §  40). 

"  Samian  "  ware  of  Arezzo  was  sent,  Pliny  tells  us,  to  various 
parts  of  the  world  ;  the  discovery  of  a  Samian  bowl-mould  at 


THE  ROOM  OF  TERRA-COTTAS    chap,  xxvii 


York  makes  it  appear  probable  that  the  ware  was  made  even 
in  distant  Britain.  A  collection  of  Samian  ware  found  in  this 
country  is  shown  in  the  Anglo-Roman  Room  (Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  9th  ed.,  xix.  617  ;  Dennis's  Etruria,  ii.  383). 

Among  other  objects  in  this  case  we  may  notice  a  curious 
vase  in  the  form  of  a  laced  boot,  made  in  the  style  of  a  moun- 
taineering or  shooting  boot  of  to-day ;  the  nails  are  arranged 
to  form  the  letters  "Alpha"  and  "  Omega.75  A  large  terra- 
cotta lamp,  with  decorative  reliefs,  in  the  form  of  a  ship 
is  also  noticeable.  It  is  inscribed  on  the  front  "  Fair 
Voyage,"  and  on  the  back,  "  Accept  me,  the  Helioserapis " 
(name  of  the  ship).  This  curious  lamp  was  found  in  the 
sea  at  Pozzuoli,  in  the  Bay  of  Naples  ;  it  was  perhaps  a 
present  intended  for  use  on  board  a  friend's  yacht. 

On  the  top  of  the  case  is  a  vase  in  the  form  of  a  female 
figure  seated  on  the  prow  of  a  trireme,  and  a  large  vase  in  the 
shape  of  a  wine-skin  {askos)  decorated  in  florid  profusion  with 
statuettes — Victories,  heads  of  Medusa,  and  horses.  In  a  very 
different  style  is  the  group  from  Capua  of  two  girls— a  beauti- 
ful specimen  of .  fourth-century  work.  The  girls  are  kneeling 
and  playing  the  game  of  knuckle-bones.  The  group  is  very 
graceful  and,  contrary  to  what  is  customary  in  terra-cottas,  the 
back  has  been  carefully  modelled  by  hand.  This  graceful 
piece,  which  is  now  one  of  the  ornaments  of  our  Museum 
Gallery,  must  once  have  belonged  to  some  Greek  connoisseur 
of  taste. 

Leaving  the  Room  of  Terra-cottas ,  zve  find  ourselves  in  the 
Central  Saloon,  In  the  central  part  of  it,  portions  of  the 
Anglo-Roman  collection  are  exhibited.  These  are  described 
in  the  next  chapter.  Other  po7-tions  of  the  Collection  are  ex- 
hibited in  the  Roman  Gallery,  which  the  visitor  can  regain 
by  descending  the  central  staircase. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 

/,  Pavements  and  other  antiquities  in  the  Roman  Gallery. 
II.   Various  antiquities  in  the  Central  Saloon. 

"  I  hold  myself  obliged  to  preserve  as  well  as  I  can  the  memory  of 
such  things  as  I  see,  which,  added  to  what  future  times  will 
discover,  will  revive  the  Roman  Glory  among  us,  and  may  serve 
to  incite  noble  minds  to  endeavour  at  that  merit  and  public- 
spiritedness  which  shine  through  all  their  actions.  This  tribute,  at 
least,  we  owe  them,  and  they  deserve  it  at  our  hands — to  preserve 
their  remains  "  (Dr.  Stukeley,  1687- 1765). 

"The  Romans  stamped  the  seal  of  history  on  the  wonderful  island, 
little  dreaming  that  a  time  would  come  when,  after  the  fusion 
of  Celts,  Latins  and  Germans,  a  commercial  power  would  be 
developed  more  important  than  Carthage,  and  an  empire  greater 
in  extent  and  population  than  that  of  Rome"  (Gregorovius). 

The  antiquities  described  in  this  chapter  illustrate  the  Roman 
occupation  of  Britain  which  commenced  with  the  conquest 
under  the  Emperor  Claudius  in  43  A.D.,  and  ended  in  410 
A.D.,  when  the  Roman  officials  and  legions  were  withdrawn. 
These  Anglo-Roman  remains  do  not  differ  in  general  char- 
acter from  Roman  remains  found  elsewhere.  Roman  civilisa- 
tion was  as  uniform  as  were  Roman  institutions.  In  our 
National  Museum  the  Roman  remains  found  in  Britain  are, 
however,  very  properly  brought  together  in  a  separate  collection 
as  illustrating  a  distinct  chapter  in  the  national  history 

There  are  two  opposite  errors  with  regard  to  that  history 
which  a  careful  study  of  a  collection  of  Anglo-Roman  antiquities 
is  calculated  to  correct.  One  is  a  tendency  to  under-rate.  the 
civilisation  in  Britain  existing  before  the  Roman  invasion. 
The  other  is  a  tendency  to  forget  the  extent  of  "the  Roman 
glory.55    Pre-Roman  Britain,  though  racked  by  incessant  wars, 

m 


7i6 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP, 


was  the  seat  of  considerable  industries.  The  mines  of  tin  and 
lead  were  already  worked.  There  was  a  native  gold  coinage, 
imitated  from  the  Macedonian  "  staters."  Many  of  the  British 
coins  bear  comparison,  in  design  and  execution,  with  the  con- 
temporary productions  of  the  Roman  mint.  The  art  of  enamel- 
ling on  bronze,  of  which  we  shall  presently  see  specimens,  was 
practised  by  "  the  barbarians  in  the  Ocean,"  and  from  them 
adopted  by  the  Romans. 

But  Britain  received  from  the  Romans  far  more  than  she 
gave.  Under  the  Roman  peace  established  by  the  legions, 
arts  and  industries  were  developed,  and  the  amenities  of  life 
found  fuller  scope.  The  Roman  dominion,  here  as  elsewhere, 
combined  policy  with  force.  The  amount  of  force  employed 
in  Britain,  after  the  first  conquest,  was  not  large.  The  regular 
number  of  legions  which  formed  the  army  of  occupation  was 
four,  and,  after  the  time  of  Hadrian,  three  ;  and  these  were 
for  the  most  part  stationed  on  the  extreme  boundaries  of 
Roman  Britain.  The  legions  were  supplemented  by  auxiliary 
troops,  drawn  from  other  parts  of  the  Roman  dominions,  and 
by  a  fleet.  We  shall  point  out  a  curious  little  relic  (p.  745) 
which  may  refer  to  the  Channel  Squadron  of  Roman  times. 
The  colonies,  planted  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  such  as 
Colchester  and  Lincoln,  served  also  as  fortified  outposts,  for 
the  Romans  were  firm  believers  in  the  policy  of  military  settle- 
ments. The  roads  which  they  made  were  also  a  form  of 
military  force  ;  for  these  raised  causeways  were  easily  defens- 
ible and  facilitated  the  speedy  massing  of  troops.  There  may 
be  seen  in  the  Museum  a  milestone  from  one  of  the  roads 
which  the  Romans  drove  into  the  wild  country  of  Wales.  It 
bears  the  name  of  Hadrian  and  was  originally  set  up  eight 
miles  from  the  Roman  station  of  Korovium  in  1 21-122  A.D. 
It  was  found  at  Rhiwau,  Llanfairfechan,  Co.  Carnarvon. 
Through  all  the  systems  of  great  roads  which  traversed  the 
Roman  Empire  milestones  of  this  kind  were  erected.  After 
the  Romans  departed  from  Britain,  most  of  the  milestones 
were  gradually  taken  for  building  material,  so  that  few  now 
survive.  Of  the  Roman  occupation  in  its  military  aspect,  we 
shall  see  many  relics — in  the  tombstones  erected  over  Roman 
soldiers,  in  altars  dedicated  by  them  to  their  gods,  in  bronze 
armour,  and  in  a  very  interesting  series  of  documents  releasing 
them  from  further  military  service. 

Military  force,  however,  was  by  no  means  the  only  basis 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


717 


of  Roman  dominion.  Rome  succeeded  also  in  securing  her 
position  by  the  attractions  of  commerce  and  a  higher  material 
civilisation.  "  The  Roman  trader  was  ubiquitous.  He  even 
preceded  the  Roman  arms  ;  thus  we  find  him  crossing  the 
Great  St.  Bernard  and  paying  toll  to  the  barbarians  before 
either  end  of  the  pass  was  secured  by  Roman  troops  ;  and 
wherever  the  Roman  arms  were  carried,  the  merchants 
followed  in  crowds.  The  immense  and  permanent  diffusion 
of  Roman  citizens  over  the  world  which  Rome  had  conquered 
was  one  of  the  chief  agencies  at  work  in  levelling  differences 
and  establishing  a  sort  of  unity  between  its  heterogeneous 
parts.  So,  again,  the  higher  civilisation  of  Rome  exercised 
an  immense  attraction  upon  backward  races.  The  Romans 
quite  understood  this  ;  and  an  interesting  and  characteristic 
passage  of  Tacitus  shows  us  Agricola  (c.  21)  of  set  purpose 
introducing  the  Britons  to  the  pleasant  luxuries  of  their 
conqueror.  '  All  this  in  their  ignorance  they  called  civilisation, 
when  it  was  but  a  part  of  their  servitude ; "  (W.  T.  Arnold  : 
The  Roman  System  of  Provincial  Administration,  p.  16). 
Before  the  end  of  the  first  century,  Britain  was  already  a 
settled  Roman  province,  and  participated  in  that  general 
prosperity  which  a  later  writer  described  by  saying  that  "  the 
world  is  equipped  with  everything,  everything  is  accessible, 
everywhere  there  is  a  dwelling,  everywhere  a  people,  every- 
where government,  everywhere  life "  (Tertullian).  The  poet 
Florus  commiserated  Hadrian,  indeed,  on  his  British  journey  : 
"Ego  nolo  Caesar  esse,  Ambulare  per  Britannos  "  ;  but  this 
was  an  epigram  upon  the  "reisende  Kaiser"  of  that  day,  and 
Britain  was  no  longer  too  remote  or  rude  to  be  furnished  with 
the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilised  life.  The  oysters  of 
Richborough  were  favourites  upon  the  dinner-tables  of  Rome, 
and  all  the  appliances  of  Roman  life  were  re-established  in 
Britain.  Martial  could  boast  that  his  poetry  was  read  in  this 
country,  and  Juvenal  flattered  the  Romans  by  assuring  them 
that  even  Thule  talked  of  inviting  a  rhetorician.  "  Already 
the  warm  and  mineral  springs  had  been  discovered,  which 
still  draw  our  health-seekers  to  Bath  and  Clifton,  to  Cheltenham 
and  Matlock,"  and  the  mineral  and  metallic  resources  of  the 
country  were  worked  with  method  and  perseverance.1  Before 

1  Certainly  also  there  was  no  lack  of  money  in  Britain.  The  number 
of  coins  which  have  been  discovered  scattered  about  on  Roman  sites  is 
very  great  ;  so  much  so,  says  one  antiquary  (Mr.  Wright),  that  "any  one 


7i8 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


the  Roman  dominion  had  run  its  course,  Britain  was  described 
as  "  glittering  with  a  multitude  of  cities  "  : — 

"  When  the  Roman  legions  were  finally  withdrawn,  Britain  possessed 
more  than  fifty  walled  towns,1  united  by  roads  upon  which,  at  stated 
intervals,  were  stations  for  resting  and  relays  of  horses  and  carriages. 
Exclusive  of  the  towns,  there  were  numerous  military  walled  stations, 
to  which  frequently,  in  process  of  time,  had  become  attached  extensive 
suburbs.  The  towns  and  stations  possessed  public  buildings,  baths 
and  temples  within  and  without  their  walls.  Many  of  the  towns  were 
of  large  extent  ;  and,  even  if  we  may  judge  only  from  the  remains 
discovered  in  our  own  time,  were  adorned  with  edifices  of  considerable 
grandeur  and  of  architectural  importance  ;  and  their  public  places  were 
often  embellished  with  statues.  One  bronze  equestrian  statue,  at  least, 
decorated  Lincoln  ;  a  bronze  statue,  of  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  place, 
stood  in  a  temple  at  Bath  ;  a  statue  in  bronze  of  Hadrian,  of  heroic 
size,  was  one  of  the  public  ornaments  of  London  ;  one  of  the  temples 
at  Colchester  bore  an  inscription  in  large  letters  of  bronze  ;  and  Verulam 
possessed  a  theatre  for  dramatic  representations  capable  of  holding  some 
two  to  three  thousand  spectators  "  (C.  R.  Smith,  Illustrations  of  Roman 
London,  p.  3).  "The  objects,  however,  which  must  have  struck  the 
traveller  most  forcibly  as  he  passed  along  the  road  between  one  town 
and  another,  were  the  numerous  country  villas  or  mansions,  many  of 
them  magnificent  palaces,  covering  as  much  ground  as  a  whole  town. 
Modern  discoveries  have  shown  us  how  marvellously  the  country  was 
covered,  especially  in  some  of  the  southern  and  midland  districts,  with 
these  great  rural  residences5' 2  (Wright's  Celt,  Roman  and  Saxon,  p.  227). 

Of  the  Roman  occupation  in  this,  its  civil  side,  the  remains 
collected  in  museums,  and  even  to  be  seen  in  situ,  are  apt  at 

would  imagine  that  the  Romans  in  Britain  amused  themselves  with 
throwing  their  money  away. ' '  From  the  bed  of  the  Thames  also  many 
thousands  of  Roman  coins  have  been  dredged  up.  Many  of  them  were 
still  as  sharp  as  when  issued  from  the  mint,  and  of  those  in  bad  condition 
the  majority  seemed  to  have  been  worn  more  by  the  friction  of  the  gravel, 
owing  to  tidal  action,  than  by  circulation.  In  this  case  it  seems  probable 
that  the  coins  had  been  deposited  as  commemorative  memorials  (as  in 
our  own  day)  on  the  occasion  of  repairs  to  the  bridge  of  Londinium. 

1  Of  the  appearance  of  these  walled  towns,  some  idea  may  be  formed 
from  an  illuminated  Psalter  in  the  Museum  collection  of  manuscripts  (MS. 
Harl. ,  No.  603). 

2  This  is  one  of  many  respects  in  which  modern  England  resembles 
Roman  Britain.  V  The  splendour  of  the  French  nobles,"  says  Gibbon  in 
his  Memoirs,  "is  confined  to  their  own  residences;  that  of  the  English 
is  more  usefully  distributed  in  their  country  seats  ;  and  we  should  be 
astonished  at  our  own  riches,  if  the  labours  of  architecture,  the  spoils  of 
Italy  and  Greece,  which  are  now  scattered  from  Inveraray  to  Wilton, 
were  accumulated  in  a  few  streets  between  Marylebone  and  Westminster." 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


719 


first  sight  to  seem  meagre  and  disappointing.  Countries  with 
only  a  past  are  to  the  archaeologist  richer  than  those  which 
have  a  present.  In  a  countryside  which  has  been  continuously 
and  highly  cultivated,  there  is  little  room  for  extensive  excava- 
tions ;  if  they  are  made,  they  are  soon  covered  up  again.  In 
the  case  of  great  commercial  cities,  on  the  site  of  Roman  towns, 
the  vestiges  of  antiquity  which  remain  visible  are  necessarily 
few,  nor  in  a  city  like  London  is  there  scope  for  any  systematic 
digging  for  minor  antiquities.  There  has  not  always,  it  must 
be  added,  been  the  taste.  All  the  more  honour,  therefore,  to 
those  who  have  felt  "  obliged  to  preserve  the  memory  of  such 
things  as  they  saw."  Among  such  men,  in  our  own  generation, 
we  are  here  especially  bound  to  mention  Charles  Roach  Smith 
(1 807-1890),  who  may  be  called  the  founder  of  this  portion  of 
the  Museum.  In  1856  he  sold  his  Anglo-Roman  remains  to 
the  British  Museum  (for  ^2000),  and  it  became  the  nucleus  of 
this  section  of  the  national  collection.  He  had  small  means, 
but  inexhaustible  zeal.  His  services  in  the  protection  and 
record  of  Roman  remains  were  recognised  both  in  this  country 
and  in  France.  A  medal  struck  in  his  honour  by  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  is  exhibited  in  the  Museum  (in  Table-case  B, 
Central  Saloon). 

The  remains  of  Roman  Britain  here  exhibited  may  appear 
insignificant,  but  closer  study  will  prove  them  to  be  full  of 
interest  and  instruction.  Of  the  public  buildings  to  which 
we  have  referred,  we  may  find  some  trace  in  the  pieces  of 
colossal  bronze  sculpture  which  once  adorned  them.  From 
the  private  houses,  mosaic  pavements  bear  witness  to  their 
rich  adornment.  The  smaller  bronze  statuettes  show  us  the 
household  gods  of  the  Anglo -Romans.  These  and  many 
other  remains  introduce  us  to  their  religious  rites  and  beliefs. 
The  frequency  of  hunting  scenes,  in  which  the  wild  boar,  the 
stag,  or  the  hare  is  the  quarry,  upon  the  figured  pottery  shows 
that  Roman  Britain  was  no  less  addicted  than  "  the  islanders  " 
of  later  times  to  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  The  pottery 
gives  us  pictures  also  of  the  dogs  for  which  Britain  was  famous 
and  which  it  exported  for  hunting  purposes  to  other  parts  of 
the  Roman  world.  We  pass  to  other  compartments,  and 
see  specimens  of  the  pewter-services,  silver-plate,  and  rich 
bronze  vessels  which  stood  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthier 
inhabitants.  Their  glass,  too,  was  often  elegant  and  artistic. 
Many  of  the  antiquities  here  exhibited  show  us  the  utensils 


720 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


and  implements  of  domestic  life.  We  may  see  the  strigils 
which  the  men  used  after  the  bath,  the  pins  with  which  the 
women  adorned  their  hair,  the  writing-tablets  and  pens  for 
their  letters,  the  women's  needle-work,  the  ornaments  and 
conveniences  for  the  home,  the  person,  the  pocket  and  the 
garden.  The  minute  study  of  antiquarians  consists  largely 
in  classification,  and  in  the  tabulation  of  differences.  Perhaps 
what  most  interests  the  unlearned  visitor  to  any  museum  of 
antiquities  is  the  study  of  resemblances.  He  discovers,  if  he 
did  not  know  before,  what  a  large  element  of  continuity  and 
conservatism  there  is  in  human  civilisation,  in  how  .  many 
respects  the  appliances  of  life  in  the  England  of  to-day  are 
essentially  the  same  as  in  Roman  Britain  eighteen  hundred 
years  ago. 


We  now  proceed  to  examine  more  in  detail  the  different 
classes  of  antiquities  to  which  we  have  alluded  in  the  foregoing 
sketch. 

TESSELATED  PAVEMENTS 

(In  the  Roman  Gallery) 

Among  the  most  enduring  monuments  of  the  Roman 
Empire  are  the  mosaics  which  paved  the  halls  or  houses  of 
its  colonists.  "  Few  countries  are  richer  than  England  in 
these  remains  ;  the  great  pavements  of  York,  Woodchester, 
Cirencester,  and  many  other  places  are  as  elaborate  in  design 
and  as  skilfully  executed  as  any  that  now  exist  even  in  Rome 
itself.1  In  whatever  country  these  mosaics  are  found,  their 
style  and  method  of  treatment  are  always  much  the  same  ; 
the  materials  only  of  which  the  tesserse  are  made  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  stone  or  marble  supplied  by  each  country.  In 
England,  for  instance,  limestone  or  chalk  often  takes  the 
place  of  the  white  marble  so  common  in  Italian  or  North 
African  mosaics  ;  while,  instead  of  red  marble,  a  fine  sort  of 
burnt  clay  or  red  sandstone  is  generally  used  ;  other  make- 
shifts had  to  be  resorted  to,  and  many  of  the  Anglo-Roman 
mosaics  are  made  entirely  without  marble ';  (Middleton  in 
Encyclopedia  Britojinica,  xvi.  851). 

1  A  list  of  all  the  Roman  pavements  discovered  in  London  up  to  1864 
is  given  in  Archcsologia,  xxxix.  501.  On  the  substances  employed,  see 
Archceological  Journal,  vii.  347. 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


721 


Among  the  mosaics  in  the  Roman  Gallery  are  two  pieces 
of  pavement  which  were  discovered  in  1841,  in  excavating  the 
foundation  of  the  former  French  Protestant  Church  in  Thread- 
needle  Street,  at  a  depth  of  about  14  feet.  In  one,  the  tesserae 
are  white,  black,  slate  colour,  and  a  dull  green,  formed  from 
natural  stones  ;  red  and  yellow  from  artificial ;  the  green 
apparently  from  a  native  marble  is  much  worn  by  time  and 
weather.  In  the  other  mosaic  the  centrepiece,  fitted  of  a 
complicated  and  ingenious  design,  is  pleasing.  Fragments  of 
wall-painting  were  also  discovered  showing  that  the  villa  had 
been  decorated  in  a  superior  style  (see  C.  Roach  Smith's 
Roman  Londo?i,  p.  55).  Another  of  the  mosaics  was  discovered 
in  1805,  under  the  south-west  angle  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
at  a  depth  of  12  feet.  Another  was  laid  open  in  Fen  church 
Street  in  digging  the  foundation  of  a  house  in  1858,  at  about  the 
same  depth.  The  increase  of  soil  may  be  said  roughly  to  be 
at  the  rate  of  a  foot  a  century.  The  thickness  of  calcareous 
concrete  on  which  these  mosaic  pavements  were  laid  must 
have  been  an  effective  protection  against  damp,  and  Suetonius 
tells  us  that  Julius  Caesar  on  his  expeditions  carried  the 
materials  for  making  such  pavements  as  part  of  his  military 
baggage  (c.  xlvii.).  Sometimes  the  concrete  rested  on  the 
native  ground  ;  but  in  rooms  intended  for  winter  use,  it  rested 
on  pillars  ;  the  heating  arrangements  were  under  the  floor,  and 
the  hot  air  passed  up  the  walls  through  hollow  tiles. 

Some  of  the  finest  Roman  pavements  in  Britain  have  been 
found  elsewhere  than  in  London.  Three  of  the  pieces  before 
us  here  are  from  Abbots  Ann,  Hampshire  ;  others  were  found 
in  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  villa  at  Withington,  Gloucestershire, 
which  was  revealed  by  the  plough  in  181 1.  The  subjects  of 
the  latter  pavements  included  a  figure  of  Neptune,  amidst  fishes 
and  marine  monsters,  and  Orpheus  with  his  lyre,  surrounded 
by  the  animals  whom  his  music  subdued.  Both  of  these  sub- 
jects were  favourites  with  the  Roman  pavement  artists.  They 
occur  on  several  of  the  pavements  unearthed  in  Britain,  and 
also  on  the  Continent.  "  Perhaps  the  artists  who  made  the 
pavements  carried  about  with  them  a  professional  list  of 
subjects  which  they  offered  for  choice,  if  their  employer  had 
not  a  subject  of  his  own  to  propose"  (Wright).  In  Britain  the 
subjects  just  mentioned  might  be  considered  especially  appro- 
priate, the  one  being  an  allusion  to  an  insular  position,  the 
other  to  the  progress  of  civilisation  among  us.    The  subject  of 

3  A 


722 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


Orpheus  was  selected  for  dining-rooms.  The  Roman  banquet, 
with  its  music,  its  recitations,  and  the  bath  which  preceded  it, 
was  a  type  of  the  highest  advance  in  social  cultivation :  as 
Horace  says  (Ars  Poet.  392) — 

Orpheus,  the  priest  and  harper,  pure  and  good, 
Weaned  savage  tribes  from  deeds  and  feasts  of  blood. 

The  Orpheus  pavement  from  Withington  is  one  of  the  best 
of  its  kind  : — 

"  The  animals  were  eight  in  number,  of  which  the  leopard,  boar,  and 
wolf  were  quite  entire,  and  the  bull  and  stag  nearly  so  ;  the  horse  and 
lion  were  much  mutilated,  as  was  the  figure  of  Orpheus  in  the  centre. 
On  each  side  of  the  circle  containing  these  figures  was  a  narrow  oblong 
compartment ;  that  on  the  south  side  was  ornamented  with  a  goblet  in 
the  centre,  with  the  mutilated  figure  of  a  peacock,  which  most  prob- 
ably was  answered  by  a  similar  one  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  goblet. 
In  the  oblong  compartment  on  the  north  side  of  the  circle  were  figures 
of  pheasants  and  other  birds.  This  division  of  the  pavement  was 
infinitely  better  executed  than  the  one  which  joined  it,  and  which  was 
probably  the  work  of  a  much  later  age.  The  part  where  this  inferior 
work  began  was  very  visible,  the  feet  which  formed  the  outward  border 
of  the  large  compartment  being  awkwardly  cut  off,  with  part  of  one  of 
the  birds,  and  a  border  formed  of  ornaments  in  a  very  inferior  state 
having  been  substituted.  This  second  compartment  was  an  oblong, 
the  sides  of  which  were  not  parallel,  containing  various  figures  of 
dolphins  and  sea-monsters,  and  a  large  head  of  Neptune  represented 
with  bones  apparently  formed  of  crabs'  or  lobsters'  claws,  and  two 
dolphins  proceeding  from  his  mouth"  (Archceologia,  xviii.  1 1 8.  The 
pavements  are  figured  in  Lysons'  Reliquice  Britannico- Romance ',  vol.  ii. 
pi.  17  and  18). 

This  pavement  in  its  original  condition  must  have  been  an 
effective  piece  of  decoration.  "  The  spacious  villas  which  were 
spread  over  Roman  Britain  are  only  known  to  us  from  their 
splendid  pavements  casually  laid  open  under  cornfields  and 
meadows,  from  time  to  time  deprived  of  the  superstructures 
which  would  be  indispensable  in  conveying  a  proper  notion  of 
the  extensive  and  commodious  edifices  of  which  they  once 
formed  the  flooring.  These  are  among  the  most  striking  re- 
mains we  possess  of  the  domestic  luxury  of  Roman  Britain  " 
(Roman  London,  p.  4). 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


723 


SARCOPHAGI  AND  INSCRIBED  STONES 

(In  the  Roman  Gallery) 

In  Roman  Britain  the  practice  of  cremation  and  of  burying 
the  ashes  in  urns  was  the  more  frequent,  but  the  older  Roman 
practice  of  burial  was  also  adopted.  Examples  of  stone 
coffins  are  placed  in  the  Roman  Gallery,  opposite  the  busts  of 
Roman  emperors.  They  present  various  points  of  interest, 
though  the  sculpture  "  exhibits,  more  or  less,  the  rudeness 
of  provincial  art."  Tombstones,  with  sepulchral  inscriptions, 
were  set  up  by  relatives  of  the  deceased,  or  by  his  heirs. 
Cemeteries  were  as  a  rule  situated  outside  the  town  walls, 
generally  by  the  side  of  roads  (as  on  the  Via  Appia  at  Rome). 
A  tombstone  found  in  Britain  bears  the  inscription  "  Buried 
by  the  roadside  that  they  who  pass  by  may  say,  Farewell, 
Lollius." 

We  begin  our  inspection  of  this  wall  of  tombstones  at  the 
door  nearest  the  Entrance  Hall.  In  the  corner  is  a  massive 
sepulchral  slab,  with  a  panel  inscribed  to  the  memory  of 
Lucius  Sempronius  Flavinius,  a  Spaniard,  a  soldier  of  the 
Ninth  Legion,  who  died  at  the  age  of  thirty,  after  seven  years 
of  military  service.  This  monument  was  found  in  1830 
opposite  the  city  gaol,  Lincoln,  in  the  foundations  of  the 
eastern  wall  of  the  lower  Roman  town  {Arch.  Journal, 
xvii.  6).  The  Ninth  Legion  came  to  Britain  under 
Claudius.  Almost  annihilated  in  the  insurrection  of  Boadicea, 
it  was  recruited  from  Germany,  and  again  suffered  from  the 
Caledonians  in  the  operations  under  Agricola.  It  was  regu- 
larly stationed  in  the  northern  part  of  Roman  Britain. 

An  altar  dedicated  to  Fortuna  Redux,  ^Esculapius  and 
Salus,  found  in  1779  in  Watergate  Street,  Chester  (Ellis, 
Townley  Gallery,  ii.  283).  The  sides  of  the  altar  are  orna- 
mented with  festoons  ;  below,  on  one  side,  are  a  cornucopia 
and  rudder,  as  emblems  of  good  fortune  ;  on  the  other  side 
are  the  staff  and  serpent  of  ^Esculapius,  the  god  of  healing. 
The  altar  was  dedicated,  as  the  inscription  shows,  by  soldiers 
of  the  Second  Legion,  of  which  the  usual  headquarters  were 
at  Caerleon-on-Usk  (I sea  Silurum).  The  Caesars  had  their 
Welsh  marches  as  well  as  the  Plantagenets.  The  Roman 
legionaries,  drawn  from  distant  lands,  must  often  have  longed 
for  home  ;  hence  their  pious  offerings  to  Fortuna  Redux,  to 


724 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP, 


the  goddess  of  fortune  who  grants  men  a  happy  return.  The 
altars  to  various  gods,  of  which  we  shall  see  other  specimens, 
were  probably  placed  in  the  temples  consecrated  to  the  greater 
divinities  (just  as  in  later  times  various  saints  had  their  shrines 
or  chapels),  or  were  placed  by  the  roadsides  (like  the  way- 
side chapels  in  Roman  Catholic  countries). 

A  sarcophagus,  very  heavy  in  workmanship,  was  discovered 
in  1 80 1  at  Southfleet,  Kent. 

Another  sarcophagus,  discovered  in  1853  near  Trinity 
Church,  Haydon  Square,  E.C.,  contained  a  leaden  coffin, 
within  which  were  the  skull  and  the  disjointed  and  partly 
decomposed  bones  of  a  boy.  The  countenance  of  the  youth 
figured  on  the  sarcophagus  is  marked  with  an  individuality 
of  expression  which  suggests  the  notion  of  its  having  been 
intended  for  a  portrait  of  the  dead  youth.  The  back  is  quite 
plain,  as  though  it  stood  against  a  wall  (Roman  London, 
P.  45)- 

A  sepulchral  monument,  found  in  Playhouse  Yard,  Black- 
friars,  had  served  as  a  building- stone.  The  monument  of 
which  this  mutilated  fragment  formed  a  part  was  erected  to  the 
memory  of  Celsus,  a  speculator  of  the  Second  Legion,  by  birth 
a  Dardanian.  The  names  of  those  who  erected  the  memorial, 
which  contained  a  full  -  length  figure  of  the  deceased,  are 
Valerius  Pudeno  and  Probus,  who  were  his  comrades.  The 
speculators  were  scouts.  Dardania  is  included  in  the  southern- 
most part  of  Servia  (Roman  London,  p.  27). 

A  sepulchral  tablet,  found  in  1859,  built  into  the  foundations 
of  the  wall  of  the  lower  Roman  town,  Lincoln  (Arch.  Journal, 
xvii.  20),  commemorates  two  women  whose  busts,  sculptured 
in  high  relief,  are  on  the  top  part  of  the  stone.  On  our  right 
is  Claudia  Catiola,  who  died  at  the  age  of  sixty.  On  our  left 
Volusia  Faustina,  of  the  colony  of  Lincoln,  aged  twenty-six 
years,  one  month,  twenty-six  days.  Aurelius  Senecio,  a  decurion 
(corporal  or  sergeant),  erected  this  monument  to  his  wife  in 
memory  of  her  merits  :  ob  nierita  co?ijugi  posuit.  The  family 
affections  of  the  Romans  in  Britain  sometimes  speak  yet  more 
tenderly  on  these  sepulchral  stones  :  as,  e.g.,  on  one  found  at 
York,  where  a  father,  of  the  Sixth  Legion,  erects  a  monument  to 
an  infant  daughter,  "a  most  innocent  thing"  ;  and  on  another, 
found  at  Penrith,  "  Limisius,  to  a  wife  and  daughter  most 
affectionate,  placed  this."  The  letters  D.M.  at  the  head  of  an  t 
inscription  stand,  of  course,  for  Diis  Manibus,  "  To  the  gods 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


725 


of  the  shades."  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  the  relationship 
of  Catiola  to  the  other  woman  or  to  her  husband. 

An  altar  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules  was  found  in  the  church- 
yard at  Corbridge,  Northumberland  (Boeck's  C.I.G.  No. 
6806).  On  one  side,  a  sacrificial  knife  and  a  bull's  head 
are  sculptured  in  bas-relief ;  on  the  opposite  side  is  a  garland 
or  wreath  ;  and  in  front,  an  inscription  in  Greek  recording 
the  dedication  of  the  altar  to  the  Tyrian  Hercules  by 
Diodora,  the  high  priestess.  The  Tyrians  appear  to  have 
been  one  of  the  earliest  people  who  paid  divine  honours  to 
Hercules  ;  a  temple,  of  remote  antiquity  and  great  splendour, 
which  was  erected  to  him  at  Tyre  was  visited  by  Herodotus 
(ii.  44).  Also  at  Corbridge  was  found  an  altar  dedicated  to 
the  Syrian  Astarte,  queen  of  heaven.  The  Romans,  with 
their  wide  tolerance  and  ready  acceptance  of  new  gods, 
diffused,  it  would  seem,  the  worship  of  Eastern  divinities, 
with  their  colonisation,  even  to  the  north  of  distant  Britain. 
We  shall  come  presently  to  a  statuette  of  Hercules  which 
may  possibly  have  belonged  to  the  priestess  of  our  inscription 
(see  p.  729). 

Sepulchral  tablet  to  A.  Alfidius  Rombo,  aged  seventy  years, 
set  up  in  compliance  with  his  will  by  his  heir.  Discovered 
at  Tower  Hill  in  1852  {Roman  London,  p.  27). 

Sepulchral  inscription,  part  of  a  monument  to  Fab. 
Alpinus  Classicianus,  or  his  son.  A  Roman  o'f  the  name 
Classicianus  was  procurator  in  Britain  in  the  reign  of  Nero  (Tac. 
Ann.  xiv.  38).  This  stone  was  found  in  1852  incorporated 
in  a  buttress  which  had  been  built  against  the  Roman  wall 
at  Tower  Hill  {Roman  London^  p.  28). 

Sepulchral  tablet,  found  in  1849  in  Monson  Street,  Lincoln, 
at  a  spot  which  seems  to  have  been  a  cemetery  {Arch. 
Journal,  xi.  25,  xvii.  17).  It  was  found  broken  in  pieces, 
probably  intentionally,  and  thrown  into  a  cavity  in  the  soil, 
where  it  lay  with  other  Roman  remains  7  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  monument  records  T.  Valerius  Pudens,  son  of  Julius,  of 
the  Claudian  tribe ;  a  native  of  Savia,  a  city  in  Spain ;  a 
soldier  of  the  Second  Legion,  who  lived  thirty  years,  two  of 
them  as  a  pensioner.  "  It  has  been  remarked  that,  to  judge 
from  the  ages  set  forth  in  these  sepulchral  inscriptions,  the 
Romans  in  Britain  generally  died  young.  The  average  age 
seems  to  be  not  much  more  than  thirty  "  (Wright).  As  so  large 
a  proportion  of  them  belonged  to  the  army,  this  is  natural 


726 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


The  present  monument,  as  the  inscription  further  tells  us, 
was  one  which  the  deceased  had  erected  for  himself  at  his 
own  cost.  On  the  pediment  is  a  trident  between  two 
dolphins  ;  below,  a  pick-axe,  alluding  either  to  digging  the 
grave  or  fashioning  the  memorial  stone. 

A  large  scroll  was  probably  an  ornament  from  the  cover  of  a 
sarcophagus.  It  was  found,  with  the  fragment  of  a  mill-stone 
now  placed  on  it,  at  the  foot  of  the  old  Roman  wall  of  London. 

Part  of  an  inscription  to  a  soldier  of  the  Twentieth  Legion 
(London).  The  Twentieth  Legion  constituted  part  of  the  forces 
under  Claudius  in  his  invasion,  and  appears  to  have  been 
permanently  established  in  Britain  throughout  its  annexation. 
It  was  generally  stationed  at  Chester. 

A  basin  with  bas-reliefs  of  Roman  deities  (Chesterford, 
Essex). 

Ogham  Inscriptions. — Against  the  pilasters  are  some 
upright  slabs,  of  which  four  are  from  Ireland  and  one  is  from 
Fardell  in  Devonshire.  The  method  of  writing,  which  is 
called  Ogham,  consists  of  long  and  short  strokes  across  the 
edges  of  the  slabs.  The  inscriptions  give  the  names  of  the 
persons  commemorated,  accompanied  in  one  instance  by  the 
same  names  in  Latin  letters.  The  Ogham  inscriptions  were 
peculiar  to  the  Celts.  This  method  of  writing  dates  back 
probably  to  pre-Christian  times,  and  continued  to  be  practised 
till  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  In  the  other  portion  of  the 
Anglo-Roman  collection  there  is  another  Ogham  slab.  It 
was  found  upon  the  rough  land  of  the  farm  of  Pentre  Poeth, 
in  the  hamlet  of  Capel  Llanilid  near  Trecastle.  A  farmer  who 
came  upon  it  thought  it  admirably  adapted  for  a  gate-post, 
and  had  it  removed  and  refixed  upside  down  at  the  entrance 
to  his  farm,  where  it  remained  until  it  was  secured  for  the 
British  Museum.  The  Ogham  inscription,  as  usual,  runs 
along  the  edge  of  the  stone,  commencing  from  the  bottom  and 
reading  upwards.  The  ornamentation  on  the  face  of  the  stone 
appears  to  include  a  rude  attempt  at  a  human  figure  (Archceo- 
logia  Cambrensis,  Fourth  Series,  ix.  221). 

\The  rest  of  the  Anglo- Roman  collection  is  exhibited  in  the  Pre- 
historic Saloon  {central  portion),  the  separate  room  formerly 
devoted  to  it  having  now  become  the  Waddesdon  Room.  A 
part  of  the  collection  is  at  present,  ozuing  to  want  of  space, 
not  exhibited  to  the  public.  The  follozving  desa-iptions  in- 
clude those  objects  only  which  are  accessible.] 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


727 


LARGER  BRONZES 

(In  the  centre  of  the  room) 

The  Anglo-Roman  collection  is  appropriately  dominated  by 
a  head  of  Hadrian,  the  emperor  whose  visit  to  our  shores 
found  a  permanent  record  in  the  great  wall  which  stretched 
between  Carlisle  and  Newcastle,  from  sea  to  sea.  Under  the 
protection  of  Hadrian's  Wall  the  civilisation  of  Rome  was 
developed  in  Britain  with  growing  success.  Londinium, 
destroyed  in  61  A.D.,  was  restored.  This  bronze  head  of 
Hadrian  was  dredged  up  from  the  bed  of  the  Thames,  a  little 
below  the  site  of  old  London  Bridge.  It  must  have  belonged 
to  a  colossal  statue  of  the  emperor,  which  was  a  principal 
ornament,  perhaps,  of  some  great  public  building.  The 
modelling  and  execution  show  great  artistic  skill.  (For  other 
representations  of  the  emperor,  see  pp.  11,  26,  29,  731.) 

Another  fine  bronze  is  the  figure  generally  described  as 
that  of  a  Roman  General  or  some  imperial  personage.  It 
was  found  in  1799,  twelve  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
near  Barking  Hall,  in  Suffolk,  on  the  estate  of  the  Earl  of 
Ashburnham.  The  dress  and  armour  have  patterns  partly 
inlaid  in  silver  and  partly  in  niello  (see  p.  606).  The  dark  tint 
of  the  bronze  rather  prevents  the  niello,  of  which  work  it  is  one 
of  the  earliest  specimens,  from  showing  out  distinctly.  To  the 
traditional  interpretation  of  this  statue,  Dr.  Murray  objects 
that  the  flat  fillet  or  ribbon  with  which  the  hair  is  bound  is 
not  Roman  but  Greek.  He  believes  the  bronze  to  be  the 
work  of  a  Gaulish  or  British  sculptor  making  a  copy  from  a 
Greek  original.  The  original,  he  suggests,  is  a  statue  of 
Alexander  the  Great  by  Lysippus,  with  his  face  looking  towards 
the  heavens,  as  he  was  wont  to  look  (according  to  Plutarch's 
story,  see  p.  141  :  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  87). 

The  fine  bronze  helmet  was  the  result  of  one  of  the  many 
accidental  discoveries  by  which  the  British  Museum  has  been 
enriched.  In  1797  a  boy  was  at  play  in  a  hollow  at  Ro- 
chester when  he  came  upon  this  helmet,  together  with  other 
Roman  remains,  in  a  heap  of  red  sandstone.  Mr.  Townley 
happened  to  hear  of  the  find  and  bought  the  objects,  which 
afterwards  passed,  with  the  rest  of  his  collections,  to  the 
Museum.  The  helmet  is  in  two  pieces.  The  skull  part  is 
ornamented  with  figures  of  eleven  combatants  on  foot  and  six 


728 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


on  horseback.  These  figures  are  principally  of  interest  as 
giving  illustrations  of  Roman  armour  about  the  time  of  the 
Antonines,  when  the  Romans  had  adopted  the  oblong  hex- 
agonal shield  in  use  among  the  Parthians  in  addition  to  their 
own  original  oval  and  oblong  square  shields.  The  workman- 
ship of  the  headpiece  is  coarse  and  heavy.  The  mask,  or  vizor 
to  cover  the  face,  is  of  much  superior  workmanship,  and  the 
features  are  very  refined.  The  ornamentation  is  curious  and 
interesting  : — 

"A  row  of  small  detached  locks  of  hair,"  says  Mr.  Townley,  "sur- 
rounds the  forehead  a  little  above  the  eyes,  reaching  to  the  ears,  which 
are  well  delineated.  Upon  these  locks  of  hair  rests  the  bottom  of  a 
diadem  which  is  divided  horizontally  into  two  parts.1  The  lower  part 
projects  and  represents  a  bastion  wall,  separated  into  seven  divisions 
by  projecting  turrets.  Three  apertures  for  missile  weapons  of  defence 
are  marked  in  each  of  the  turrets.  Two  arched  doors  appear  in  the 
middle  divisions  of  this  wall,  and  one  arched  door  in  each  of  the 
extreme  divisions.  The  upper  part  of  the  diadem,  which  recedes  a 
little  so  as  to  clear  the  top  of  the  walls  and  of  the  turrets,  was  orna- 
mented with  seven  embossed  figures,  placed  under  the  seven  arches, 
the  abutments  of  which  are  heads  of  genii.  The  central  arch,  and  the 
figure  that  was  within  it,  are  destroyed,  but  the  other  six  arches  are 
filled  by  a  repetition  of  the  following  three  groups  : — A  Venus,  sitting 
upon  a  marine  monster,  before  her  a  draped  figure  with  wings  bearing 
a  wreath  and  a  palm  branch,  and  behind  her  a  Triton  whose  lower  parts 
terminate  in  tails  of  fish.  Two  serpents  are  represented  on  each  side 
of  the  face,  near  the  eyes,  from  whence  the  bodies  of  three  reptiles 
surround  each  cheek  and  are  joined  under  the  chin"  (Vetusta  Monu- 
ment a,  iv.  i). 

Mr.  Townley,  in  the  account  above  quoted,  suggested  that 
the  helmet  was  not  designed  for  real  combat,  but  for  the 
enrichment  of  a  trophy  erected  in  celebration  of  some  military 
festival.  He  connects  the  details  of  the  ornamentation  with 
the  worship  of  the  Magna  Mater,  under  whose  protection 
Roman  camps  were  placed.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  says 
that  "  the  strength  and  energy  of  Demosthenes  differ  from  the 
light  and  flowery  style  of  Plato  as  much  as  arms  made  for  war 

1  Sir  Charles  Newton  saw  in  this  ornamentation  an  instance  of  the 
personification  of  a  city  such  as  is  given  on  some  Greek  coins,  and  more 
elaborately  in  late  Greek  and  in  Roman  sculptures.  ' '  The  hair  on  the 
forehead  is  so  treated  as  to  give  the  idea  of  waves  washing  the  base  of  the 
turrets.  The  head  is  perhaps  a  figurative  representation  of  a  town  girt 
with  fortifications  and  a  moat,  near  which  some  great  battle  was  fought" 
(Ruskin's  Stories  of  Venice,  vol.  i.  app.  21). 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


729 


do  from  those  made  for  processions  J; ;  a  remark  which  "  proves 
that  arms  of  the  latter  sort  were  of  a  lighter  texture,  and  more 
ornamented  than  the  former,  precisely  corresponding  with  the 
texture  and  quality  of  our  Ribchester  helmet,  which  is  exceed- 
ingly ornamented,  of  too  flimsy  a  substance  for  defence,  and  so 
ill-calculated  for  the  admittance  of  air,  that  the  wearer  could  with 
difficulty  have  breathed  through  it  during  any  course  of  exertion." 

The  other  objects  found  with  this  helmet  are  exhibited  in 
Cases  86-88.  They  consist  of  remains  of  various  vessels,  pieces 
of  armour,  and  military  standards.  In  the  same  Cases  are 
some  other  Roman  helmets.  One  of  these  resembles  a 
jockey-cap  in  form  (cf.  Nos.  2725-2728  in  the  Bronze  Room)  ; 
it  was  found  in  digging  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  near  North- 
cote  Hill,  between  Tring  and  Berkhampstead.  Another  bronze 
helmet  of  unusual  form  was  found  folded  up  in  a  water-course 
at  Guisborough,  Yorks.  A  third,  found  at  Witcham  Gravel, 
Cambs,  is  of  bronze,  lined  with  iron,  and  partly  tinned. 

BRONZE  STATUETTES 

{Cases  89,  93) 

Another  fine  bronze  is  the  statuette  of  an  archer,  found  in 
1842,  at  a  depth  of  between  twelve  and  thirteen  feet,  in  the 
course  of  excavations  for  a  sewer  in  Queen  Street,  Cheapside  : — 

e<  The  bow  and  arrow  were  probably  of  richer  metal  than  the  figure 
itself,  but  no  vestiges  of  them  were  discovered.  The  aperture  for  the 
bow  is  seen  in  the  closed  left  hand  which  held  it,  and  the  bent  fingers 
of  the  right  appear  in  the  act  of  drawing  the  arrow  to  its  full  extent 
previous  to  its  evolation.  The  eyes  are  of  silver,  with  the  pupils  open ; 
the  hair  disposed  in  graceful  curls  on  the  head  as  well  as  on  the  chin 
and  upper  lip.  The  left  hand,  which  grasped  the  bow  and  sustained 
the  arrow,  is  so  placed  as  to  bring  the  latter  to  a  level  with  the  eye  ; 
and  the  steadfast  look  and  determined  expression  of  the  whole  face  are 
much  heightened  by  the  silver  eyes  "  (Arckceologia,  xxx.  543  ;  Roman 
London ,  p.  71)- 

The  bronze-gilt  figure  of  Hercules  (Case  89),  acquired  by 
Sir  A.  W.  Franks  for  the  Museum  from  Lord  Carlisle,  was 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Roman  Wall :  the  precise 
spot  is  unknown.  It  is  the  work  of  a  Gaulish  sculptor  (such 
as  was  Zenodorus  who  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  Nero  : 
Pliny,  N.H.  xxxiv.  45),  and  may  have  been  imported  by  the 
priestess  of  the  Tyrian  Hercules  at  Corbridge  (see  p.  725). 


730 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


The  head  is  vigorous  and  expressive  ;  in  the  attitude  and  other 
respects — such  as  the  short  body  and  long  massive  legs — the 
statuette  recalls  the  archaic  period  of  Greek  art.  "It  shows 
how  a  phase  of  Greek  art,  which  had  been  abandoned  for 
centuries  in  Greece  itself,  had  survived  in  specimens  brought 
to  Gaul  or  Britain,  and  had  there  appeared  to  native  sculptors 
as  a  new  light  on  their  path,  much  as  the  archaic  pre-Raphaelite 
painting  of  Italy  appeared  to  our  countrymen  not  so  long  ago  " 
(A.  S.  Murray's  Greek  Bronzes,  p.  93  ;  Archceologia,  Iv.  199). 

Among  other  articles  in  bronze  here  shown  (Cases  86-88) 
are  some  plates  from  a  votive  offering  to  Mars  and  Vulcan 
(from  Barkway,  Herts) ;  an  ornament  from  some  piece  of 
furniture,  with  a  head  of  Minerva  (from  High  Wycombe),  and 
a  jug  (from  Carlisle).  This  last  is  a  ftrcefericulum,  the  vessel 
which  contained  the  wine  for  sacrificial  offerings,  as  is  some- 
times figured  on  sculptured  altars.  Notice  also  he^e  the  bronze, 
silver,  and  ivory  mounts  of  a  casket,  conjecturally  restored 
(from  Icklingham,  Suffolk). 

Among  the  smaller  bronzes  (Case  93)  are  some  statuettes 
of  considerable  beauty,  which  were  discovered  in  1837,  during 
an  excavation  of  the  bed  of  the  Thames  near  London  Bridge, 
by  men  employed  in  ballast -heaving.  One  of  these  is  a 
youthful  Apollo,  "  a  masterpiece  of  ideal  grace  and  beauty." 
The  countenance  is  pensive  and  full  of  gentleness  and  thought, 
and  the  repose  of  the  body  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the 
conception.  A  Mercury,  found  at  the  same  time,  is  "  of  the 
best  and  chastest  design,  and  most  finished  workmanship." 
The  attitude  is  graceful  and  easy ;  the  countenance,  full  of 
animated  beauty.  These  statuettes  were  no  doubt  among  the 
household  gods  of  a  Roman  of  some  distinction  residing  in  the 
metropolis  of  the  province  of  Britain.  It  is  clear  that  they 
were  intentionally  mutilated  ;  it  will  be  observed  that  the  legs 
of  the  Apollo  show  marks  of  some  sharp  instrument  just  above 
the  point  where  they  were  broken  off.  The  destruction  of  the 
idols  of  the  Pagans  was,  as  we  know  from  the  Venerable  Bede, 
a  duty  prescribed  to  the  Early  Christian  converts.  "  Before 
their  fanatical  ignorance,  every  tangible  representation,  whether 
of  gods  or  of  human  beings,  fell  indiscriminately,  and  the  effigies 
of  the  soldier  or  of  the  peaceful  civilian,  upon  his  tomb,  were 
as  systematically  cut  and  hammered  to  pieces  as  the  statues 
and  images  of  gods  and  goddesses."  In  the  present  case, 
the  statuettes  must  have  been  purposely  broken  and  then 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


731 


thrown  into  the  river.  They  were  thus  "  consigned  to  what 
was  intended  to  be  an  eternal  grave  ;  but  water,  faithful  to 
science,  has  conserved  them  for  the  admiration  of  a  posterity 
less  intolerant  and  destructive ;;  (A rchozologia,  xxviii.  38-46; 
Roman  London,  p.  68). 

Several  of  the  statuettes  are  of  animals.  Thus,  there  is 
a  boar,  of  rude,  though  effective  workmanship  (found  at 
Colchester).  The  boar  was  a  Celtic  emblem.  A  goat,  of  iron 
plated  with  silver,  shows  good  workmanship  (Roman  Londo?i, 
p.  75).  Very  remarkable  is  a  figure  of  a  Roman  fighting-cock 
in  bronze,  the  surface  with  champleve'  enamel  (see  p.  748  n.)  in 
pale  green  and  white,  and  traces  of  red  on  the  comb  (Journal 
of  the  British  Archceological  Association,  xli.  97).  On  the 
evidence  of  other  work  of  a  similar  kind  (see  p.  748)  this 
object  may  be  ascribed  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  or  later  ;  it  was 
found  close  to  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,  and  was  acquired 
for  the  Museum  in  1900  from  the  Mayhew  collection. 

Among  the  other  small  bronzes  we  may  notice  a  bust  of 
the  Emperor  Hadrian,  found  at  Winchester  (from  the  collection 
of  Lord  Hastings)  ;  a  lamp  in  the  form  of  Silenus  on  a  wine- 
skin, found  in  Fenchurch  Street  (presented  in  1901  by  "The 
Friends  of  the  British  Museum,"  a  body  of  subscribers  formed 
to  supplement  the  official  grants)  ;  a  curious  figure  of  a 
barbarian,  apparently  seated  across  a  stand  which  also 
supported  the  circular  convex  object  held  in  front  by  a  rivet 
of  lead  still  remaining.  This  figure,  which  was  dredged  up 
from  the  Thames  near  London  Bridge,  may  represent  an 
artisan  at  work ;  but  it  would  do  equally  well  for  an 
armourer  making  a  shield,  or  a  pieman.  Notice  the  man's 
shoes  :  in  the  case  of  the  left  foot,  which  was  intended  to  be 
seen,  the  sculptor  has  shown  the  open-work  of  the  shoe  on 
the  instep  {Roman  London,  p.  74).  The  man  ploughing  is 
curious  as  showing  the  mode  introduced  into  Britain  by  the 
Romans.  The  oxen  are  heavily  harnessed,  and  there  is  an 
appearance  of  bands  round  the  inner  horns  of  each.  The 
right  hand  of  the  figure  has  probably  held  a  long  goad.  The 
figure  of  the  ploughman  gives  us  a  picture  of  the  costume 
of  the  Romano-British  peasant.  This  bronze  was  found  at 
Pierce  Bridge,  Durham  (W.  B.  Scott's  Antiquarian  Gleanings, 
p.  10).  The  vessel  in  the  form  of  a  slave  asleep  on  a  modius, 
or  bushel  measure,  was  found  in  1 7  3  5  at  Aldborough,  Yorks, 
the  Roman  Isurium.     To  the  rings  about  the  shoulders  were 


732 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


fastened  the  several  chains  by  which,  when  conjoined,  the 
vessel  hung  (H.  E.  Smith,  Reliqitiae  Isurianae,  p.  43,  where 
an  illustration  is  given,  and  the  "  mortifying  fact,"  now  happily 
disproved,  is  added  that  this  valuable  relic  had  disappeared). 
A  statuette  of  Mars  has  an  interesting  inscription.  ,  It  is 
dedicated  "  deo  Marti  et  numinibus  Augusti ';  by  two  donors, 
Colasuni  Bruccius  et  Caratius,  at  their  own  cost.  Particulars 
of  the  cost  are  supplied.  "  For  one  hundred  sesterces,  Celatus 
the  coppersmith  made  this  figure  and  delivered  the  pound  of 
copper,  when  wrought,  for  three  denarii.55  He  charged,  it 
seems,  so  much  for  the  material,  and  so  much  for  the  making. 
This  statuette  was  found  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  cleaning 
out  the  mud  from  the  bottom  of  the  Foss  Dyke,  a  navigable  canal, 
probably  of  Roman  construction,  from  Lincoln  to  the  Trent  at 
Torksey  {Archceologia,  xiv.  273).  The  base  of  an  equestrian 
figure,  found  in  Suffolk,  has  a  dedication  to  Mars  by  Simplicia ; 
it  was  made  by  Glaucus.  The  statuette  of  an  Orator  in  a 
toga,  from  Cricklade,  reminds  one  of  Juvenal's  lines  above 
referred  to  :  — 

Nunc  totus  Graias  nostrasque  habet  orbis  Athenas, 

Gallia  causidicos  docuit  facunda  Britannos, 

De  conducendo  loquitur  jam  rhetore  Thyle  (xv.  no). 

An  ivory  statuette  is  of  exceptional  interest,  representing  a 
Roman  gladiator  in  armour,  with  sword  and  shield,  on  the 
latter  being  a  scene  from  a  gladiatorial  combat ;  found  at 
Lexden,  Colchester,  in  1884,  and  given  in  1899  by  P.  R. 
Papillon  (B.  M.  Report,  1900,  p.  73). 

A  small  silver  figure  of  Harpocrates,  found  in  the  Thames 
in  1825,  is  pretty  and  curious  : — 

'  \  The  attitude  of  this  little  figure  is  natural  and  full  of  grace,  and 
the  modelling  well  expresses  the  fleshy  rotundity  of  early  youth.  A 
delicately-wrought  gold  chain  crosses  the  figure  in  front  and  passes 
through  a  string  loop  at  the  back,  together  with  a  gold  ring.  The 
mechanism  is  a  part  of  the  original  design,  and  indicates  that  the 
image  was  intended  to  be  secured  to  some  more  solid  and  weighty 
object,  probably  to  stand  among  the  tutelary  divinities  in  the  house  of 
some  person  of  opulence.  (Harpocrates,  a  younger  son  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  was  one  of  the  minor  divinities  introduced  from  Egypt.  He  was 
in  later  times  regarded  as  a  god  of  silence,  and  the  Romans  frequently 
wore  a  figure  of  him  engraved  on  their  finger- rings.)  The  representa- 
tions of  Harpocrates  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  by  no  means 
uniform,  except  the  position  of  the  finger  towrards  the  mouth,  advising 
silence.     In  this  instance  he  is  winged,  but  chained,  to  restrain  his 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


733 


flight ;  upon  his  head  he  wears  a  crescent ;  and  at  his  feet  are  two 
dogs  and  a  tortoise,  emblems  of  watchfulness  and  of  a  taciturnity. 
The  tortoise  was  also  symbolical  of  a  good  housewife  who  kept  within 
her  own  door  ;  and  some  such  symbolism  was  probably  here  intended  " 
{Roman  London,  p.  74). 

SEPULCHRAL  VESSELS 
(Cases  79-85) 

The  Romans,  as  we  have  seen,  practised  both  burial  and 
cremation,  and  antiquities  belonging  to  each  method  are  ex- 
hibited in  the  Museum.  We  have  seen  already,  in  the  Roman 
Gallery,  examples  of  stone  sarcophagi,  some  of  which  contained 
leaden  coffins.  Here  we  see  a  collection  of  vessels  of  glass, 
pottery,  lead,  and  stone  to  contain  the  burnt  bones  of  the  dead, 
usually  found  in  sarcophagi  or  in  "  cists,"  i.e.  cavities  under- 
ground lined  with  stone  or  tiles  :  specimens  of  such  tiles  are 
here  shown.  The  smaller  vessels  were  found  with  the  burials. 
Among  the  ashes  Charon's  coin  (see  p.  708)  is  frequently  found. 

On  one  shelf  is  a  specially  interesting  collection  of  objects 
of  this  kind,  found  in  1881  during  extensive  alterations  on  the 
premises  of  Messrs.  J.  Tylor  and  Sons,  in  Warwick  Square, 
E.C.,  adjoining  the  last  of  the  three  successive  Roman  walls 
of  London,  and  near  one  of  the  gates  of  that  wall  (Newgate). 
Fortunately  for  the  interests  of  science,  the  owners  of  the  pro- 
perty were  men  of  antiquarian  tastes  and  knowledge  ;  the 
excavations  were  systematically  made  and  recorded,  and  the 
objects  deposited  in  the  Museum.  Mr.  Alfred  Tylor  contri- 
buted to  Archceologia  (xlviii.  223)  a  most  interesting  account 
of  the  discoveries,  from  which  the  following  particulars  are 
taken  : — 

In  one  of  the  vases  a  coin  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  (a.d.  47-54) 
was  found,  and  this  approximately  fixes  the  date  of  the  interments. 
The  coin  was  inside  a  stone  vase,  which  is  interesting  as  showing  clear 
proofs  of  having  been  turned  in  a  pole-lathe,  a  survival  of  the  form  of 
bow-drill.  The  material  seems  to  be  a  porphyry  or  serpentine.  As  a 
similar  rock  occurs  near  St.  David's,  the  vase  may  be  of  British  origin 
and  workmanship.  Four  leaden  ossuaria  were  found  in  it.  They  are 
all  made  of  lead,  cast  flat  and  bent  round  into  cylinders,  the  edges 
being  joined  by  the  blow-pipe  without  solder.  One  of  these  vessels 
has  a  reel  pattern.  This  pattern  is  found,  says  Mr.  Tylor,  on  all 
"the  coffins  of  this  age  that  I  have  seen."  It  is  of  interest  both 
technically  and  for  its  symbolism.     It  is  so  placed  as  to  act  as  a 


734 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


support  or  rib,  and  is  cast  hollow  to  save  the  metal.  The  position 
strengthens  the  flat  top  or  sides  of  the  coffin.  In  modern  engineer- 
ing, the  lattice-bracing  is  placed  diagonally  in  all  cases,  and  is  clearly 
a  survival  from  Roman  work  ;  but  even  barbarous  races  design  lattice- 
work of  bamboo  for  bridges,  etc.,  upon  true  mechanical  principles. 
This  ossuarium  has  a  figure  of  Sol  in  the  quadriga  cast  on  the  outside, 
and  it  contained  a  glass  vase  of  the  best  workmanship  with  double 
handles.  The  vase  was  full  of  calcined  bones.  Symbolically,  the 
reel  pattern,  as  a  rude  representation  of  thread-reels,  may  be  taken  to 
have  reference  to  the  thread  of  life.  Another  decoration  shows,  it 
will  be  observed,  the  Sun  in  his  chariot,  referring  to  the  race  of  life, 
with  "perhaps  also  a  suggestion  of  the  solar  myth  of  the  sun  making 
his  journey  from  light  to  darkness,  here  signifying  the  passage  from 
the  light  of  life  to  the  darkness  of  death."  On  the  inside  of  the  flat 
bottom  of  another  is  cast  an  eight-rayed  star.  This  shows  that  the  coffin 
contained  the  bones  of  a  worshipper  of  the  sun-god  Mithras  (see  p.  14). 

GLASS 
{Cases  79-85,  Table-case  E) 

"  Some  mariners,  who  had  a  cargo  of  nitrum  (salt)  on 
board,  having  landed  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Belus,  a  small 
stream,  at  the  base  of  Mount  Carmel  in  Palestine,  and  finding 
no  stones  to  rest  their  pots  on,  placed  under  them  some  masses 
of  nitrum,  which  being  fused  by  the  heat,  with  the  sand  of  the 
river,  produced  a  liquid  and  transparent  stream  ;  such  (says 
Pliny,  N.ff.  xxvi.  26)  was  the  origin  of  glass."  The  greater 
antiquity  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  is  now  established  by 
many  Egyptian  specimens  such  as  may  be  seen  in  our  Museum. 
That  its  discovery  was  accidental  in  some  such  way  as  Pliny 
describes  is  most  probable,  for  although  glass  is  itself  perfectly 
transparent,  not  one  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made  par- 
takes of  that  quality.  Who,  as  Dr.  Johnson  asked,  "  would 
have  imagined,  when  he  saw  the  first  sand  by  a  casual  intense- 
ness  of  heat  melted  into  a  metallic  form,  that  in  this  shapeless 
lump  lay  concealed  so  many  conveniences  of  life  as  would  in 
time  constitute  a  great  part  of  the  happiness  of  the  world?" 
The  making  of  glass  at  Rome  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  Egyptian  workmen.  That  it  was  much  practised  is  clear 
from  the  abundance,  beauty,  and  variety  of  Roman  glass,  such 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  Glass  Collection  of  our  Museum.  Much 
of  the  Roman  glass  found  in  Britain  seems  to  have  been  im- 
ported, though  it  is  probable  that  much  also,  especially  of  the 
commoner  kinds,  was  locally  manufactured. 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


735 


Glass  was  applied  in  the  Roman  world  to  a  great  number 
of  uses,  and  even  the  specimens  here  before  us  are  enough 
to  show  that  the  processes  were  quite  as  varied  and  as  well 
understood  as  in  later  times.  Among  the  vessels  which  have 
been  found  in  Britain  containing  the  burnt  bones  of  the  dead 
(Cases  79-85),  many  are  of  glass.  "  Most  of  the  large  greenish 
glass  cinerary  vases  in  the  British  Museum,  found  in  Roman 
barrows  which  contained  bones  and  bone  ashes,  are  probably 
the  production  of  extensive  Egyptian  or  Roman  works  ;  they  are 
large,  and  of  excellent  form  and  workmanship  ;  but  the  glass  is 
somewhat  impure,  of  a  greenish  tint,  has  numerous  globules, 
and  is  not  unlike  the  modern  common  crown  or  sheet  glass  in 
quality"  (Apsley  Pellatt's  Curiosities  of  Glass-Making,  p.  5). 
The  small  glass  vessels  found  interred  with  the  remains  of  the 
dead  have  been  called  "  lachrymatories"  from  the  notion  that 
they  were  filled  with  the  tears  of  the  mourners.  Their  real 
purpose  was  to  hold  the  unguents  and  perfumes  which  it  was 
customary  to  bury  with  the  dead.  Some  of  the  larger  glass 
vessels,  not  unlike  our  claret  decanters,  are  very  elegant  and 
graceful. 

Specially  remarkable  is  a  "  Roman  tumbler  or  cup  of  a 
very  fine  description  of  the  crystallinum  or  colourless  glass, 
probably  such  as  was  used  for  the  manufacture  of  the  costly 
table  vessels  so  highly  prized  by  the  ancient  Romans.  In 
form  and  workmanship  it  is  elegant  and  faultless.  The  body 
of  the  vessel  has  a  very  graceful  sweep,  and  slightly  projects 
beyond  both  the  margin  and  the  base ;  it  has  also  lathe-cut 
rows  of  beautifully  regular  oblong  hexagonal  facets  surrounding 
it,  forming  a  kind  of  honeycomb  pattern.  This  remarkable 
vessel,  which  is  perfect  excepting  at  one  part  of  the  foot, 
was  found  in  an  ancient  Roman  cemetery  at  Barnwell  in 
Cambridge"  {Catalogue  of  the  Slade  Collection,  p.  29). 

Another  remarkable  specimen  is  a  goblet  blown  in  a  mould, 
and  bearing  a  design  and  inscriptions  in  relief.  A  chariot- 
race  is  represented,-  and  the  inscription  records  the  victory  of 
Cresces  over  Hierax,  Olympae,  and  Autioloce  ("  Hierax  va[le] 
Olympse  va  Autioloce  va  Ave  Cresces  ").  This  goblet,  found 
at  Colchester,  was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  Mr.  Slade's 
executors. 

A  rare  kind  of  Roman  glass  has  projecting  ribs  or  pillars 
outside,  hence  termed  "pillar-moulded,"  while  the  interior  is 
not  indented  but  smooth.    These  pillars  have  been  formed 


736 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


"  partly  by  moulding  and  partly  by  rapid  rotation,  increasing 
the  projection  on  the  principle  of  centrifugal  force  "  (Pellatt,  pp. 
10,  105).  Among  the  "  curiosities "  noticed  in  Mr.  Pellatt's 
book  is  the  fact  that  pillar-moulding,  which  is  one  of  the 
greatest  modern  improvements,  was  supposed  to  be  also  a 
modern  invention,  and  was  introduced  by  the  late  Mr.  James 
Green  as  such ;  but  Roman  specimens,  exhumed  in  this 
country  and  now  in  the  Museum,  have  since  proved  beyond 
doubt  that  these  projecting  pillars  and  the  mode  of  their 
manipulation  were  well  known  to  the  ancients.  Some  of  the 
specimens  in  this  sort  are  of  a  deep  semi-transparent  blue. 

Among  the  fragments  here  exhibited  (Table-case  E)  other 
examples  may  be  found  of  the  skill  of  the  Romans  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass.  Some  fragments  formed  parts  of  bowls 
or  vases  of  a  peculiar  compound  glass  which  was  produced  by 
mixing  small  coloured  beads  or  particles  of  glass  with  masses 
of  fused  glass  of  various  colours.  "  A  far  more  difficult  mani- 
pulatory process  is  indicated  in  one  of  the  three  fragments  of 
a  flat  glass,  one-sixth  of  an  inch  thick,  which  were  obtained 
from  among  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  house  near  Great  Tower 
Street.  The  filaments  of  coloured  glass,  which  are  worked 
into  the  dark  ground,  are  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  regular 
pattern.  The  whole  was  then  fused  and  cut  into  plates  at 
right  angles,  so  that  all  the  sections  would  present  the  design 
on  both  sides  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  filaments  and 
beads"  {Roman  London,  p.  123).  The  work  is  very  delicate, 
and  the  combination  of  colours  very  beautiful.  This  art  was 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  beads. 

Other  fragments  are  bosses  with  heads  in  relief.  While 
the  vases  themselves  have  perished,  these  bosses  have  been 
preserved  owing  to  the  extra  thickness  of  the  glass.  "  The 
vessels  to  which  they  belonged  were  of  an  oval  shape,  with  a 
long  neck  and  a  protruding  mouth.  They  had  a  single  handle 
reaching  from  the  centre  either  to  the  mouth  or  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  ;  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  handle  was 
affixed  the  boss"  (Roman  London,  p.  121). 

Lastly,  we  may  notice  some  fragments  of  Roman  window- 
glass  from  the  Roman  villa  at  Brading,  I.W.,  and  similar 
fragments  from  London  : — 

"Among  the  Roman  glass  discovered  in  London  are  several  fragments 
of  a  flat  and  semi-transparent  kind,  with  a  greenish  hue,  which  have 
every  appearance  of  having  been  used  as  window-glass.    At  first,5' 


XXVITI 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


737 


says  Mr.  Roach  Smith,  "  I  was  inclined  to  think  that  they  may  have 
belonged  to  the  large  square  vessels  which  must  have  been  commonly 
used  for  domestic  purposes  ;  but  a  close  examination,  and  a  comparison 
with  the  fragments  of  such  vessels,  proved  them  to  have  been  fabri- 
cated for  some  other  object,  which  there  is  now  every  reason  to  believe 
was  that  of  window-glazing.  These  fragments  were  procured  from 
among  the  debris  of  houses,  which  strengthens  our  conviction  that  there 
can  be  but  little  doubt  of  their  being  veritable  pieces  of  window-glass  " 
{Roman  London,  p.  12c). 

Discoveries  at  Pompeii  have  proved  that  the  glazing  of 
windows  was  not  unknown.  "  Small  panes  of  glass  were 
found  in  the  openings  of  the  Baths  near  the  Forum.  Four 
panes  were  found  in  the  villa  of  Diomedes  ;  in  the  other 
houses  a  pane  of  glass  is  rarely  seen,  and  these  ordinarily  set 
in  masonry,  movable  frames  like  those  in  use  to-day  were  not 
yet  invented  "  (Mau's  Pompeii,  p.  273). 

With  the  glass  is  exhibited  a  very  curious  group  of  ob- 
jects, consisting  of  the  equipment  of  Roman  coiners  (Table- 
case  E).  The  coins,  moulds,  etc.,  were  found  at  Lingwell 
Gate,  near  Wakefield,  and  at  Duston,  Northants,  respectively. 
With  the  moulds  were  found,  at  Lingwell,  an  earthen  crucible  ; 
and  at  Duston  fragments  of  a  crucible  partially  vitrified  by 
heat,  a  conical  piece  of  metal  like  the  top  of  a  cone  which  had 
occupied  the  funnel-shaped  mouth  of  the  stack  of  moulds,  and 
two  portions  of  coins  consisting  of  metal  which  had  imperfectly 
run  into  the  moulds.  A  diagram  here  exhibited  helps  us  to 
follow  the  modus  operandi : — 

"A  fine  clay,  found  in  the  locality,  was  formed  into  small  round 
tablets,  of  uniform  size  and  thickness.  A  coin  of  one  of  the  emperors 
was  pressed  between  each  two  tablets,  so  as  to  leave  a  perfect  impres- 
sion, and  the  latter  were  then  arranged  upon  one  another  in  piles  or 
columns,  the  upper  and  lower  tablets  being  impressed  only  on  one 
side.  A  notch  was  broken  into  the  side  all  the  way  down,  which 
admitted  the  metal  into  each  impression.  Two,  or  three,  of  these 
columns,  as  the  case  might  be,  were  placed  side  by  side,  with  the  side 
notches  joined  together,  and  these  were  enclosed  in  a  clay  case,  with  a 
hole  at  the  top,  through  which  the  melted  metal  ran  down  the  opening 
left  by  the  notches,  by  which  it  entered  into  all  the  impressions.  It 
was  only  necessary  that  care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  tablets  on 
one  another  so  that  the  reverse  might  correspond  with  the  head  belong- 
ing to  it.  Their  misplacement  would  produce  those  wrong  reverses 
which  are  sometimes  found  among  ancient  Roman  coins,  and  which 
have  often  puzzled  the  numismatist"  (T.  Wright's  Celt,  Roman,  and 
Saxon,  p.  433). 

3  B 


73§ 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


The  moulds  found  at  Duston  were  for  coins  of  Diocletian, 
Maximianus  Hercalius,  Constantius  Chlorus,  and  Galerius 
Maximianus  (284-306  A.D.)  ;  some  of  the  reverses  have  on  the 
exergue  the  inscription  of  the  mint  at  Treves.  They  were 
discovered  in  an  ancient  well  or  cess-pool.  This  hiding  away, 
added  to  the  presence  of  the  Treves  mint-marks,  and  the  fact 
that  the  moulds  themselves  had  evidently  been  produced  by 
pressure  from  real  coins,  suggests  the  suspicion  that  we  have 
here  before  us  the  stock-in-trade  of  forgers.  Similar  apparatus 
has  been  found  at  other  sites  in  Britain  and  on  the  Continent, 
and  in  some  cases  the  money  may  have  been  produced  under 
authority  of  the  Imperial  Government  by  use  of  the  readiest 
means  at  hand  for  remedying  temporary  deficiencies  in  the 
circulation,  or  for  the  purpose  of  raising  revenue  by  the  issue 
of  debased  coin  (Archceologia,  xliii.  130  ;  Numismatic  Chro?ticle^ 
new  series,  xi.  28). 

BRONZE  VASES 
(Case  87) 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  vases  hitherto  unearthed  from 
Roman  graves  in  Britain  is  here  exhibited  in  a  copy,  together 
with  the  charred  and  damaged  remains  of  the  original.1  The 
vase  was  found  in  a  Roman  sepulchre  in  the  barrows  called 
Bartlow  Hills,  in  the  parish  of  Ashdon,  Essex,  1835,  on  Lord 
Maynard's  property.  It  was  injured  by  the  fire  at  Easton 
Lodge  in  1847.  A  coloured  reproduction  of  it  had,  however, 
been  published  in  Archczologia,  xxvi.  303,  and  from  this  a 
copy  has  been  made.  When  first  discovered,  the  vase  was  so 
much  coated  with  green  incrustation  that  the  enamel  was  not 
perceptible.  When  cleaned,  its  pristine  beauty  was  revealed, 
the  colours  of  the  green,  red,  and  blue  enamel  retaining  much 
of  their  original  freshness.  The  vase  was  found  in  a  wooden 
chest,  with  other  sepulchral  urns,  etc.,  one  of  which  contained 
the  ashes  of  the  dead.  The  evidence  of  coins  shows  what  the 
history  of  our  once  beautiful  vase  must  have  been  {Archceo- 
logia^  xxxiii.  343).     On  Roman  coins  of  Faustina  the  Elder 

1  A  sad  story  attaches  to  this,  which  I  tell  in  the  words  of  the  late 
Sir  A.  W.  Franks  : — "  Lord  Maynard  was  on  the  point  of  giving  us  the 

beautiful  enamelled  Roman  original  of  that  little  vase  when  Lady  

dissuaded  him.  Very  soon  after,  his  house  took  fire,  and  the  vase  was 
destroyed.  There,  close  to  the  copy,  is  all  that  remains  of  it"  (Grant- 
Duff's  Notes  from  a  Diary :  1889-1891 ;  i.  261). 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


739 


(including  two  gold  ones  in  the  British  Museum),  the  reverse 
shows  a  female  figure  in  the  act  of  offering  a  sacrifice  of 
perfumes.  In  her  left  hand  is  a  vessel — precisely  similar  in 
shape  to  the  one  before  us — globular  in  form,  and  with  a 
rectangular  handle.  From  this  vessel  the  woman  is  taking 
incense,  which  she  drops  with  her  right  hand  on  to  an  altar. 
Perfumes  were,  according  to  Pliny  (xiii.  i),  at  one  time  not 
used  by  the  Romans  in  sacrifices,  but  they  were  adopted  at  a 
later  period,  and  in  his  day  were  considered  as  proper  offer- 
ings to  the  manes  of  the  dead.  We  have,  therefore,  the  best 
reasons  for  supposing  that  an  enamelled  vase  had  held  the 
incense  used  at  the  funeral  of  the  wealthy  Roman  whose  ashes 
were  discovered  with  it,  and  that  having  been  thus  used,  it 
was  deposited  as  a  precious  relic  with  the  remains.  A  coin  of 
Hadrian  found  in  one  of  the  tumuli  shows  that  the  interment 
cannot  have  been  earlier  than  his  time.  Probably  it  was  a 
good  deal  later.  Close  by  is  exhibited  a  very  elegant  vase, 
once  enamelled  in  similar  style,  which  was  probably  used  as  a 
sprinkler.  This  was  found  in  1838  in  the  sea,  off  the  coast 
of  Normandy,  at  Ambleteuse,  in  company  with  newly-struck 
coins  of  the  Emperor  Tacitus,  which  fix  its  date  to  about 
276  A.D.  (For  other  specimens  of  Anglo-Roman  enamel, 
and  remarks  on  the  art,  see  p.  747.) 

POTTERY 
{Cases  86-92,  94-98,  and  Table-case  F) 

Of  all  the  manufactures  which  must  have  been  carried  on 
in  Roman  Britain,  none  is  so  fully  represented  by  remains 
as  pottery.  The  quantity  of  pottery  that  is  found  whenever 
a  Roman  site  is  explored  is  very  great ;  it  is  clear  that  it 
was  used  for  many  more  purposes  than  in  the  present  day. 
Extensive  remains  of  factories  and  kilns  of  the  Roman  period 
have  also  been  unearthed,  and  antiquarians  have  thus  been 
enabled  to  distinguish  and  classify  various  kinds  of  pottery,  and 
to  localise  the  principal  sites  of  the  manufacture  of  them.  A 
study  of  the  fragments  exhibited  in  Table-case  F  will  enable  the 
visitor  readily  to  gain  some  acquaintance  with  these  varieties. 

First,  however,  we  may  notice  some  plain  red  pottery, 
chiefly  domestic,  found  at  Lincoln,  and  resembling  the  ordinary 
earthenware  in  use  among  us  to-day  (Cases  96-98). 


740 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


Another  kind  of  common  pottery,  usually  known  as 
Upchurch  ware,  is  ornamented  only  with  circles,  lines,  and 
dots.  Extensive  potteries  which  turned  out  this  kind  of  ware 
have  been  found  in  the  New  Forest,  and  from  these  sites 
examples  are  exhibited  (Cases  89-92).  "  The  indentures  in 
the  sides  of  many  of  these  vessels  were  evidently  formed  upon 
them,  when  unbaked,  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb  ;  in  others, 
more  neatly  made,  the  indentations  were  probably  formed  by 
some  instrument.  A  smooth,  hard-polished  stone  which  I 
found  near  one  of  the  kilns,  and  which  exactly  fits  some  of  the 
hollows  in  these  vessels,  was,  I  suspect,  used  for  this  purpose  53 
(J.  P.  Bartlett  in  Archceologia,  xxxv.  91).  Another  site  where 
pottery  of  this  kind  is  found  is  in  Kent :- — 

"  Any  one  who  has  sailed  up  the  Med  way  will  have  observed  that  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  a  little  above  Sheerness,  consists  of  low  flat 
ground,  cut  by  the  water  into  innumerable  little  creeks,  and  at  high- 
water  almost  buried  by  the  sea.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the 
channel  of  the  river  appears  to  have  been  here  much  narrower,  and 
the  4  marshes  5  had  not  been  encroached  upon  by  the  sea  as  they  are 
now.  If  we  go  up  these  little  creeks  in  the  Upchurch  Marshes  at  low- 
water,  and  observe  the  sides  of  the  banks,  we  shall  soon  discover,  at 
the  depth  of  about  three  feet,  more  or  less,  a  stratum,  often  a  foot  thick, 
of  broken  pottery.  This  immense  layer,  mixed  with  plenty  of  vessels 
in  a  perfect,  or  nearly  perfect  state,  has  been  traced  at  intervals  through 
an  extent  of  six  or  seven  miles  in  length  and  two  or  three  in  breadth, 
and  there  cannot  be  the  least  doubt  that  it  is  the  refuse  of  very 
extensive  potteries,  which  existed  probably  during  nearly  the  whole 
period  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain,  and  which  not  only  supplied 
the  whole  island  with  a  particular  class  of  earthenware,  but  which 
perhaps  also  furnished  an  export  trade  ;  for  we  find  urns  and  other 
vessels  precisely  similar  to  the  Upchurch  ware  in  considerable  quantity 
among  the  Roman  pottery  dug  up  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Boulogne. 
The  clay  which  constitutes  the  soil  in  the  Upchurch  Marshes  is  very 
tenacious,  of  a  dark  colour,  and  of  fine  quality,  well  calculated  for  the 
manufacture  of  pottery.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  Upchurch 
pottery,  which  is  of  a  fine  and  hard  texture,  is  a  blue-black,  which 
was  produced  by  baking  it  in  the  smoke  of  vegetable  substances.  The 
patterns  with  which  it  was  ornamented,  though  generally  of  a  simple 
character,  are  also  extremely  diversified.  Some  are  ornamented  with 
bands  of  half-circles  made  with  compasses,  and  from  these  half-circles 
lines  are  in  many  instances  drawn  to  the  bottoms  of  the  vessels  with 
some  instrument  like  a  notched  piece  of  wood.  Some  are  ornamented 
with  wavy  intersections  and  ziz-zag  lines  ;  while  on  others  the  ornament 
is  formed  by  raised  points,  encircling  the  vessels  in  bands,  or  grouped 
into  circles,  squares,  and  diamond  patterns.    It  is  evident  from  the 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


Hi 


extent  of  the  bed  of  pottery  that  a  great  number  of  workmen  must 
have  been  employed  here  ;  and,  as  might  be  expected,  we  scarcely  ex- 
cavate a  Roman  site  in  any  part  of  the  island  without  finding  samples 
of  the  Upchurch  ware  "  {Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon,  p.  259). 

Vessels  and  fragments  found  on  the  sites  of  pottery  kilns — 
chiefly  in  the  New  Forest  at  Lincoln,  and  in  the  Upchurch 
Marshes — are  exhibited  together  (in  Cases  89-92).  The  pear- 
shaped  vases  with  vertical  indentations  are  characteristic  of 
the  New  Forest  kilns. 

The  next  kind  of  pottery — Durobrivian — which  we  have  to 
examine  is  of  superior  quality  and  more  elegantly  ornamented. 
The  decoration  is  in  relief  in  "  slip "  (white  liquid  clay)  or 
sprinkled  mica.  The  site  of  the  potteries  where  this  ware  was 
largely  made  was  discovered  at  Castor  (the  Roman  Durobrivae), 
in  Northamptonshire,  by  the  late  W.  Artis,  who  gave  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  methods  of  manufacture  as  disclosed 
by  his  researches  (see  Roman  London,  pp.  81-89).  He- 
traced  the  potteries  to  an  extent  of  twenty  miles,  and  estimated 
that  they  employed  2000  hands.  The  blue-black  and  slate- 
coloured  vessels  were  coloured  in  "  smother-kilns, ';  i.e.  by 
suffocating  the  fire  of  the  kiln  : — 

The  vessels,  upon  which  are  displayed  a  variety  of  hunting  subjects, 
representations  of  fishes,  scrolls,  foliage,  and  human  figures,  were  all 
glazed  after  the  figures  wrere  laid  on.  When,  however,  the  decorations 
are  white,  the  vessels  were  glazed  before  the  ornaments  were  added. 
Ornamenting  with  figures  of  men  and  animals  was  effected  by  means  of 
sharp  and  of  blunt  skewer  implements  and  a  "slip"  of  suitable  con- 
sistency. These  implements  seem  to  have  been  of  two  kinds  :  one  thick 
enough  to  carry  sufficient  slip  for  the  nose,  neck,  body,  and  front  thigh  ; 
the  other  of  a  more  delicate  kind,  for  a  thinner  slip  for  the  tongue,  lower 
jaws,  eye,  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  tail.  There  seems  to  have  been  no 
retouching  after  the  slip  trailed  from  the  instrument.  Field  sports 
seem  to  have  been  favourite  subjects  with  our  Romano- British  artists. 
The  representations  of  deer  and  hare  hunts  are  good  and  spirited  ;  the 
courage  and  energy  of  the  hounds,  and  the  distress  of  the  hunted 
animals  are  given  with  great  skill  and  fidelity. 

Of  this  Castor  ware  specimens  may  be  seen  in  Wall-cases 
89-92  and  in  Table-case  F.  Similar  ware  has  also  been  found 
in  Holland,  Flanders,  and  Belgium.  Pottery  with  a  vitreous 
glaze  is  also  exhibited  (mostly  found  in  London). 

The  most  interesting  kind  of  Romano- British  pottery  is, 
however,  the  so-called  Samian  ware.    The  finer  specimens  of 


742 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


this  are  exhibited  in  Wall-cases  86-88  ;  but  its  different  varieties 
may  best  be  examined  in  Table-case  F.  This  ware  is  interesting 
for  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  forms,  its  superior  material, 
and  often  classic  design.  It  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
Britain,  but  nowhere  more  plentifully  than  in  London.  As 
many  as  300  different  potters'  stamps  are  enumerated  by 
C.  R.  Smith  in  his  Roman  London.  In  general  character  it 
resembles  the  "  Samian  ware  "  of  which  we  have  already  seen 
specimens  in  the  Terra-cotta  Room  (Ch.  xxvil  p.  712).  Its 
characteristics  are  a  fine  red  clay  of  a  very  compact  texture, 
covered  with  a  brighter  or  coral -colour  glaze,  and  richly 
decorated.  The  forms  are  the  dish,  cup,  or  bowl  ;  narrow- 
mouthed  vessels  are  not  found.  The  makers'  names  are 
stamped  across  the  bottom  of  the  insides.  The  designs 
generally  show  freedom  and  taste  ;  especially  some  of  those 
with  scrolls  and  foliated  patterns.  In  the  designs  of  mytho- 
logical subjects  and  of  sports,  the  figures  are  usually  well- 
drawn.  The  frailty  of  the  genuine  Samian  ware  was  proverbial 
in  classical  times  ;  thus  in  Plautus  (Mencechmi  98),  when  a 
person  is  desired  to  knock  quietly,  he  exclaims,  "  You  are 
afraid,  I  suppose,  that  the  door  is  made  of  Samian  ware." 
Many  of  the  bowls  here  exhibited  have  been  restored.  Notice 
also  a  bowl  which  has  been  broken  and  mended  in  Roman 
days ;  it  was  found  in  Cheapside  with  the  original  leaden 
rivets.  The  choicer  specimens,  found  in  London  and  else- 
where, were  probably  imported  from  France,  the  Rhine,  and 
Italy.  The  designs  on  some  Samian  bowls  found  in  Britain 
correspond  with  known  specimens  from  Arezzo.  The  makers' 
stamps  on  others  agree  with  those  found  abroad  ;  the  names 
are  often  Gaulish.  (Occasionally,  it  seems,  the  manufacture 
of  Samian  bowls  was  woman's  work  ;  the  names  Tascilla  and 
Vertecisa  occur.) 

Among  known  sites  of  "  Samian"  potteries  is  Rheinzabern, 
between  Speyer  and  Lauterburg.  This  was  the  Roman 
Tabernae,  and  here  hundreds  of  "  Samian  "  fragments,  as  well 
as  entire  vessels,  have  been  exhumed,  together  with  the  moulds 
from  which  they  were  cast.  Similar  moulds  have  also  been 
found  at  Mayence.  Specimens  of  these  moulds  are  exhibited 
(Table-case  F.)  But  imitation  Samian  ware  was  also  made  in 
Britain.  The  presence  of  pieces  spoilt  in  baking  proves  native 
manufacture.  (Notice  a  curious  lump  of  bowls  and  a  ring- 
stand  fused  together  in  baking ;  this  comes  from  Lezoux,  Puy 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


743 


de  Dome.)  The  body  of  some  of  the  imitation  Samian  ware 
made  in  Britain  is  orange,  and  the  red  glaze  easily  flakes  off. 

It  is  interesting  to  follow  the  different  methods  in  which  the 
Samian  ware  was  decorated,  (i)  "  The  embossing  was  partly 
executed  by  moulds  and  partly  by  separate  stamps,  as  may 
be  perceived  by  a  close  examination  of  the  designs,  which 
occasionally  show  marks  of  a  double  impress  where  the  first 
has  not  been  sufficiently  distinct  or  was  stamped  irregularly  " 
(Roman  London,  p.  89).  (2)  The  figures  instead  of  forming 
part  of  the  body  of  the  ware,  as  cast  in  moulds  or  stamped 
upon  the  vessels,  were  attached  to  the  surface  while  the  clay 
was  soft.  These  separate  figures  are  often  cut  with  great  skill 
and  effect.  Notice  especially  (Table-case  F)  some  fragments 
from  Arezzo,  found  in  London,  with  the  designs  in  unusually 
high  relief.  (3)  Sometimes  "Samian"  ware  is  painted  with 
decoration  in  white.  (4)  Another  kind  of  ornament  is  called 
"engine-turned."  It  consists  of  circular  rows  of  indentations, 
like  the  patterns  upon  modern  watch-cases.  (5)  A  rarer  kind 
of  ornamentation  consists  of  decorative  patterns  which  were 
incised  on  the  wheel. 

PEWTER  DISHES 

(Case  99) 

A  Roman  dinner-service,  recently  discovered  and  added  to 
the  Museum,  should  be  of  special  interest  in  these  days  when 
there  is  something  of  a  craze  for  old  pewter.  These  vessels 
come  from  a  hoard  found  by  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Engleheart  at 
Appleshaw,  five  miles  from  Andover,  near  the  intersection  of  two 
Roman  roads  (from  Old  Sarum  to  Silchester,  and  Winchester 
to  Cirencester  respectively).  Traces  of  the  Romano-British 
period  abound  in  the  neighbourhood.  A  few  years  ago  the 
plough  grazed  a  level  floor,  which  turned  out  to  belong  to  a 
Roman  house.  The  pewter  service  was  found  in  a  pit  sunk 
through  a  floor  of  cement ;  the  smaller  vessels  were  carefully 
covered  by  the  larger.  They  had,  it  would  seem,  been 
designedly  hidden — not  in  sudden  panic,  but  rather  as  a  pre- 
caution against  some  pending  danger.  It  is  noticeable  that 
the  large  dishes  common  to  all  the  guests  are  more  numerous 
than  those  appropriated  to  individuals.  Similar  finds  of  pewter 
dishes  have  been  made  ;  the  geometrical  patterns  here  are 
usual  (see  papers  by  Mr.  Engleheart  and  Mr.  C.  H.  Read  in 
Arch&ologia,  lvi.). 


744 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


BRONZE  AND  SILVER  ORNAMENTS 

(  Table-cases  C  and  D) 

Some  of  the  choicer  or  more  interesting  vessels  and  orna- 
ments in  bronze  are  here  brought  together  (Case  C).  A  bronze 
vessel  for  libations  is  of  good  workmanship.  The  extremity 
of  the  handle  is  formed  by  two  dolphins  combined.  Lengthwise 
upon  the  handle  is  a  vine  branch  in  enamel,  and  near  the  end, 
horizontally  written,  is  the  maker's  name  :  Bodvogenus  f(ecit). 
This  vessel  was  discovered  by  a  farmer  while  digging  clay  at 
Prickwillow,  in  the  Isle  of  Ely  (Arckozologia,  xxviii.  436).  The 
handle  of  a  vase,  found  in  London,  is  elegant.  It  is  studded 
with  small  silver  knobs,  and  the  eyes  of  the  heads  of  birds, 
which  are  fixed  to  the  rim  of  the  vessel,  are  also  of  silver 
(Roman  London,  p.  76).  A  bronze  votive  tablet  comes  from 
Colchester  ;  it  is  dedicated  to  Mars  and  the  victory  of  Alex- 
ander (Severus  :  Emperor  222-235  A.D.).  Records  of  the 
worship  of  Mars  are  very  common  in  Britain,  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  military  character  of  most  of  the  settlers. 
A  singular  instrument,  the  use  of  which  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily explained,  was  found  in  the  bed  of  the  Thames,  near 
old  London  Bridge,  in  1840  : — 

It  consists  of  two  shanks,  which,  although  they  are  now  separated, 
were  evidently  joined  by  a  hinge  at  the  upper  extremity.  The  inner 
sides  are  denticulated,  doubtless  for  the  purpose  of  squeezing  or  crush- 
ing. The  manner  in  which  it  was  used,  and  its  purpose,  are  not  clear ; 
but  the  heads  of  the  divinities  which  adorn  it  seem  to  stamp  its  sacred 
character,  and  indicate  that  it  was  employed  in  some  religious  rites 
or  ceremonies.  The  deities  represented  are  : — on  the  right  Cybele, 
crowned  with  towers  ;  Mercury,  wearing  the  emblematic  wings ; 
Jupiter,  crowned  with  olive  ;  Venus  ;  and  Ceres,  wearing  the  modius. 
On  the  left  are  Juno,  Mars,  Diana,  Apollo,  and  Saturn,  all  clearly 
indicated  by  their  attributes.  Upon  the  top,  below  the  busts  of  Juno 
and  Cybele,  are  heads  of  horses  ;  below  the  other  busts,  heads  of 
bulls  ;  and  heads  of  lions  terminate  the  handles.  The  busts  are  those 
of  the  deities  who  presided  over  the  days  of  the  week  ;  and  they  have 
been  arranged  in  regular  order.  Commencing  from  the  bottom  on  the 
left  side  we  have  Saturday  (Saturn),  Sunday  (Apollo),  Monday  (Diana), 
and  Tuesday  (Mars).  Then,  proceeding  downwards,  Wednesday 
(Mercury),  Thursday  (Jupiter),  Friday  (Venus)  ;  the  remaining  one, 
Ceres,  making  the  number  eight,  equalises  the  number  on  each  side, 
and  at  the  same  time  represents  the  old  Roman  week  of  eight  days, 
from  which  is  derived  the  French  form  of  huit  jours.    The  busts  of 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


Juno  and  Cybele,  which  surmount  the  whole,  were  apparently  selected 
for  their  prominence  in  the  mythological  system,  Juno  presiding  also  over 
the  calends  of  the  month,  and  Cybele,  the  great  mother,  directing  the 
regular  return  of  the  seasons,  and  guiding  the  revolution  of  the  year. 
The  symbols  of  the  horse,  the  bull,  and  the  lion  have,  all  of  them, 
a  connection  with  the  history  and  worship  of  the  goddess  (Roman 
London,  p.  72  ;  and  Archceologia,  xxx.  548). 

The  large  silver  dish  was  found  in  1839  by  a  labourer 
while  ploughing  a  field  at  Mileham  in  Norfolk  {ArchcEologia, 
xxix.  389)  ;  it  is  ornamented  with  foliage  patterns  and  a 
punched  beaded  border.  The  colossal  hand  was  excavated 
in  Thames  Street,  near  the  Tower  {Roman  London,  p.  65). 
The  statue  from  which  this  hand,  13  inches  in  length,  was 
broken,  must  have  been  of  about  the  same  dimensions  as  the 
one  which  bore  the  large  head  of  Hadrian.  It  may  also  have 
been  of  that  emperor,  as  the  posture  of  the  hand  resembles 
that  of  the  marble  statue  of  Hadrian  downstairs. 

An  interesting  object  is  the  bronze  model  of  the  prow  of  a 
Roman  galley,  found  in  London.  Owing  to  its  oxidised  con- 
dition, Roach  Smith  had  not  noticed  the  inscription,  which  was 
first  deciphered  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Read.  This 
inscription — Ammilla  Aug(usta)  Felix— records  the  name  of 
the  vessel  represented  by  this  prow.  It  was  no  doubt  some 
famous  ship,  named  the  "  Ammilla  "  (from  the  Greek  a/uAAa, 
contest  or  rivalry) ;  the  epithet  Felix  refers  to  its  happy 
fortune ;  "  Augusta,"  which  occurs  elsewhere  as  an  epithet, 
may  denote  that  the  vessel  belonged  to  the  Imperial  Fleet,  as 
we  should  say,  H.M.S.  Ammilla  Felix.  The  ship  may  have 
belonged  to  the  Classis  Britannica,  the  Channel  Squadron  of 
the  Romans.  But  more  probably  this  memento  was  imported, 
and  the  ship  belonged  to  one  of  the  Mediterranean  fleets. 
Representations  of  beaks  of  ships  are  often  found,  and  were 
sometimes  attached  to  the  sides  of  columns,  hence  called 
columnce  rostratce.  This  little  model  must  have  adorned  some 
domestic  ornament.  That  it  was  permanently  fixed  in  some 
such  position  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only  one  side  is 
decorated  ;  the  inscription  is  written  from  right  to  left  ;  prob- 
ably, therefore,  it  was  one  of  a  pair,  the  other  one,  which 
would  have  been  fixed  on  the  other  side,  having  its  inscription 
from  left  to  right.  The  ornament,  whatever  it  was,  may  have 
belonged  to  some  naval  officer  whose  hard  fate  brought  him  to 
far-off  Britain.    (See  articles  by  C.  H.  Read  and  F.  Haverfield 


746 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


in  Proc.  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  2nd  ser.,  xvi.  306.)  The 
bronze  figure  of  a  sea-horse  was  found  at  Carlisle. 

The  remains  of  Roman  silver  vessels  were  discovered  in 
1747  in  making  a  hedge  on  Sir  J.  E.  Swinburne's  property 
at  Capheaton,  Northumberland.  A  Roman  road  passed  near 
the  spot  (Archceologia,  xv.  393).  The  principal  piece  is  the 
handle  of  a  dish,  enriched  with  sculpture  in  high  relief,  and  of 
fine  style,  consisting  originally  of  a  head  of  Hercules  covered 
with  the  lion's  skin,  the  claws  of  which  alone  now  remain, 
with  the  club  on  one  side  and  the  cap  on  the  other  ;  under- 
neath are  the  objects  and  fruits  of  his  labours,  all  accurately 
finished  and  well  preserved.  They  were  cast  and  wrought, 
each  in  a  separate  piece,  and  afterwards  set  as  gems  in  the 
handle — like  the  emblemata  which  Cicero  says  that  Verres  stole 
off  the  plate  of  Sicilian  gentlemen,  and  had  set  on  his  own. 

A  vessel  dedicated  to  the  Dese  Matres  (Case  D)  is  of  special 
interest.  It  was  found  in  the  county  of  Durham  {Arch.  Jour- 
nal, viii.  36)  with  some  similar  vessels  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  (p.  668).  This  particular  vessel 
was  presumably  used  for  religious  rites.  In  shape  it  resembles 
the  modern  saucepan,  and  is  of  a  type  very  frequently  found. 
These  vessels  were  manufactured  with  great  neatness,  and 
sometimes  in  nests ;  the  handles  were  perforated  so  that 
several  might  be  hung  on  one  chain.  The  Deae  Matres  were 
among  the  most  popular  of  the  deities  worshipped  by  the 
Teutonic  inhabitants  of  Britain,  who  were  among  the  "  auxili- 
aries "  settled  there  by  the  Romans.  These  were  especially 
numerous  in  the  north,  and  it  is  in  that  part  of  the  country 
that  remains  of  the  worship  of  the  "Goddess  Mothers"  are 
most  often  found.  An  altar  found  at  Brougham,  Westmore- 
land, was  dedicated  "  To  the  goddess  mothers  transmarine  by 
a  company  (vexillatio)  of  Germans."  In  the  Museum  at 
Cologne  there  is  a  well-preserved  altar  ;  the  three  goddesses 
are  figured  sitting,  with  baskets  of  fruit  on  their  knees, 
emblematical  of  the  plenty  which  they  were  supposed  to  dis- 
tribute to  mankind.  They  were  connected  also  in  popular 
mythology  with  the  three  Fates,  or  Fairies,  who  arranged 
the  fortunes  of  men.  (For  an  interesting  account  of  the 
survival  of  their  worship  in  mediaeval  times  in  Britain,  see 
Wright's  Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon,  pp.  339-347.) 

Some  leaden  seals  (Case  D)  were  picked  up  at  Felixstowe, 
Suffolk  (C.  R.  Smith's  Collectanea  Antiqua,  iii.  197).  These 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


147 


seals  were  fastened  to  merchandise  by  strings  which  passed 
through  the  centre  in  the  same  manner  as  the  leaden  seals  (or 
bulls)  were  affixed  to  papal  deeds  ;  the  string  was  laid  across 
the  molten  metal,  which  was  then  stamped  on  one  side  or  on 
both.  Interesting  examples  of  leaden  seals,  still  attached  to 
the  strings  which  fastened  the  bandages  of  a  Greek  mummy, 
are  preserved  in  the  Egyptian  department.  Some  designs  on 
leaden  seals  were  taken  from  engraved  stones,  the  owners 
using  them  as  trade-marks  ;  others  were  made  expressly  for 
the  purpose. 

An  interesting  object  is  a  Roman  money-box,  found  at 
Lincoln.  It  has  a  slot  for  dropping  in  the  coins  ;  those  found 
in  it  were  of  the  years  307-340  A.D.  Here  also  (Case  D)  are 
silver  vessels,  coins,  and  ingots  from  a  hoard  discovered, 
buried  at  a  considerable  depth,  near  Coleraine  ( Ulster  Journal 
of  Archeology ^  1854,  p.  182).  One  of  the  ingots  is  inscribed 
"  ex  of(flcina)  patricii,"  "from  the  manufactory  of  Patricius." 
The  hoard  contained  no  gold  or  bronze.  It  is  conjectured 
that  it  was  a  heap  of  old  silver  intended  to  supply  material  to 
a  silversmith  for  the  exercise  of  his  art.  The  dates  of  the 
coins  are  337-407  A.D.  The  find  shows  the  exercise  of  the 
silversmith's  art  in  Ireland  at  that  period,  and  the  intercourse 
existing  between  that  country  and  the  Roman  world. 

ENAMELS 
{Table-cases  A  and  C) 

Among  the  objects  of  personal  adornment  and  luxurious 
service  none  are  more  interesting  than  those  which  display  the 
art  of  enamel.  We  have  seen  a  fine  specimen  of  this  art  in 
the  facsimile  of  a  vase  (p.  738).  There  is  some  reason  for 
assigning  the  origin  of  the  art  to  Britain.  By  an  "  enamel :; 
is  meant,  it  will  be  understood,  a  vitreous  glaze  fused  to  a 
metallic  surface.  Now,  the  first  distinct  reference  to  this  art 
which  has  come  down  to  us  is  in  a  work  entitled  Icones, 
written  by  Philostratus,  about  240  a.d.  He  was  a  Greek 
sophist  who  was  attracted  from  Athens  to  Rome,  to  the  court 
of  Julia,  wife  of  Septimius  Severns.  He  describes  a  series  of 
paintings,  one  of  them  representing  a  boar -hunt,  and  after 
mentioning  the  variegated  trappings  of  the  horses,  he  says  : 
"They  say  that  the  barbarians,  who  live  in  the  ocean  (tovs  kv 
'12Keavw  (3ap/3dpovs),  pour  these  colours  on  to  heated  brass, 


748 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


and  that  they  adhere,  become  as  hard  as  stone,  and  preserve 
the  designs  which  are  made  in  them."  "  The  barbarians  in 
the  ocean  "  have  been  understood  as  the  maritime  Gauls,  but, 
as  Sir  Augustus  Franks  pointed  out,  the  term  would  apply 
more  appropriately  to  an  insular  people  like  the  Britons  ;  and 
it  is  precisely  in  Britain  that  enamelled  bronze  horse-trappings 
(of  certainly  Celtic  design)  have  been  found.  The  earlier 
Egyptian  enamel  work  is  a  different  thing,  for  it  consists  of 
hard  &tones  or  pieces  of  glass  set  into  their  places  by  cement. 
The  Greeks  appear  to  have  had  some  slight  knowledge  of 
enamelling,  for  the  exquisite  gold  necklaces  found  in  tombs  of 
the  island  of  Melos  are  ornamented  with  minute  flowers,  the 
petals  of  which  contain  a  vitreous  substance  (see  Room  of 
Gold  Ornaments).  The  vitreous  substance  in  these  cases  was 
probably  fused  with  a  blow-pipe,  and  at  a  low  temperature. 
Such  trifling  productions  can  scarcely  be  called  (says  Franks) 
enamels.  In  any  case,  whatever  knowledge  of  enamelling  the 
Greeks  may  at  one  time  have  possessed,  they  appear  to  have 
lost  it  before  the  third  century  of  our  era  : — 

il  The  passage  in  Philostratus  would  seem  to  prove,  that  in  his  time 
the  art  of  enamelling  was  not  practised  either  in  Italy  or  in  Greece,  for 
he  was  evidently  well  acquainted  with  the  artistic  processes  of  those 
countries  ;  and  had  such  a  mode  of  decoration  been  adopted  to  any 
extent,  would  not  have  spoken  of  the  barbarian  performances  of  that 
nature.  In  later  times  the  Romans,  or  the  native  populations  under 
their  dominion,  cultivated  the  art  of  enamelling  ;  but  the  designs  of  the 
ornaments  which  they  made  preserved  throughout  a  trace  of  their 
origin,  and  had  close  analogies  with  Celtic  patterns  "  (A.  W.  Franks, 
Observations  on  Glass  and  Enamel,  p.  14). 

It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  finest  specimens  were 
made  in  Britain.  In  this  connection,  the  plate  of  champlevd1 
enamel  representing  an  altar  is  of  special  interest  (Case  C). 
It  was  found  in  the  Thames,  and  as  it  has  all  the  appearance 
of  being  unfinished,  it  suggests  local  manufacture. 

The  enamelled  bronze  bowls  here  (Case  C)  may  be  compared 
with  the  vase  from  Bartlow  Hills  (p.  738).  Very  neat  and 
curious  are  the  little  enamelled  stands  here  exhibited.  They 

1  Our  specimens  here  are  all  of  this  kind.  In  cloisonne  enamels,  the 
design  is  presented  in  coloured  enamels  which  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  means  of  ribs  of  metal  bent  so  as  to  follow  the  outline  of  the 
subject:  the  famous  "Alfred  Jewel"  is  an  example.  In  the  champlevc 
process,  the  partitions  between  one  colour  and  another  are  formed  by 
ridges  of  the  base  and  not  by  separate  fillets  of  metal. 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


749 


were  presented  by  Mr.  Henry  Drummond,  M.P.,  from  a  collec- 
tion of  objects  found  in  1848  at  Farley  Heath,  near  Albury,  in 
Surrey.  Extensive  entrenchments  on  the  Heath  had  been 
pointed  out  by  tradition  as  the  site  of  an  ancient  town.  Mr. 
Martin  Tupper,  who  resided  at  Albury,  suggested  excavations 
to  Mr.  Drummond,  the  owner,  which  yielded  rare  coins,  bronze 
weapons,  and  enamelled  brooches,  etc.,  besides  these  little 
stands  (Martin  Tupper,  Farley  Heath,  a  Record  of  its  Roman 
Remains  ;  and  A.  W.  Franks  in  Arch.  Journal,  x.  166,  xi.  27). 
The  stands,  resting  on  four  legs  and  enamelled  red,  blue,  and 
green,  appear  to  have  been  intended  to  support  the  delicate 
little  amphora-shaped  vases  which  are  sometimes  found  and  are 
supposed  to  have  contained  precious  unguents.  (Several  of  these, 
mounted  on  modern  stands,  may  be  seen  in  the  Glass  Room.) 

Among  the  enamelled  brooches  and  other  ornaments  (Table- 
case  A),  some  of  the  finest  come  from  Pont-y- Saison,  near 
Chepstow  (purchased  1891).  Another  very  elegant  enamel  is 
a  brooch  with  a  movable  dolphin  in  the  centre  (from  the  collec- 
tion of  Lord  Hastings).  The  pattern — yellow  quatrefoils  with 
blue  centres  on  a  red  ground — has  at  first  sight  a  very 
mediaeval  appearance,  which  is,  however,  removed  by  the 
dolphin  in  the  centre  (Franks).  The  ancient  process,  after 
it  ceased  to  be  cultivated  in  Britain,  lingered  in  Ireland,  but 
elsewhere  it  was  swept  away  in  Western  Europe  by  the 
Teutonic  invasion.  The  great  seat  of  the  industry  for 
centuries  was  Byzantium.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  vitreous 
incrustation  in  Anglo-Saxon  work  is  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
finger-rings  ;  e.g.  Ethelwulf  s  (see  p.  666).  But  these  are  all 
in  niello,  which  is  an  essentially  different  process,  as  the  black 
material  therein  employed  was  applied  at  a  much  lower 
temperature  and  was  a  case  rather  of  metallic  amalgam  than 
of  vitrification  (see  p.  606).  Of  the  mediaeval  enamels  of 
Limoges,  etc.,  some  fine  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the 
Mediaeval  Room  of  the  Museum. 

TOILET  AND  DOMESTIC  UTENSILS 

( Table- case  B) 

That  the  Romano -Britons  were  well  equipped  with  the 
conveniences  of  civilised  life  will  be  apparent  to  every  one 
who  makes  a  careful  inspection  of  the  examples  here  exhibited. 


75° 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


Among  them  are  some  mirrors.  These  consisted  of  plates  of 
polished  metal,  set  in  a  frame  of  the  same  shape,  with  a  handle. 
Some  of  the  plates  are  square  ;  more  commonly,  they  are 
round.  One  of  them,  remarkable  for  its  extraordinary  pre- 
servation and  brilliancy,  has  on  one  side  of  the  case  a  head  of 
Nero  ;  on  the  other,  a  representation  of  the  emperor  address- 
ing the  army.  This  example  was  found  in  1823  on  property 
belonging  to  Sir  William  Middleton,  in  the  parish  of  Codden- 
ham,  Suffolk  ;  it  was  brought  to  light  by  a  labourer  at  work 
in  an  enclosure  near  the  banks  of  the  river  Gypen  (Arckceo- 
logia,  xxvii.  359).  Another  example  was  discovered  in  1835 
in  excavations  in  Deveril  Street,  Southwark  : — 

"Almost  every  excavation  for  graves  brought  to  light  sepulchral 
urns  and  bottles  of  earthenware,  fragments  of  vessels  of  the  same  sub- 
stance very  imperfectly  baked,  small  glass  phials,  dissimilar  to  those 
commonly  called  lachrymatories,  but  I  conceive  genuine  tear  bottles, 
as  their  very  form  is  imitative  of  the  sacred  drop  of  sorrow.  Also 
portions  of  metallic  mirrors  of  circular  form.  These  are  composed 
chiefly  of  antimony,  have  a  highly  polished  surface,  are  exceedingly 
brittle,  and  their  fragments  very  acute.  They  have  without  doubt  been 
purposely  broken  at  the  time  of  being  deposited  with  the  ashes  in  the 
funeral  urn"  (Archceologia,  xxvi.  467). 

Several  iron  knives  have  been  excavated  in  London,  withbone 
handles,  and  rings  for  suspension  from  the  person.  From  the 
number  which  have  been  found,  they  would  seem  to  have  been 
very  commonly  carried.  Ivory  was  then,  as  now,  used  by  the 
more  wealthy  for  knife-handles.  Juvenal,  in  contrasting  the 
furniture  of  his  own  villa  with  that  of  the  houses  of  the  luxurious, 
mentions  his  bone-handled  knives  as  a  sign  of  poverty  :  "  Have 
I  not  reason,"  he  asks,  "to  be  shy  of  a  purse-proud  guest  who 
contrasts  me  with  himself,  and  looks  down  upon  my  slender 
fortune  ?  Not  so  much  as  a  single  ounce  of  ivory  is  mine — 
no  dice  or  counters  are  made  of  that  substance  ;  nay,  the  very 
handles  to  my  knives  are  of  bone"  {Sat.  xi.  131) 

The  spoons  are  of  two  kinds.  The  long  bronze  spoons 
(ligulse),  with  narrow  bowls  and  oval  or  oblong  heads,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  designed  for  taking  ointments  or  oils 
out  of  long-necked  bottles.  The  other  kind  (cochleare)  has  a 
bowl  at  one  end  and  is  pointed  at  the  other,  so  as  to  combine 
the  uses  of  fork  and  spoon  in  eating  eggs  and  shell-fish  ;  the 
broad  end  serving  as  an  egg-spoon,  and  the  point  for  drawing 
the  fish  out  of  its  shell — as  Martial  (xiv.  121)  explains  : — 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


751 


Sum  cochleis  habilis,  sed  nec  minus  utiiis  ovis, 
Xumquid  scis  potius  cur  cochleare  vocer  ? 

Some  long  silver  spoons,  with  fluted  handles,  are  of  the 
latest  Roman  period  (from  Dorchester.  Oxon). 

Connected  with  the  cochleare  an  old  superstition,  which, 
like  many  others,  has  survived  to  our  own  times,  may  be 
mentioned  : — 

"  Pliny  (28.  2).  in  speaking  of  spells  and  incantations,  and  the  remedies 
by  which  their  evil  influences  were  counteracted,  states  that  the  shells 
of  eggs,  as  soon  as  the  meat  was  swallowed,  were  broken  by  the  bowls 
or  pierced  by  the  points  of  the  spoons.  At  the  present  day  it  is  a  very 
general  habit  in  many  parts  of  England  to  break  the  bottom  of  the 
shell  after  the  egg  is  eaten,  in  order  that  the  witches  might  not  have 
it  to  sail  in,  a  popular  belief  alluded  to  by  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  in 
their  play  of  6  Women  Pleased  '  : — 

"  The  devil  should  think  of  purchasing  that  egg-shell 
To  victual  out  a  witch  for  the  Burmoothes. " 

[Ro7/ia?i  Lo??don,  p.  139).  • 

Among  the  toilet  articles  in  bronze,  bodkins,  ear-picks, 
tooth-picks,  nail-picks,  pins  and  tweezers  will  be  noticed.  The 
latter  were  doubtless  used  by  the  ladies  for  removing  super- 
fluous hairs.  Other  examples  of  these  objects  may  be  seen  in 
the  Bronze  Room   Xos.  2383-2419). 

The  keys  found  among  Roman  remains  in  Britain  are 
numerous  and  of  great  variety.  Some  are  large,  some  small. 
It  is  clear  that  there  must  have  been  money  chests,  coffers, 
and  caskets  (see,  e.g.,  the  casket,  p.  730"  with  locks,  independ- 
ently of  the  locks  of  doors.  The  Romans  also  used  latch- 
keys, like  ours.  Indeed,  the  exceedingly  modern  look  of  many 
of  these  Roman  keys  will  at  once  strike  the  visitor  : — 

<;  Modern  ingenuity  in  the  construction  of  locks  and  keys  has  achieved 
but  little,  if  anything,  beyond  what  the  inventive  genius  of  the  ancients 
had  accomplished,  as  one  of  our  most  eminent  locksmiths  admitted 
when  he  examined  these  keys,  and  found  among  them  clear  evidence 
that  the  principle  of  some  of  his  patent  keys  was  only  a  revival  of  what 
was  perfectly  understood  by  the  Romans,  and  commonly  used  in  London 
sixteen  or  seventeen  hundred  years  ago.  Unfortunately  the  locks  have 
not  come  down  to  us  except  in  a  very  mutilated  state,  from  having 
been  made  chiefly  in  iron  ;  but  so  far  as  their  construction  can  be 
understood,  they  resemble  the  modern    (Roman  London,  p.  144). 

Notice  a  bronze  padlock  in  the  form  of  a  horse  [from 
Lynrnie),  and  a  key  worn  on  a  bronze  armlet. 


752 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


The  combs  here  exhibited  are  of  bone.  The  Romans  also 
used  box-wood,  ivory,  and  bronze  for  this  purpose. 

The  steelyards  and  scales  of  the  Romans  are  similar  to 
those  now  in  use  (with  the  exception  that  in  old  times  art  was 
combined  with  use).  There  are  some  good  examples  of  them 
in  the  Roman  collection  (Ch.  xxiv.). 

Some  specimens  of  medicine  stamps  are  curious.  They 
have  been  found  in  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  also  fre- 
quently in  Britain.  They  are  usually  made  of  greenish  schist 
or  steatite,  and  consist  of  small,  thin,  square  blocks,  with  an 
inscription  on  each  of  the  four  edges.  These  inscriptions  are 
inverse  and  retrograde.  Evidently,  therefore,  they  were  used 
as  stamps.  The  names  inscribed  upon  them  appear  to  be 
those  of  medical  practitioners  in  the  principal  towns  who  com- 
posed the  medicines,  and  sold  them  in  packages  to  minor 
practitioners  or  to  dealers,  just  as  patent  medicines  are  now 
sold  in  England.  One  stamp  of  the  kind  has  been  unearthed 
at  a*  village  called  Golden  Bridge,  County  Tipperary.  In 
nearly  all  the  examples  yet  found,  the  diseases  which  the 
medicines  are  to  alleviate  are  those  of  the  eye,  and  hence 
the  stamps  are  often  referred  to  as  "  oculists'  stamps.5' 
Diseases  of  the  eye  were  peculiarly  frequent  in  the  ancient 
world ;  Greek  medical  writers  mention  200  of  them.  For 
their  treatment  an  immense  number  of  ointments  (collyria) 
were  invented.  Their  use  is  referred  to  by  Horace  {Sat,  i. 
5.  50):— 

I  seize  on  the  occasion,  and  apply 
A  touch  of  ointment  to  an  ailing  eye. 

Sometimes  the  ointment  was  named  after  its  inventor :  "  Dr. 
So-and-So's  collyrium."  Thus  one  of  our  stamps  refers  to 
the  prescription  of  a  certain  Sextus  Julius  Sedatus.  The 
medicines  were  also  called  after  their  ingredients.  Thus, 
"  crocodes  "  were  so  called  from  crocus  or  saffron.  One  of 
the  stamps  here  (on  a  piece  of  Samian  ware)  is  described, 
"The  crocodes  of  L.  Julius  Senex  for  granulation  of  the  eyes." 
Another  fragmentary  inscription  should  probably  read,  "  A 
collyrium  to  be  used  after  an  attack  of  dimness  of  the  eyes." 
These  various  preparations  were  presumably  hardened  with 
gum  or  some  viscid  substance,  and  sold  in  a  solid  state,  to  be 
liquefied  by  fluids  when  required  for  use,  the  stamps  being 
impressed  just  before  the  medicament  attained  the  last  stage 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


753 


of  solidification.  Or,  possibly,  the  stamps  may  have  been 
impressed  on  the  wrappers  :  a  near  approach  to  printing 
(Archccologia,  ix.  227  ;  Arch.  Journal,  viii.  355  ;  Celt,  Roman, 
and  Saxon,  p.  299.  For  some  other  specimens,  see  the  col- 
lection of  "  Miscellaneous  Antiquities,"  Ch.  xxiv.). 

Among  miscellaneous  objects  here  collected  we  may  notice 
potter's  tool,  hinges,  and  other  objects  in  bone  ;  among  the 
latter  is  the  figure  of  a  gladiator.  The  carvings  in  bone 
seem  to  have  been  parts  of  caskets.  A  denarius  of  Trajan, 
struck  in  Lycia,  and  inscribed  in  Greek,  was  found  with  other 
Roman  relics  at  Kirkby  Thore,  an  old  Roman  station  between 
Appleby  and  Penrith  ;  it  must  have  been  the  pocket-piece  of 
some  old  campaigner  in  the  East  (Archczologia,  xxxi.  283). 

The  bronze  handle  of  a  saucepan  is  elegantly  ornamented 
in  low  relief  with  birds  and  foliage.  It  bears  the  stamp  of 
its  maker.  It  was  found  in  a  field  near  Colchester  (Archao- 
logia,  xxxix.  509).  A  few  saucepans  may  be  seen  in  the 
Bronze  Room  (2461-2465). 

A  bronze  plate  (found  in  Moorfields)  has  a  representation 
of  Romulus  and  Remus.  The  subject  is  treated  more  than 
usually  in  detail  by  the  introduction  of  the  fig-tree  and  the 
woodpecker ;  the  bird  shared  with  the  wolf  the  honour  of 
feeding  the  infant  heroes.  The  plate  was  first  stamped,  and 
afterwards  finished  by  rude  chasing  and  frosting  with  a  punch 
(Roman  London,  p.  76).  Other  bronze  articles  include  vase- 
handles,  buckles,  studs,  hooks,  and  chains. 

Another  compartment  shows  various  implements  of  women's 
work — such  as  spindles  and  spindle-whorls  and  bodkins  : — 

"Among  the  various  objects  found  in  the  gravel  pit,  which  in  the 
earlier  days  of  Roman  London  occupied  the  site  of  the  New  Royal 
Exchange,  were  a  considerable  number  of  small  wooden  implements 
which  had  evidently  been  cut  and  fashioned  upon  a  certain  principle 
for  some  purpose  connected  with  the  industrial  arts,  I  suspected  this 
might  be  for  spinning  or  weaving ;  and  the  remains  of  wool  still 
twisted  round  a  few  of  them  convinced  me  that  my  conjecture  was 
correct.  The  lower  extremity  was  inserted  in  a  wheel  or  whorl, 
formed  of  stone,  bone,  or  of  baked  clay.  A  great  number  of  whorls 
have  been  found  in  all  parts  of  Roman  London.  These  traces  of  the 
domestic  employment  of  the  women  in  Londinium  are  the  earliest 
evidence,  from  existing  remains,  of  weaving  in  Britain,  which  in  the 
course  of  time  became  one  of  the  leading  staple  manufactures  in 
England."  (See,  for  further  interesting  particulars,  Roman  London, 
P-  1 43-) 

3C 


754 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


We  may  here  notice  also  a  large  number  of  bronze  vase- 
handles  and  bronze  buckles.  Also,  the  bronze  mouthpiece  of 
a  trumpet  (from  Colchester)  and  a  bronze  baluster.  Very 
modern  are  the  shears,  compasses,  fish-hooks.  There  are 
also  a  whetstone  and  a  bronze  pan  with  a  split  point.  Notice 
also  the  butcher's  or  carver's  steel  (found  in  Princes  Street, 
London)  ;  the  handle  is  in  the  form  of  a  horse's  head  spring- 
ing from  leaves  of  the  lotus  ;  a  brass  ring  is  attached,  for 
hanging  it  from  the  girdle. 

A  bronze  strigil  (from  Abingdon)  is  a  good  specimen. 
These  implements  of  the  bath  are  often  found  in  Britain — 
another  instance  of  the  extent  to  which  the  manners  of  Rome 
were  transplanted  to  this  "northern  island  sundered  once 
from  all  the  human  race."  The  strigil  was  applied  to  the 
body,  after  the  bath  or  violent  exercise,  somewhat  as  a  scraper 
to  a  horse.  The  blade  was  hollowed  into  a  channel,  down 
which  the  perspiration  might  flow  as  in  a  gutter. 

PERSONAL  ORNAMENTS 
{Table-case  A) 

The  personal  ornaments  found  among  Roman  remains 
in  Britain  are  comparatively  rare,  and  of  the  less  valuable 
materials.  They  were  not  so  much  buried  with  the  dead 
as  in  Anglo-Saxon  times.  Brooches,  as  we  have  seen,  are 
common,  but  they  are  of  common  kinds.  They  are  mostly 
of  bronze  ;  though  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  we  are  told,  ordered 
even  common  soldiers  to  wear  golden  fibulae.  Of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  it  is  recorded  as  something  exceptional  that  he  wore 
neither  gold  in  his  belt  nor  gems  in  his  fibulas.  A  rare  example 
of  a  fibula  in  gold,  found  at  Odiham  in  Hampshire,  is  exhibited 
in  the  Room  of  Gold  Ornaments  (p.  668). 

The  ornaments  which  we  have  first  to  notice  here  are  of  jet 
and  shale.  Jet  was  an  object  of  export  from  Britain  from  early 
times,  the  supply  being  obtained  from  the  Yorkshire  coast,  near 
Whitby — a  locality  which  still  yields  the  finest  varieties.  The 
jet  ornaments,  which  were  doubtless  of  home  manufacture  (for 
they  are  found  also  in  pre-Roman  graves),  include  pins,  rings, 
beads,  buttons,  bracelets,  necklaces ;  notice  the  pendant  engraved 
with  two  cupids  ;  it  was  found  on  the  breast  of  a  skeleton  at 
Colchester. 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


755 


Another  similar  material  was  largely  used  in  Britain  for 
ornament.  This  is  a  bituminous  shale,  an  extensive  bed  of 
which,  at  Kimmeridge,  was  worked  by  the  Romans  for  the 
manufacture  of  beads,  rings,  armlets,  etc.  : — 

"  In  the  wildest  and  least  frequented  part  of  the  isle  of  Purbeck,  on 
the  coast  of  Dorset,  are  two  small  secluded  valleys,  opening  to  the  sea 
into  what  are  termed  the  Kimmeridge  and  Worthbarrow  bays.  The  soil 
of  these  valleys,  laid  out  from  time  immemorial  in  uninclosed  pastures, 
has  never  been  disturbed  by  the  ploughshare,  and  when  for  any  accidental 
purpose  it  is  dug,  at  a  few  inches  under  the  surface  are  found  great 
numbers  of  small,  round,  and  flat  pieces.  .  .  .  They  are  generally  from 
a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  thick,  and  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  with  bevelled  and  moulded  edges,  and 
having  on  one  side  two,  three,  or  four  round  holes,  and  on  the  other  a 
small  pivot  hole.  A  single  glance  at  these  articles  is  sufficient  to 
convince  any  one  acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  lathe  that  they  are 
simply  the  refuse  pieces  of  the  turner,  the  nuclei  of  rings  and  other 
articles  formed  by  his  art "  (Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon,  p.  289). 

The  "  chucks,"  then,  are  pieces  that  have  been  cut  out  of 
armlets,  etc.,  by  the  lathe  and  have  been  found  on  the  sites 
of  Roman  factories.  Ornaments  of  this  Kimmeridge  shale  and 
jet  were  no  doubt  in  peculiar  favour  as  charms  ;  for  they  were 
supposed,  Pliny  tells  us,  to  possess  the  virtue  of  driving  away 
serpents. 

To  the  brooches  of  various  patterns  (many  of  them  enamelled) 
we  refer  below  (p.  762).  Here  also  are  intaglios  on  various 
stones  :  for  this  subject  see  Ch.  xxvi.  For  finger-rings,  of 
which  there  is  here  a  collection  in  bronze,  see  p.  602.  Glass 
beads  and  buttons  are  found  in  considerable  numbers  on  Roman 
sites  in  Britain  ;  pieces  of  glass  of  different  colours  are  often 
fused  into  each  other  so  as  to  form  tasteful  patterns. 

A  few  ornaments  are  of  gold  and  silver.  There  are,  for 
instance,  a  silver  collar  and  two  finger-rings,  found  with  coins 
of  Aurelius  (1 61-180  A.D.)  on  the  Slay  Hill  Saltings,  Medway 
Marshes.  There  are  also  some  gold  ear-rings.  The  pins, 
bracelets,  armlets,  and  finger-rings  of  bronze  are  more  numerous. 
Some  of  the  bronze  armlets  have  still  the  bones  of  a  woman's 
arm  within  them  (found  at  Water  Newton,  Hants,  and  at 
Colchester  respectively).  A  curious  object  is  the  bronze  arm- 
purse.  This  was  obtained  from  a  labourer  in  Farndale,  Yorks, 
by  whom  it  was  found  in  1849  when  removing  the  stones  of  a 
cairn.     It  was  discovered  at  the  bottom  of  the  cairn,  where  it 


75^ 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


had  been  concealed  in  the  cavity  of  a  hollow  stone  which  in 
its  turn  was  covered  by  a  flat  stone.  Obviously  it  had  been 
hidden  for  security.  A  similar  object,  discovered  in  a  stone 
quarry  near  Hexham,  contained  sixty-five  Roman  coins  ;  no 
doubt,  therefore,  it  was  a  purse.  The  Hexham  example  had 
a  lid  with  a  hinge  at  one  end,  and  fastened  with  a  spring  at 
the  other.  In  our  specimen  the  spring  or  bolt  is  lost ;  but  the 
attachment  connected  with  it,  and  the  hole,  into  which  the 
fastenings  may  have  closed,  are  to  be  seen  {Arch.  Journal^ 
viii.  88). 

Note  also  a  collection  of  bone  pins  used  in  dressing  the 
hair.  Many  of  these  are  ornamented  with  busts  or  little 
figures  at  the  top  ;  one  has  a  full  figure  of  Fortune,  standing 
as  it  were  on  a  column. 

Here,  too,  is  a  collection  of  safety  pins  :  see  below,  p.  762. 

WRITING  IMPLEMENTS 
{Table-case  B) 

A  large  number  of  styli — some  in  bronze,  some  in  iron — 
have  been  found  in  London,  as  at  other  Roman  settlements. 
The  actual  sight  of  the  implements  used  by  the  ancients  as 
pens  helps  the  comprehension  of  many  a  passage  in  the  classics, 
and  brings  vividly  before  one  the  history  of  the  word  style. 
Thus  when  Horace  says  {Sat  i.  10.  72) — 

Oh  yes  !  believe  me,  you  must  draw  your  pen 
Not  once  nor  twice,  but  o'er  and  o'er  again 
Through  what  you've  written,  if  you  would  entice 
The  man  that  reads  you  once  to  read  you  twice, 

the  expression  he  uses  is  "  saepe  stilum  vertas  "  :  "  you  must 
often  turn  your  style."  We  understand  the  literal  meaning  at 
once  when  we  look  upon  the  stilus  itself,  with  its  sharp  point 
for  writing,  and  its  flat  end  for  smoothing  the  incised  wax  upon 
the  tablet.  We  see  also  the  derivation  of  the  modern  word 
"  style,"  which  was  originally  restricted  to  the  character  of  a 
person's  handwriting  ;  as  well  as  of  the  expression,  to  write 
with  acumen  or  point.  "  With  his  graphium,  or  stilus,  says 
Suetonius,  Julius  Caesar  wounded  Cassius  ;  and  it  will  readily 
be  seen  that  some  of  these  stili  in  the  hands  of  a  desperate  man, 
could  almost  serve  for  daggers  ;  indeed  they  often  were  used  as 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


757 


weapons,  and  the  name  yet  survives  in  the  Italian  stiletto " 
{Roman  London,  p.  136). 

Rarer,  because  made  of  more  perishable  materials,  are  the 
writing-tablets.  A  leaf  of  one  of  these,  from  which  however 
the  wax  has  perished,  was  unearthed  in  London,  and  is  here 
exhibited.  The  wax  when  melted  was  applied  to  thin  tablets 
of  wood  called  tabellce  or  pugillaria.  These  were  surrounded 
by  a  rim  to  shield  the  waxen  surface  and  prevent  friction. 
Two  or  more  were  joined  together  by  wires  or  string,  bound 
with  a  cord  and  sealed.  A  letter,  thus  done  up,  would  be 
sent  to  the  person  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  who  could  erase 
the  marks  on  the  wax,  smooth  it  down,  and  write  the  answer 
on  the  same  tablet.  Hence  when  one  of  Plautus's  characters 
wants  to  write  a  letter,  he  calls  for  a  tablet,  stylus,  wax,  and 
thread  (Bacchid.  iv.  4.  64).  The  system  continued  in  use  in 
the  Middle  Ages  ;  hence  Hamlet's  exclamation — "  My  tables  ! 
Meet  it  is  I  set  it  down."  And  the  expression  survives  in 
poetical  figures  to  our  own  day — "  Quick  thy  tablets,  Memory  \n 
In  our  specimen  here  exhibited  the  leaves  had  been  threaded 
together  by  two  holes  running  through  one  side,  and  the  marks 
of  the  string  which  tied  it  are  also  distinctly  visible. 

Here  are  exhibited  also  some  curious  little  boxes  which  are 
often  called  seal  -  boxes,  though  when  first  discovered  they 
were  thought  to  be  perfume-boxes,  and  this  earlier  interpreta- 
tion seems  at  least  as  probable  as  the  other.  The  boxes  in 
question,  of  which  other  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  Bronze 
Room  (Nos.  2225-2242),  are  of  various  shapes — square,  oval, 
lozenge-shaped,  heart-shaped  or  bellows-shaped,  and  circular. 
Most  of  them  are  pierced  at  the  bottom  with  three  circular 
holes,  and  in  the  side  with  two  square  openings.  On  the  lid 
they  are  frequently  enamelled.  The  lids  of  some  in  the 
Bronze  Room  are  decorated  in  relief  with  heads.  According 
to  one  theory,  they  were  capsules  made  to  contain  and  pro- 
tect the  impressions  of  Roman  seals,  the  threads  fastening  the 
letter  or  document  being  passed  through  the  various  apertures. 
According  to  the  other  theory,  they  were  used  for  perfumes, 
like  the  modern  vinaigrette  (Archceologia,  xxxix.  508  ;  Num. 
Chron.  3rd  series,  xvii.  293). 


758 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


MILITARY  ANTIQUITIES 
{Table-case  D) 

Among  the  most  interesting  remains  of  Roman  armour 
found  in  Britain  is  the  bronze  boss  of  a  shield  from  the  bed 
of  the  river  Tyne  near  its  mouth  : — 

"  It  belonged  to  a  soldier  of  the  eighth  legion.  The  eighth  legion 
was  never  in  Britain.  The  owner  of  the  shield  must,  therefore,  have 
been  an  occasional  visitor  ;  or,  perchance,  he  may  have  approached 
our  shores  with  the  view  of  taking  the  command  of  some  auxiliary 
cohort.  From  the  position  in  which  the  relic  was  found  it  may  with 
probability  be  surmised  that  the  unhappy  man  suffered  shipwreck  as 
he  was  approaching  the  termination  of  his  voyage,  and  that  he  parted 
with  life  and  shield  together.  How  many  have  perished  since  in  the 
same  place  !  .  .  .  On  the  centre  is  carved  the  Roman  eagle,  holding 
an  olive  branch  in  its  mouth.  The  eagle  is  surmounted  by  the 
victor's  wreath.  In  the  corners  we  have  representations  of  the  four 
seasons.  Spring,  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner,  is  figured  as  a  youth 
vainly  striving,  despite  the  winds  of  March,  to  gather  his  garments 
around  him.  A  snake  is  seen  at  his  feet,  emerging  from  the  ground, 
to  indicate  the  renewal  of  energy  in  the  lower  creatures.  Summer  is 
represented  in  the  opposite  angle  by  a  husbandman  who  grasps  a 
scythe.  Beneath  the  emblem  of  Spring  we  have  the  legend  LEG. 
VIII.,  and  beneath  that  of  Summer  AUG.,  the  eighth  legion  having 
the  surname  of  Augusta.  Below  we  have  Autumn  as  a  winged  genius 
holding  a  large  bunch  of  grapes  in  the  right  hand  and  a  basket  of  corn 
or  other  fruits  in  the  left.  Winter,  in  the  remaining  corner,  is  clad  in 
fur  ;  the  robe  which  hangs  upon  his  arms  is,  as  in  the  case  of  spring, 
made  the  sport  of  the  winds.  In  the  upper  central  department  of 
the  boss  is  a  warrior  in  the  attitude  of  attack,  probably  intended  to 
represent  Mars.  In  the  corresponding  compartment  below  is  a  bull 
very  spiritedly  drawn.  Above  the  bull  is  a  crescent.  The  bull  seems 
to  have  been  the  badge  of  the  eighth  legion  ;  on  the  reverse  of  two 
coins  of  Gallienus  and  one  of  Carausius  we  have  a  bull,  together  with 
the  legend — LEG.  VIII.  AUG.,  etc.  In  the  side  compartments  are 
two  legionary  standards.  On  the  left-hand  margin  of  the  plate  the 
owner  has  punctured  his  name  ;  he  was  Junius  Dubitatus,  of  the 
century  of  Julius  Magnus  "  {Lapidariiim  Septentrionale,  published  by 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  p.  58). 

Among  the  most  interesting  of  the  records  which  time  has 
preserved  of  the  Roman  army  of  occupation  are  certificates  of 
discharge.  The  Roman  was  a  long-service  army,  and  these 
discharges  refer  to  service  for  twenty-five  years  or  more.  The 
Romans  encouraged  also  the  plan  of  military  settlement  ; 
soldiers,  honourably  discharged  from  the  army,  were  given  the 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


759 


rights  of  citizenship  and  settled  as  civilians  in  the  provinces  of 
the  Empire.  These  grants  of  citizenship  were  registered  in 
some  public  place  at  Rome,  and  copies  of  the  entry,  duly 
certified,  were  sent,  on  plates  of  copper  or  bronze,  to  the 
place  where  the  recipients  resided.  Of  these  certificates  which 
have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  Britain  (as  well  as  in 
other  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire),  a  collection  is  here 
exhibited.  They  were  issued  by  the  Emperors  Trajan, 
Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  One  of  them  (found  in  1760 
at  Stannington,  Yorkshire)  states  as  follows  : — 

The  Emperor  Hadrian,  son  of  the  deified  Trajan,  snrnamed  "of 
Parthia,"  grandson  of  the  deified  Nerva,  head  of  the  Sacred  College, 
in  the  eighth  year  of  his  reign,  three  times  consul,  proconsul,  has 
given  to  the  cavalry  and  infantry  [then  specified  ;  they  include 
regiments  drawn  from  Spain,  Germany,  Dalmatia,  France,  and 
Portugal]  being  in  Britain  and  discharged  honourably  after  twenty- 
five  years  or  more  on  service,  the  Roman  citizenship  for  themselves, 
their  children  and  descendants  ;  also  the  recognition  of  their  marriage 
with  those  who  are  their  wives  at  the  date  of  granting  this  citizenship, 
or  in  the  case  of  unmarried  men,  any  wives  they  may  subsequently 
marry,  provided  they  only  have  one  each. 

This  is  an  authentic  copy  of  a  bronze  tablet  set  up  in  Rome  on  the 
wall  behind  the  temple  built  up  by  the  deified  Augustus  to  Minerva. 

The  date  of  this  certificate  is  Sept.  16,  124.  A  similar 
one,  dated  Jan.  19,  103,  found  at  Malpas  in  Cheshire, 
is  addressed  "  to  Reburrus,  the  Spaniard,  son  of  Severus, 
inferior  officer  of  the  First  Pannonian  Squadron,  called  the 
Tampian,  commanded  by  Caius  Valerius  Celsus." 

Such  inscriptions  —  whether  relating  to  discharge  from 
service,  or  to  dedications  of  buildings,  or  to  the  execution 
of  public  works — are  capable,  when  considered  cumulatively, 
of  furnishing  valuable  material  to  the  historian.  Thus  from 
soldiers'  tombstones  : — 

\ '  You  can  ascertain  to  what  extent  and  till  what  date  legionaries 
were  raised  in  Italy  ;  what  contingents  for  various  branches  of  the 
service  were  drawn  from  the  provinces,  and  which  provinces  provided 
most ;  how  far  provincials  garrisoned  their  own  countries,  and  which 
of  them,  like  the  British  recruits,  were  sent  as  a  measure  of  precaution 
to  serve  elsewhere  ;  or,  finally,  at  what  epoch  the  Empire  grew  weak 
enough  to  require  the  enlistment  of  barbarians  from  beyond  its  frontiers." 

So  too  with  the  certificates  of  discharges  such  as  those  here 
before  us  : 


76o 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


"  Each  certificate  mentions  incidentally  the  whole  number  of 
regiments  in  the  province  from  which  men  were  discharged  at  the 
same  time  as  the  recipient  of  the  individual  certificate.  The  dedica- 
tions and  building -records  equally  mention  the  regiments  of  the 
dedicators  or  builders.  Put  them  together  ;  add  the  indications  which 
can  obviously  be  derived  from  soldiers'  tombstones  and  similar  sources, 
and  it  will  be  easy  to  arrive  at  the  strength  of  each  provincial  army, 
the  troops  which  composed  it  at  various  dates,  the  stations  which  it 
occupied,  the  system  of  frontier  defence  which  it  maintained,  if  in  a 
frontier  province,  and  in  fact  the  whole  organisation  of  the  army. 
Comparisons  have  often  been  drawn  between  the  Roman  Empire  and 
that  which  we  hold  in  India.  Should  any  one  wish  to  compare  the 
armies  of  the  two  colossal  administrations,  the  inscriptions  would  tell 
him  as  much  about  many  aspects  of  the  Roman  army  as  he  would 
ever  learn  from  books  about  the  existing  garrison  of  India"  (F.  Haver- 
field  in  Authority  and  Archceology,  p.  315). 

LAMPS 
{Table-case  F) 

We  have  already  seen  a  large  collection  of  ancient  lamps 
(Ch.  xxvii.  p.  710),  and  the  Roman  lamps  found  in  Britain 
resemble  those  from  other  places.  Most  of  them  are  in 
terra -cotta,  and  have  only  one  nozzle  for  the  wick.  The 
subjects  which  exercised  the  fancy  of  designers  for  lamps  are 
of  great  variety.  Among  those  of  interest  in  our  collection 
may  be  noticed  a  Roman  galley  (from  Colchester)  ;  a  mill  for 
grinding  corn  turned  by  an  ass  (London)  ;  the  apotheosis  of 
an  emperor ;  the  figure  of  a  Bacchante  (an  unusually  graceful 
design).  Some  of  the  ruder  and  the  distorted  specimens  were 
probably  of  local  make.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  monogram  of  Christ  and  the  figure  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  became  frequent  on  lamps,  but  Britain — far  removed 
from  the  central  influences  of  the  Empire — was  late  in  accept- 
ing Christianity,  and  such  lamps  are  not  found  in  our  country. 
Lamps,  as  we  have  seen  (p.  712),  were  used  among  the  ancients 
for  funereal  purposes  ;  a  great  many  of  them  were  found  in  an 
ancient  cemetery  at  Colchester  which  lay  beside  the  high-road 
to  London.  Sepulchral  inscriptions  sometimes  refer  to  the 
custom  of  offering  lighted  lamps  at  tombs  ;  e.g.  "  Adieu 
Septima,  may  the  earth  lie  lightly  upon  you.  Whoever  places 
a  burning  lamp  on  this  tomb,  may  a  golden  soil  cover  his 
ashes  ! 55 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


ARTICLES  OF  DRESS,  Etc. 

{Table-case  E) 

Shoes. — There  is  nothing  like  leather  for  lasting.  We 
have  here  before  us  shoes,  or  sandals,  very  nearly  in  the 
same  condition  as  when  they  covered  feet  which  trod  the 
streets  of  Roman  London.  Leather,  though  the  least  perish- 
able part  of  human  clothing,  yields  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances to  the  destructive  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Hence 
it  is  that  remains  of  Roman  leather  have  been  found  only  in 
certain  localities  where  air  has  been  excluded.  Of  the  shoes 
here,  some  come  from  Whitley  Castle,  Northumberland,  where 
they  were  dug  out  of  an  ancient  dung-hill  (Archceologia  ^Eliana, 
ii.  205) ;  others,  from  various  sites  in  London  : — 

"  These  were  the  neighbourhood  of  Lothbury  and  Princes  Street,  the 
site  of  the  New  Royal  Exchange  and  the  bed  of  the  Thames.  The  first 
was  in  the  course  of  the  stream  which  flowed  from  Moorfields,  by 
Walbrook  to  the  Thames  ;  the  second  was  a  pit  of  great  depth  ;  and 
both  to  a  considerable  extent  were  filled  with  a  moist,  tenacious  soil, 
impervious  to  the  air  ;  the  beds  of  rivers,  from  the  same  cause,  are 
particularly  favourable  to  the  preservation  of  animal  and  vegetable  as 
well  as  metallic  substances.  Oil  having  been  applied  to  the  sandals 
before  the  water  with  which  they  were  saturated  had  evaporated,  the 
leather  is  now  preserved  with  much  of  its  original  pliability  and  general 
character"  {Roman  London,  p.  132). 

By  the  side  of  these  shoes  is  exhibited  an  ancient  bottle  in 
the  form  of  a  foot  to  show  how  Roman  footgear  was  worn. 
The  shoes,  having  in  some  cases  survived  entire,  need  little 
explanation.  The  soles,  usually  formed  of  four  layers  of  leather, 
were  held  together  not  by  stitching,  but  by  nails  ;  several  of 
these  remain.  Classical  authors  allude  to  the  profusion  of 
nails  with  which  the  sole  of  the  caliga  (or  military  shoe)  was 
covered  (Pliny,  H.N.  ix.  18;  Juv.  xvi.  22).  The  "uppers" 
in  our  examples  are  formed  of  reticulated  leather,  varying  in 
fineness  and  elegance  of  design.  The  shoes  were  fastened  by 
straps  passing  through  the  holes  made  in  the  side  pieces  for 
that  purpose.  Many  of  the  shoes  must  have  belonged,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  sizes,  to  women  and  children. 

The  Durden  collection  of  antiquities  here  exhibited  is  of 
interest  as  showing  the  successive  occupation  of  a  site  by 
the  British  and  by  Roman  troops.     The  site  is  Hod  Hill, 


762 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Blandford,  Dorset.  The  ancient 
earthworks  on  this  hill  are  Celtic  fastnesses  afterwards  made 
subservient  to  the  Roman  system  of  castramentation.  "  The 
position  of  the  hill  is  even  now  one  of  great  natural  strength, 
particularly  on  its  western  side,  where  it  towers  precipitously 
to  the  height  of  several  hundred  feet  above  the  Stour.  The 
powerful  earthworks  which  encompass  the  whole  of  the  plateau 
on  the  summit  consist  of  double  ramparts  and  corresponding 
ditches."  Inside  these  the  more  scientific  work  of  the  Romans 
may  still  be  examined  (C.  R.  Smith's  Collectanea  Antiqua,  vi. 
1- 1 7).  The  excavations  on  this  site  yielded  objects  which,  as 
shown  by  coins  and  other  evidences,  belong  (1)  to  British 
occupation  before  the  Roman  Conquest,  and  (2)  to  an  occupa- 
tion by  British  troops.  Iron  was  in  use  in  Britain  when  Csesar 
invaded  the  island  ;  the  Romans,  however,  turned  our  metal- 
lurgic  resources  to  fuller  account.  The  objects  of  military  use 
include  the  cheek-piece  of  a  helmet,  bronze  mounts,  chapes, 
and  pieces  of  scale  armour.  Other  objects  show  very  neat 
work  in  niello  (see  p.  606). 

A  series  of  safety-pins  (fibulae)  shows  successive  changes 
in  their  form.  These  should  be  compared  with  the  collection 
in  the  Bronze  Room  (Nos.  1929-2224)  ;  for  the  collection 
here  "uniformly  gives  evidence  to  the  fact  that  the  civilisation 
of  Britain,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  was  purely  Roman, 
and  that  whatever  races  settled  here  under  the  banner  of  Rome, 
they  accepted  unreservedly  its  dress  and  manners  as  well  as 
its  language  and  laws"  (Wright).  With  the  loose-fitting 
garments  of  antiquity,  the  brooch  or  pin  was  a  very  indispens- 
able article  of  the  toilet ;  it  was  indeed  the  only  fastening  ; 
hence  the  large  number  of  fibulas  or  remains  of  them  which  is 
found  in  every  collection  of  Roman  antiquities.  Of  the  Roman 
brooches  in  the  form  of  safety-pins — 

"three  varieties  may  be  readily  distinguished,  known  as  the  La 
Tene  type,  the  T-shape,  and  the  cross-bow  form.  The  La  Tene 
fibulae  are  distinguished  by  a  doubly-curved  bow  and  an  elaborate  foot 
often  ending  in  a  knob  ;  sometimes  the  bow  divides  into  two  pieces, 
which  between  them  enclose  the  foot.  The  La  Tene  civilisation, 
distinguished  by  the  typical  forms  of  its  fibulae  and  iron  swords,  and 
general  use  of  iron  in  place  of  bronze,  is  of  very  wide  extent,  but 
appears  to  have  had  its  home  in  south-eastern  France.  Of  the  cross- 
bow form  there  are  two  varieties  :  one  with  spiral  hinge  and  arched 
bow  ending  in  a  catch  for  the  pin  ;  in  the  other  variety,  the  bow  is 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


763 


arched  in  a  semicircle  and  terminates  in  a  long  sheath-like  foot,  into 
which  the  pin  is  inserted,  the  other  end  of  the  pin  working  on  a  hinge. 
These  fibulae  are  often  gilded,  or  ornamented  with  elaborated  patterns. 
The  ordinary  T-shaped  fibula  has  a  long  cylindrical  head  and  wide 
flat  bow,  ornamented  with  grooves  or  patterns  in  gilding  and  enamel. 
.  .  .  Roman  taste  seems  to  have  run  more  in  the  direction  of  elaborate 
brooches  than  of  fibulae  properly  so  called — that  is,  of  any  modification 
of  the  safety-pin  type.  The  bow  completely  disappears,  and  is  replaced 
by  a  disc  or  lozenge  with  ornamental  patterns,  or  by  a  rosette  or  circle 
of  open-work,  or  by  the  figure  of  an  animal  "  (H.  B.  Walters,  Cata- 
logue of  Bronzes,  p.  lxii. ).  Brooches  of  this  latter  kind  ornamented 
with  enamels  have  already  been  noticed  (p.  749). 

The  "bells  of  the  ancients  (tintinnabula)  were  made  in  similar 
shapes,  and  used  for  much  the  same  purposes  as  in  our  own 
day.  They  were  placed  at  the  door  of  the  house  (Suet.  Aug. 
91)  and  for  calling  the  servants.  They  were  used  at  the 
sacrifices  of  the  ancient  religions,  no  less  than  in  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Mass.  They  were  fastened  round  the  necks  of  animals 
then  as  now.  One  of  our  examples,  from  the  collection  of 
Mr.  C.  R.  Smith,  found  in  London,  is  so  well  preserved  that 
it  still  produces  a  clear  and  sharp  sound  (Roman  London, 
p.  146). 

Several  bronze  steelyard  weights  (see  p.  7  5  2)  are  here  shown. 
One  of  these,  in  the  form  of  the  head  of  a  Bacchante,  was 
found  at  Nursling,  near  Southampton,  in  1842.  Upon  the 
crown  of  the  head  was  fastened  a  chain  ending  in  a  ring,  by 
which  the  weight  or  equipoise  was  made  to  slide  upon  or 
traverse  the  beam  of  the  steelyard  : — 

"The  best  efforts  of  the  artists  of  antiquity  were  often  bestowed 
upon  the  most  common  implements  and  utensils.  The  appreciation  of 
form  and  beauty  was  so  general  that  whatever  met  the  eye  reflected 
a  universal  purity  of  taste  ;  and  usefulness  was  not  considered,  as  in 
after  and  in  modern  times,  incompatible  with  elegance.  The  prevalence 
of  good  taste  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  absence  of  it  on  the  other, 
form  the  chief  distinction  between  ancient  and  modern  works  of  art. 
Of  this  fact  a  good  example  is  presented  in  our  steelyard  weight.  It 
represents  the  bust  of  a  Bacchante  wearing  a  light  vest,  fastened  over 
the  left  shoulder  with  fawns'  legs.  The  hair  is  decorated  with  a  vine 
branch  and  a  bunch  of  grapes.  The  bust  is  in  bronze  ;  the  legs  and 
nipples  are  of  copper  ;  the  eye  is  silver  ;  and  the  pupils,  now  wanting, 
were  probably  of  paste  or  stone''  {Collectanea  Antiqua,  iv.  57). 

Among  other  objects  here  exhibited  are  a  bronze  plummet, 
a  bronze  cock  of  a  fountain  (found  in  Philpot  Lane,  E.C.), 


7^4 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


CHAP. 


a  foot  in  bronze  (belonging  to  some  piece  of  furniture),  and 
some  bronze  lamps. 

Three  cakes  of  pewter,  stamped  with  the  name  of  Syagrius 
and  the  Christian  monogram,  were  found  in  the  Thames  at 
Battersea,  and  are  curious.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  name  was  Afranius  Syagrius,  mentioned  in  369 
A.D.  as  secretary  to  the  Emperor  Valentinian,  and  as  consul 
in  382.  "  The  rarity  of  the  discovery  in  England  of  any 
Christian  remains  1  of  the  Roman  period  adds  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  these  specimens.  It  is  not  easy  to  conjecture  for 
what  purpose  such  rude  lumps  of  metal  were  stamped.  The 
oblong  stamp  of  the  smaller  cake  is  not  unlike  those  on  leaden 
seals  of  Roman  origin.  The  cakes  may  therefore  have  been 
the  property  of  some  officer  employed  in  attaching  seals  to 
documents  or  bales,  who  may  have  stamped  with  his  official 
seals  the  store  of  metal  with  which  he  was  furnished  for  this 
purpose  "  (A.  W.  Franks  in  Proc.  Soc.  A?itiq.,  2nd  series,  ii.  234. 
See  also  Arch.  Journ.  xvi.  38,  xxiii.  283). 

MISCELLANEOUS  ANTIQUITIES 
{Cases  79-95) 

A  few  other  objects  of  interest  remain  to  be  noticed  which 
do  not  fall  under  any  of  the  foregoing  heads.  Some  stone  tiles 
from  Roman  villas  (Wall-cases  94,  95)  show  the  solid  roofing 
sometimes  employed.  A  mutilated  Roman  bas-relief  (Case  93) 
was  found  near  a  villa  at  Wellow,  Somerset:  the  figures  are 
of  two  females  draped,  and  an  undraped  male.  The  draperies 
are  arranged  in  straight  parallel  rolls  like  those  in  the  earlier 
Norman  sculpture. 

Two  collections  of  miscellaneous  objects  in  these  wall-cases 
are  of  interest  as  having  been  found  in  caves.  One  collection 
comes  from  the  caves  of  King's  Scarr,  near  Settle,  Yorks.  The 
coins  here  found  were  barbarous  imitations  of  the  Roman. 
These  caves  may  have  been  used  by  the  Romanised  Britons 
as  places  of  refuge  during  the  troublous  times  that  followed 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions  after  the  fourth  century 
(C.  R.  Smith's  Collectanea  A?itiqua^  vol.  i.).  The  other  collec- 
tion comes  from  Dowkerbottom  Cave,  near  Arncliffe,  Yorks. 

1  But  is  it  certain  that  "  the  Christian  monogram  "  necessarily  connotes 
a  Christian  meaning?    See  on  this  subject  Archceologia,  vol.  xlviii. 


XXVIII 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


765 


The  objects  here  exhibited  were  found  with  human  skulls  and 
bones,  and  the  remains  of  goats,  dogs,  and  horses  : — 

"  The  objects  bear  a  very  striking  resemblance  to  the  relics  discovered 
in  the  cave  of  Settle  (and  just  described),  and  may  without  doubt  be 
safely  ascribed  to  the  same  period,  viz.  the  last  century  of  the  Roman 
occupation.  They  comprise  the  utensils,  implements,  and  ornaments 
of  a  people  of  primitive  habits,  and  probably  of  the  lowest  class. 
Among  these  are  a  knife,  which  the  antiquary  will  at  once  recognise 
as  of  Roman  character  ;  several  bone  implements,  apparently  used  in 
knitting  or  the  making  of  nets  ;  a  bronze  needle  ;  bronze  fibulae  of  two 
kinds,  harp-shaped  and  penannular,  the  latter  having  an  indigenous 
character,  and  certainly  of  the  latest  period  of  the  Roman  possession  ; 
spindle-whorls,  one  formed  of  bone,  two  of  discs  of  Samian  ware,  a 
fourth  of  the  bottom  of  a  vase  of  rude  fabric,  and  a  fifth  of  lead. 
These  latter  objects,  though  rude,  are  extremely  interesting,  since  they 
appear  to  indicate  that  these  caves  were  once  tenanted  by  women  ;  but 
whether  these  instruments  of  female  industry  were  once  plied  by  the 
wives  of  the  rude  fishermen  of  this  coast,  the  female  companions  of 
pirate  crews,  or  fugitive  slaves  who  here  sought  a  refuge  from  a  cruel 
death,  must  be  left  to  conjecture"  {Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  iv.  m). 

Of  a  different  kind  is  a  small  collection  of  objects  found 
in  1873  m  a  child's  oak  coffin  at  Moorfields.  The  gold  coins 
also  found  in  the  coffin,  which  are  here  exhibited  by  reproduc- 
tions, are  of  the  reign  of  Gallienus  (253-268  A.D.).  There 
are  jet  bracelets  and  glass  beads,  and  the  child's  gold  ring. 
The  number  of  very  small  gold  rings  found  in  excavations 
shows  how  commonly  they  were  worn  by  children  in  the 
ancient  World. 


INDEX 


OF  OBJECTS    DESCRIBED  AND  SUBJECTS 
DISCUSSED 

{References  are  to  the  pages) 


Abdul  Hamid,  the  Sultan,  gift  to 

the  Museum,  214 
"Aberdeen"  Head  (by  Praxiteles?), 

218 

Aberdeen,  Lord,  8,  218,  355 
Acamas,  Demophron,  and  y£thra 

(vase),  345 
Acanthus,  coins  of  (lion  devouring 

a  bull),  500 
Acarnanian  League,  coin  of,  531 
Achaean  League,  coins  of,  532 
Achelous  (river),  representations  of, 

on  vases,  316 
Achilles,  the  arms  of  (vase  subject), 

386,   409   (terra-cotta),  695  ; 

and  Hector  (vases),  320,  378  ; 

and  Lycaon  (vase),  415  ;  arid 

Penthesilea  (vase),  348 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  excavations 

at,  303,  314 
Actaeon  (statue),  65 
Actors  :  as  birds    (vase),  345  ;  a 

comic  actor  (Roman  statuette), 

77  :  -*r-kl-.'lr- 
Admon  (name  on  gem),  624 
"  yEgean  "  civilisation,   559.  See 

also  Mycenaean 
^Egina  :  story  of  the  excavations  at 

(1811),  108  ;   history  of  the 

Temple  at,  109  ;  casts  from, 

no  ;  characteristics  of,  no 
coins  of  (tortoise),    501  ;  coin 

standard  of,  501 
Mycenaean  gold  ornaments  from, 

559 


"  ^Eginetan  smile,"  112,  268 
iKlius  Caesar  (bronze  bust),  453 
JEnea.s  and  Anchises  (vase),  344 
^Enus,  coins  of,  506,  515 
yEschines  (portrait  bust),  248 
yEschylus   referred  to,   384,  427, 

509,  620 
yEsculapius  :  types  of,  in  .art,  80  ; 

(marble  bas-relief),  80  ;  (head 

from  Melos),  193  ;  worship  of, 

I93  n- 1  (gem)»  625 
v^tolian  League,  coins  of,  531 
"Age  of  Gold,"  the,  in  Greece, 

558  ;  among  the  Celts,  579 
Agoracritus  (sculptor),  194 
Agrigentum,  coins   of,   503,  509. 

See  also  Girgenti 
Agrippina  the  elder,  cameo  from 

Marlborough  collection,  647 
Ajax,  suicide  of  (vase),  402  ;  and 

Cassandra  (vase),  328 
Alabaster  jar  from  the  Mausoleum, 

213  ;  urns  (Roman),  11 
Alabastron  (shape  of  vase),  278 
"  Alcaeus  and  Sappho"  vase,  363  ; 

terra-cotta  relief,  691 
Alcestis,    story    of,    131  ;    on  a 

sculptured  column  from  Ephe- 

sus,  131 
Alcmena  (vase),  412 
Alexander  the  Great  :  features  of, 

142  ;  influence  of,  on  Greek  art, 

52,142,  428,  523 ;  coins  0^524; 

portraits  of,  in  the  Museum, 

head  (Second  Graeco- Roman 


767 


768 


INDEX 


Room),  52  ;  bust  from  Alex- 
andria (Ephesus  Room),  140; 
on  coins,  527,  543  ;  on  gems, 
622,  629 

Alexander's  lion  hunt,  on  a  terra- 
cotta bowl,  713 

Alfred  jewel,  ornaments  in  the  style 
of  the,  666 

Altar  :  to  Apollo,  75  ;  to  Bacchus, 
78  ;  to  Silvanus,  83  ;  Romano- 
Egyptian,  84 

Amasis  (vase  painter),  348 

Amathus,  vases  from,  305  ;  boats 
from,  708 

Amazons  :  on  the  Mausoleum  frieze, 
214,  215,  216;  on  the  Phigalian 
frieze,  234  ;  head  of  an  Amazon 
(?  after  Polyclitus),  69  ;  on 
vases,  280,  376 

Amber,  its  use  in  antiquity,  568  ; 
ornaments  from  Italy,  569 

Ameinocleia,  sepulchral  monument 
of,  240 

Amethyst,  619 

Amphictyonic  Council,  coin  of, 
5*6 

Amphora  (shape  of  vase),  276 
Anacreon,  bust,  10  ;  vases,  380 
Anchor,  lead,  from  Cyrene,  84 
Anderson,  W.  C.  F. ,  on  a  bronze 

chair,  449 
Andromeda  (vase),  390 
Anesidora,  373.     See  also  Pandora 
Anglo  -  Roman    antiquities.  See 

Roman  Britain 
Anglo- Roman  methods  of  burial, 

723.  733 
Anglo-Saxon  jewellery,  608,  665 
Animals  in  bronze,  454  ;   in  terra- 
cotta,  707  ;    (Anglo- Roman), 
731 

Antaeus  (vase),  318 
Antefixes   (terra  -  cotta  roof  orna- 
ments), origin  of,  484  ;  Etrus- 
can, 484  ;  from  Capua,  704 
Anthology,  the  Greek,  referred  to, 
369,  380,  619,  631,  640,  641, 
670,  671,  696,  706 
Antigonus  Gonatas,  coin,  531 
Antinous,  portrait  bust,  27 
Antiquities  as  historical  data,  203, 
759 


I  Antisthenes,  bust,  10 

I  Antonia,  silver  statuette,  596  ;  on 

a  gem,  630 
j  Antoninus  Pius,  busts,  29,  30 
I  Apelles,  702 

I  Aphrodite  :  types  of,  in  ancient  art 

and  literature,  43,  374,  437 
representations  of,  in  the  Museum : 

of  Praxiteles,  Graeco  -  Roman 

statues  derived  from,  43,  74  ; 

the  "  Townley  Venus,"  48 
adjusting    her   sandal  (Graeco- 

Roman  torso),  73  ;  (Etruscan 

bronze),  472 
Anadyomene  (terra  -  cotta)  702, 

(mosaic),  82 
Euploia  (statuette  from  Cyrene), 

137  ;  (bronzes),  438,  439 
Pandemos  (bronze),  438 ;  "  Venus 

Pudica  "    (bronze  statuettes), 

438 

riding  on  a  swan  (vases),  373, 

413  ;  (terra-cotta  relief),  556  ; 

(gem),  626 
bronze     statuette,  (Pourtales), 

436  ;    (on  a  silver  disk  from 

Tarentum),  597 
statue  (restored  by  Nollekens), 

60  ;  torso,  61 
heads     of :      (formerly  called 

Dione),  52  ;  (Pourtales),  228  ; 

(with  traces  of  colour),  146  ; 

(bronze),  425 
Apollo  :  types  of,   in  ancient  art, 

45 

representations  of,  in  the  Museum: 
archaic  statues,  so  called,  115, 
116,118;  "  Choiseul-Goufher," 
119;  "Apollo  of  Miletus" 
(bronze  statuette),  429  ;  colos- 
sal statue  at  Delos  (fragment 
of  foot),  118  ;  bronze  statue 
from  Egypt,  424 ;  bronze 
statuette  (Anglo- Roman),  730  ; 
Graeco  -  Roman  :  ' '  Citharce- 
dus "  (from  Cyrene),  44; 
Pourtales  head,  51  ;  head  from 
Baths  of  Caracalla,  51  ;  from 
Capua,    51  ;    on  coins,  514, 

515.  519 
votive  offering  to  (bas-relief),  57 
and  Victory  (bas-relief),  65 


INDEX 


769 


Apotheosis  of  Homer  (bas-relief), 
66 

Archaic  art,  characteristics  of,  Ch. 
vii. ,  691 

Archaistic  style,  in  sculpture,  61  ; 

on  vases,  304 
Archemorus,  death  of  (vase),  358 
Archer,  bronze  statuette  of  an  (found 

in  Cheapside),  729 
Ares  and    Hephaestus  (burlesque, 

vase),  418 
Arethusa  on  Syracusan  coins,  511, 

521,  522 

Argonauts  (terra-cotta  reliefs),  555 
Argos,  coins  of,  517 
Ariadne,  statue,  9 
Ariarethes,  223 

Aristophanes  referred  to,  345,  359, 
367,  418 

Aristotle  referred  to,  494  n.,  499, 

502.  5°3 
Armed  runner,  head  of,  134 
Armour,  450,  454.  See  also  Cuirass, 

Greaves,  Helmet 
Arnold,  Matthew,  referred  to,  46, 

72,  343,  757 
Arnold,  W.  T.,  cited/717 
Arrephoroi,  196 

Artemisia,   209  ;   colossal  statue, 
212 

Artis,    W. ,     on    Anglo  -  Roman 

pottery,  741 
Arts  and  crafts,  448,  470,  763 
Aryballos  (shape  of  vase),  278 
Ashanti  gold  ornaments,  588 
Askos  (shape  of  vase),  279,  406 
Ass  as  water-carrier  (vase),  387 
Assteas  (vase  painter),  412 
Assyrian  influence  on  Greek  art, 

289,  297,  300,  301,  325,  686; 

on  Etruscan,  484 
Astragali,    game    of,     58,    673  ; 

(marbles),    girl   playing,  58  ; 

group,  58  ;  (terra-cotta),  714. 

See  also  Knucklebones 
Athena  :  birth  of,  legend,  158  ;  on 

the  E.  pediment  of  Parthenon, 

158  ;    on    vases,    320,    329  ; 

strife  of,   with    Poseidon,  on 

W.   pediment  of  Parthenon, 

165 

on    the   pediments   of  ^Egina, 


no  ;  on  vases,  325,  332,  360, 
391  ;  vase  moulded  in  the 
form  of  (Phidian  type),  410  ; 
on  coins,  501,  532 
Athena:  Hygieia  (bronze  statuette), 
43o 

Lemnia,  type  of  (terra-cotta),  688 
Parthenos,  statuettes,  188  ;  type 
of,  on  a  vase,  389  ;  bronze 
statuette,  430 
Promachos,     type    of  (bronze 

statuette),  430 
and  Poseidon  (on  terra-cottas), 

709,  711 
See  also  Minerva 

Athenaeum  Club,  frieze,  174  n. 

Athenaeus,  referred  to,  98,  266, 
299,  710 

Athenian  lekythi,  367 

Athens:  coins  of,  501,  508,  532, 
537  ;  characteristics,  506  ; 
reason  for  conservatism  in,  507 
expedition  to  Potidaea,  6  ;  finan- 
cial, political,  and  religious 
inscriptions,  6,  '7.  See  also 
Parthenon,  Erechtheum,  etc. 

Athletes  :  sculpture  (Westmacott 
coll.),  38  ;  incised  bronze 
disk,  435  ;  at  bath  (vase),  384. 
See  also  Pentathlon 

Atlas  and  Hercules  (metope  of 
Olympia),  114 

Attic  reliefs  (casts),  117 

Atys  (marble  head),  70 

Augustus  :  busts,  21,  22  ;  on  coins, 
540,  542 ;  on  a  sardonyx 
(Strozzi  cameo),  645  ;  on 
another  cameo,  650 

Auldjo  vase,  658 

Aulus  (name  on  gem),  625 

Authority  and  ArchcBology  cited, 
xvi,  9,  303 

Bacchanalian  Rout  (relief),  62 
Bacchante  Chimairophonos  (relief), 
54 

Bacchante,  marble  head,  62  ;  on 

a  gem,  622 
Bacchic  scenes  (terra-cotta  relief), 

•556  \ 

Bacchic  vases  (marble),  9,  11,  13 
Bacchus  and  Ambrosia  (statue),  58 


3 


D 


77o 


INDEX 


Bacchus  and  Silenus  (painting  from 
Bosco  Reale),  594 

Bacchus  (statue  from  Cyrene),  77 

Bacchus  (youthful  head  of),  228 

Bacchus.    See  Dionysus 

Backgammon  (Etruscan  mirror  de- 
sign), 483 

Bactria :  coins  of,  530,  536,  539, 
544  ;  gold  ornaments,  600 

Bale  vase  (Pandora,  polychrome 
kylix),  372 

Ball,  game  of  mounted,  327,  397, 
702 

Balsamaria  (Etruscan),  471 

Bank  of  England,  Roman  pave- 
ment from,  721 

Banquet  scenes,  Greek  (on  sepul- 
chral reliefs),  242  ;  (on  vases), 
34C  357.  365>  383  ;  Etruscan 
(paintings),  465,  468;  sepul- 
chral significance  of,  468 

Barbarian,  head  of,  65  ;  colossal 
head  of,  70  ;  bronze  figure  of 
(found  in  the  Thames),  731 

Baring-Gould  on  portraits  of  the 
Cassars,  20,  21 

Bartlow  Hills,  enamelled  vase  found 
in,  738 

Bassae,  temple  of  Apollo  at,  230. 
See  also  Phigalia 

Bath-chair  (marble),  74 

Beaconsfield,  Earl  of,  289 

"Beauty  and  the  Beast"  (terra- 
cotta figurine),  695 

Bee  in  Greek  mythology,  561  ;  on 
a  vase,  326  ;  a  bee  in  gold 
from  Crete,  560  ;  on  coins  of 
Ephesus,  505 

Bellerophon  and  Chimaera :  on  a 
Lycian  tomb,  224  ;  on  vases, 
334  ;  terra-cotta  relief,  691 

Bells,  763 

Bent,  J.  Theodore,  cited,  283 
Bezel,  589  n. 

Bible,  referred  to,  5,  8,  128,  290, 
334  n,  548,  550,   560,  612, 
632 
coins,  544 
Bienkowski,  P.,  cited,  694 
Biliotti,  Sir  Alfred,  311,  361,  566 
Billing,  Dr.  A.,  his  Science  of  Gems, 
630 


Biomorph,  293 
Bisellium,  449 
Bithynia,  coins  of,  539 
Blacas  collection,  purchase  of,  649, 
663 

Black-figure  vases,  Ch.  xviii. 
Boat,  model  of  a,  in  gold  (Celtic), 
S83 

Boats,  representations  of,  on  vases, 

298,    330,    337  ;  terra-cotta 

models,  708 
Boehm,  Sir  Edgar,  R.A. ,  on  the 

Elgin  Marbles,  153 
Boeotian  vases,  297 
Bolivia,  silver  ornaments  from,  588 
Bonaparte,  Prince  Lucien,  280,  475 
Boreas  and  Oreithyia  (bronze relief), 

445 

Bosco  Reale,  paintings  from,  553 
Botticelli,  702 

Boustrophedon  manner  of  writing, 
2,  4 

Bowl,    in  bronze,   with   relief  of 

Scylla,  440 
Boxing  scenes  on  vases,  380,  396, 

400 

Boy  and  goose  (silver  statuette), 

598 

Boy  playing  morra  (bronze),  439 
Branchidae,    sculptures    from  the 

Sacred  Way,  86,  93-95 
Branteghem,   A.  von,  vases  from 

his  collection,  358 
British  Museum,   account  of  the 

formation  of  Greek  and  Roman 

collections,  xviii 
Brondsted  and  the  bronzes  of  Siris, 

443 

Bronzes  (Ch.  xxi. ):  primitive  method 
of  making  bronze  statues,  422, 
476  ;  invention  of  hollow  cast- 
ing, 423  ;  popularity  of  bronze 
statues,  423  ;  why  few  have 
survived,  423  ;  patina,  427 ; 
forgeries,  427  n. ;  notable 
statues  (or  fragments)  de- 
scribed— leg  of  a  statue,  424  ; 
head  of  Aphrodite,  425  ;  head 
of  Sleep,  423  ;  head  of  a  poet, 
433  ;  Anglo-Roman,  727 
popularity  of  statuettes,  428  : 
notable  statuettes  described  ; 


INDEX 


771 


figure  of  a  youth  (from 
Lake  of  Bracciano) ,  444 ; 
"Minerva"  (with  diamond 
eyes),  429;  "Apollo  of  Mile- 
tus," 429  ;  Athena  Parthenos, 
Promachos,  and  Hygieia,  430 ; 
Marsyas,  431 ;  bronzes  of 
Paramythia,  436  ;  Graeco- 
Roman,  437  ;  Gallo- Roman, 
435»  729  I  Etruscan,  471  ; 
Anglo-Roman,  729 

Bronzes  :  sculpture  in  relief,  441 ; 
early  specimens,  453;  methods 
and  use,  442;  the  bronzes  of 
Siris,  443  ;  Boreas  and  Orei- 
thyia,  445 
animals  in  bronze,  454,  731 ; 
armour,  450,  454,  729  ;  bi- 
sellium,  449 ;  candelabra,  449, 
470  ;  disks,  446  ;  fibulae,  453, 
(Anglo- Roman),  762  ;  figure- 
head of  an  ancient  galley,  449  ; 
model,  745  ;  inscriptions,  434, 
455  ;  instruments,  452,  751 ; 
lamps,  448  ;  mirrors  and 
mirror-cases,  431,  445,  447, 
(Etruscan),  480,  (Anglo-Ro- 
man, 750  ;  miscellaneous  ob- 
jects, 470 ;  ornaments,  453, 
(Anglo -Roman)  744,  755; 
rings  and  seals,  454 ;  stop- 
cocks, etc.,  449  ;  utensils,  479, 
750  ;  toys,  448  ;  vases,  447, 
451  (Anglo-Roman),  738 

Brooches,    enamelled    (Anglo- Ro- 
man), 749 

Brunn,  on  the  Demeter  of  Cnidus, 
124 

Brutus,  bust  of,  21;  on  a  gem,  629 
Brygos  (vase  painter),  365 
"  Bucchero  nero,"  299  ;  Etruscan, 
471 

Buddhist  relic  casket,  661 
Budrum,   modern  name  of  Hali- 

carnassus,  g.v. 
Buffum,  W.  A.,  on  amber  as  a 

gem,  568 
Bulla,  581 

Bulls  :  marble,  from  Phigalia,  244  ; 

rivers  personified  as,  316  ;  on 

coins,  499 
Bull-fight  (relief),  82 


Burgon,  T. ,  330 

Burial,  Greek  practices  of,  368 

Burton,  Sir  F.  W. ,  on  bronze  head 

of  Aphrodite,  425 
Byron,  Lord,  and  the  excavations 

at  ^Egina,  108  ;  on  the  Elgin 

Marbles,  151 
Byzantine  jewellery,   608  ;  rings, 

603 

Cabiri,  335 

Cabochon,  574 

Caeneus,  198,  234 

Caeretan  vases,  337 

Calamis  (sculptor),  characteristics 

of,  39,  120,  135 
Calenian  dishes,  407 
Caligula,  statue  on  horseback,  14  ; 

bust,  23 
"  Callias  "  vase,  320 
Callimachus  (sculptor),  120 
Callirrhoe,  346 
Calpis  (shape  of  vase),  276 
Camarina,  coins  of,  509 
Cameo  glass,  654 
Cameos  :  meaning   of  the  term, 

642  ;  oldest  examples  of,  643  ; 

artistic    characteristics,    643  ; 

how   made,    644 ;  mediaeval 

and     modern  distinguished, 

645  ;  notable  cameos  de- 
scribed :   Marlborough  gems, 

646  ;  Strozzi  Augustus,  645  ; 
Medusa,  648  ;  Carlisle  gems, 
649  ;  other  cameos,  650,  651  ; 
motto  cameos,  651  ;  mediaeval 
cameos,  660,  663,  669 

Camera  del  Morto,  paintings  from, 
467 

Camirus,   vases  from,   302,   361  ; 

sarcophagus,  311 
"  Campanari  Tomb,"  80 
Canachus  (sculptor),  39,  429 
Candelabra  (bronze),  449  ;  Etrus- 
can, 470 

Canephora  (Graeco- Roman  sculp- 
ture), 41 

Canova  on  the  Elgin  Marbles,  152 
Cantharos  (shape  of  vase),  278 
Capital   with   winged   bulls  from 

Cyprus,  135 
Caracalla,  bust,  33 


772 


INDEX 


Carlisle  gems,  649 

Carneades,  bust,  10 

Carrey,  Jacques,  drawings  of  the 
Parthenon,  157 

Carthage,  coins  of,  522,  528,  534, 
538  ;  mosaics  from,  252 

Caryatid  of  the  Erechtheum,  195  ; 
use  of  such  figures  in  archi- 
tecture, 196  ;  origin  of,  196 

Castellani,  Alessandro,  antiquities 
from  his  collection,  357,  426, 
429,  444 

Castellani,  Augusto,  on  Etruscan 
jewellery,  570 

Catana,  coins  of,  503,  519 

Catullus,  referred  to,  531,  674 

Caves  in  Britain,  Roman  antiquities 
from,  764 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  quoted,  570, 
615 

Celtic  art,  geometrical  and  abstract 
character  of,  580,  583 

Celtic  gold  ornaments  :  romance  of, 
579,  581  ;  gold  bracelets  from 
Clare,  580  ;  ring-money,  581  : 
breastplate  for  a  horse  from 
Flintshire,  581  ;  Limavady 
find,  582 

Centaurs  :  treatment  of,  in  Greek 
art,  172  ;  on  a  relief  (Graeco- 
Roman),  69 

Centaurs  and  Lapiths,  legend,  170; 
on  metopes  of  the  Parthenon, 
171  ;  cf.  a  gem,  620 ;  on  a 
gold  diadem,  574 

Cephissus,  on  W.  pediment  of 
Parthenon,  165 

Ceres  (with  attributes  of  Isis),  57 

Cerntis,  299 

Certificates  of  discharge  of  Roman 

soldiers  in  Britain,  758 
Cesati,  Alessandro  (gem  engraver), 

626,  668 
Chairs,  ancient,  95  ;  in  the  Theatre 

of  Dionysus  at  Athens  (casts), 

191 

Chalcidian  League  coins,  515 
Chalcidian  vases,  327,  341 
Channel  Squadron,  745 
Chaourse,  silver  treasure  of,  594 
Chares,  statue  of,  from  Branchidce, 
93 


Chariot,  representation  of,  in 
Greek  art,  512 ;  on  a  metope  of 
Selinus,  93 

Chariot  group,  fragment  of  a  relief 
(Pourtales),  83  ;  from  Civita 
Lavinia,  139  ;  from  the  Mau- 
soleum, 212 

Chariot  race  (terra  -  cotta  relief, 
Roman),  554  ;  on  vases,  405  ; 
coins,  552;  on  an  Anglo 
Roman  glass,  735 

Charioteer  from  Delphi  (cast),  116 

Charm  rings,  604 

Charms,  577  ;  from  Petelia,  577  ; 
Sybaris,  578 

Charon  :  belief  in,  708  ;  on  Greek 
funereal  vases,  370  ;  Charon's 
coin  found  in  a  terra-cotta 
vase,  708 

Charun  (Etruscan),  81  ;  painted 
head,  76 

Chests,  Etruscan  bronze,  470,  478 

Children  in  Greek  art,  68,  672 

Chimaera  tomb,  224 

Chiron,  on  vases,  336,  343  ;  bur- 
lesque, 419 

Choiseul  -  Gouffier,  Due  de,  150, 
169  ;  his  Apollo,  119 

Choragic  monument  of  L^sicrates, 
199 

Choric  games  (vase),  336 

Christian  art,  analogies  in  classical  : 
attitude  of  Benediction,  440 ; 
the  Deposition,  370  ;  the 
Good  Shepherd,  98  ;  Mother 
and  Child,  97,  672  ;  the  Pieta, 
369 ;  Pomegranate,  125  n. 
See  also  193,  592 

Christianity  and  Pagan  survivals, 
370,  708,  710,  712.  See  also 
Mithras 

Christianity  in  Roman  Britain,  760, 
764 

Cicero,  referred  to,  35,  240,  429, 
542,  631 

Cimon  (coin  engraver),  513,  520, 
S2i 

Cinyras  (Cyprian  king),  261,  708 
Cippi,  7 

Ciste  mis  tic  he,  478 
Cistophori  (coins),  535,  539 
Cists,  733 


INDEX 


773 


Citharist,  a  victorious  (vase),  379 
Cities,    personification    of,  silver 

statuettes,  596,  597  ;  cf.  728  n. 
Claudia  Olympias  (bust),  32 
Claudian,  referred  to,  268 
Claudius,   bust,  24 ;   cameo  from 

the    Marlborough  collection, 

647 

Clazomenae,  coins  of,  514  ;  sarco- 
phagus from,  307 

Cleopatra,  bust,  12  ;  on  coins,  539 

4 '  Clytie,"  bust,  70 

Cnidus,  discovery  of  precinct  of 
Demeter,  121  ;  lion  from,  226; 
curses,  547 

Cochleare,  750 

Cockerel]  ,  C.  R. ,  R.A. ,  211,  231, 
233 ;  excavations  at  ^Egina, 
108 

Coiners,  equipment  of  Roman 
(found  in  Britain),  737 

Coins  (Ch.  xxiii.)  :  their  value  as 
monuments,  488,  521  ;  metals 
used  for,  490  ;  how  struck, 

490  ;  ancient  coin  standards, 

491  ;  artistic  qualities,  493, 
510,  514,  515,  520;  import- 
ance in  the  history  of  art,  489, 
494  ;  coin  types,  theories  and 
classification  of,  494  ;  obverse 
and  reverse,  496 ;  shape  of, 
497  ;  portraiture  on,  523,  525  ; 
reminiscences  of  statues,  516, 
517,  526,  532 

arrangement  of  the  electro- 
type collection,  496  ;  Archaic 
period ,  characteristics,  496-498 ; 
coins  described,  498  -  504  ; 
Transitional  period,  char- 
acteristics, 505,  510;  coins 
described,  510-512;  Finest  Art, 
characteristics,  512,  515,  519, 
520  ;  coins  described,  513-523; 
Later  Fine  Art,  characteristics, 

523  -  524  ;    coins  described, 

524  -  528  ;  Decline  of  Art, 
characteristics,  528-529  ;  coins 
described,  529-534  ;  continued 
Decline  of  Art,  characteristics, 
534-535  :  coins  described,  535- 
538  ;  Late  Decline  of  Art, 
characteristics,  538-539  ;  coins 


described,    539  -  542  ;  Greek 

Portraiture,   542-544 ;  Jewish 

coins,  544 
Collectors'  stories,  444,  474,  616, 

648,  649 
Collignon,  M. ,  cited,  442 
Collyria,  752 

Colour  on  ancient  sculpture,  107  ; 

on  Mausoleum  frieze,  131 
Columnce  ccelatce,  131 
Columnce  rostralce,  745 
Colvin,  Sidney,  cited,  344 
Combe,  T. ,  on  ancient  terra-cottas, 

555 

Combs,  Anglo- Roman,  752 
Comic  drama  illustrated  in  vases, 

418  ;  terra-cottas,  709 
Commodus,  bust,  32 
Composition  in  Greek  sculpture,  168 
Console  (marble),  79 
Corinna,  terra-cotta  figurine,  696 
Corinthian  order  of  architecture, 

i57»  199 

Corinthian  vases,  297,  300,  338, 
34o 

"Cosy    chat,"     a,  terra-cotta 

figurine,  674,  697 
Cottabos,  the  game  described,  420; 

representations  on  vases,  383, 

388,  415,  419,  449  ;  a  cottabos 

stand,  449 
Cow  drinking,  relief,  80  ;  type  on 

coins,  508,  517 
Crater  (shape  of  vase),  277 
Crawford,  F.  Marion,  cited,  372  n, 

533 

Cresilas  (sculptor),  51  ;  armed 
runner,  134 

Crete,  coins  of,  501,  537  ;  My- 
cenaean gold  ornaments  from, 
560 

Crispina,  bust,  32 

Croesus,  106  ;  coins  of,  499 

Croton,  coin  of,  519 

Crystallinum,  735 

Cuerdale,  silver  hoard  from,  587 

Cuirasses,  450 

Cupid  (marbles),  asleep,  68  ;  asleep 
with  attributes  of  Hercules, 
73  ;  bending  a  bow,  71,  72  ; 
on  a  dolphin  (green  basalt),  58. 
See  also  Eros 


774 


INDEX 


Cups  :  specimens  of  costly,  657  ;  a 
leaden  cup  with  reliefs  (Blacas 
collection),  546 

Curetes,  555 

Curium,   vases  from,  305  ;  curses 

from,  548 
Curses   (imprecationes)  on  leaden 

tablets    from    Cnidus,    547  ; 

from  Curium,  548 
Cyprian  king,  half-length  figure, 

264 

Cyprus :  early  history  of,  258  ; 
mixture  of  races,  258  ;  foreign 
influences  on  its  art,  261  ;  ex- 
cavations in,  259,  288;  the 
Cyprian  type  in  art,  264, 
266 

antiquities  from,  in  the 
Museum,  summary  of,  262  ; 
sculptui'e  (Ch.  xv.),  material  of , 
262  ;  archaic  figures,  265  ; 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian,  265  ; 
Greek  style,  267  ;  votive  statues 
and  sepulchral  monuments, 
267;  terra- cottas  from, 686-688; 
vases  from,  260,  305  ;  ivories 
from,  565  ;  gold  ornaments, 
see  under  ' 1  Enkomi ' ' 

See  also  Amathus,  Curium, 
Larnaca 

Cyrenaica,  vases  from,  338,  386, 
389  ;  terra-cottas,  699 

Cyrene,  the  Nymph  (marble),  139 ; 
vase,  338  ;  strangling  a  lion 
(relief  and  statue),  78  ;  legend 
of,  78  ;  male  head  from, 
136  ;  bronze,  432  ;  coins  of, 
522 

Cyzicus,  coins  of,  meaning  of  the 
tunny-fish  on,  498  ;  coins  of, 
498,  5°5>  5*3 

Dacian    prisoners    (marble),    70  ; 

(terra-cotta  reliefs),  554,  555 
Dsedalus  and  Icarus  (painting  from 

_  Pompeii),  593 
Dali,  bronze  tablet  of,  260.  See 

also  Idalium 
Danae  (vase),  386 
Dance  (relief),  95 
Dancing-girls,  terra-cotta  figurines, 

694 


Dannecker  on  the  Elgin  Marbles, 
168 

Daphnae  (Egypt),  vases  from,  333 
Daphne  (Greece),  columns  from,  137 
Daric  (Persian  gold  coin),  499 
Davenport,  Cyril,  on  cameos,  644, 

646,  654 
Davis,    Nathan,    excavations  at 

Carthage,  252 
Days  of  the  week  personified,  597, 

744 

Deae  Matres,  vessels  dedicated  to, 
668,  746 

Decade  rings,  606 

Defenneh.     See  Daphnae 

Dejixiones,  546 

Delphi,  charioteer  from,  116 

Demaretion  of  Syracuse  (coin),  511 

Demeter,  myth  of,  121 ;  represen- 
tations of:  standing  statue, 
11,  122  ;  seated  (the  Demeter 
of  Cnidus),   124  ;    on  coins, 

Demetrius    Poliorcetes,    coins  of, 

525  ;  on  a  gem,  629 
Demosthenes,  busts,  10,  13  ;  re- 
ferred to,  245 
Dennis,  George,  his  excavations  of 
vases,  386,  398;  of  terra-cottas, 
700  ;  on  Etruscan  antiquities, 
75,  81,  460,  461,  467,  469, 
474,  476,  481 
Deposition  in  the  tomb,  on  Greek 

funereal  vases,  370 
Diadems  of  gold,  573,  574,  576 
Diadumenus,  motive  of  the  figure, 
39  ;  the  Vaison  Diadumenus, 
38  ;  Farnese,  40  ;  head,  40 
Diamond  eyes,  429 
Diana,  types  of,  in  ancient  art,  46  ; 
statue  (from  Rome),  46  ;  so- 
called    head    of   Diana,   47  ; 
bust,  60  ;  archaistic  statue,  62 
Diana  (Ephesian),  terra-cotta,  699 
Dicsearchus,  referred  to,  677,  696 
Diehl,  C. ,  cited,  114,  672,  684,  706 
Dinocrates  (architect),  130 
Dio  Chrysostom,  referred  to,  155 
Diodorus,  referred  to,  511,  578 
Diogenes,  bust,  13 
Diomedes,  heroic  head,  52 
Dionysius,  referred  to,  460,  728 


INDEX 


775 


Dionysus  :  types  of,  in  ancient  art, 
41  ;  statue  (Castellani),  41  ; 
statue  (from  Athens),  140  ; 
archaistic  heads,  61,  62  ; 
Dendrites  (vase),  335  ;  on  a 
camel  (vase),  385  ;  in  a  cradle 
(terra-cotta  relief),  556  ;  in  a 
ship  (vase),  336 

and  Icarius  (relief),  52  ;  (terra- 
cotta relief),  556  ;  (vase),  326 

and  Tyrrhenian  pirates,  story  of, 
199  ;  on  the  monument  of 
Ly  si  crates,  200 

and  Semele  (vase),  413 

and  Silenus  (on  coin  of  Naxus), 
510;  (humorous  terra-cotta), 
673 

Dioscorides,  gems  signed  by,  626, 
629 

Dioscuri  (vase),  343  ;  (coin)  537 

Dipylon  pottery,  292,  295 

Discobolus,  motive  of  the  figure, 
49  ;  copy  of  Myron's,  49  ; 
statue  of,  in  attitude  preceding- 
Myron's,  69  ;  (coin),  641 

Disks,  marble,  83 

Divination  from  birds,  3 

Dog  in  Greek  art,  103,  381 

Dolls,  707 

Dolphin  of  Tarentum  (coin),  502 
Domestic  scenes  (vases),  388,  391 
Domitia  Longina,  bust,  25 
Doric  order  of  architecture,  157,  195 
Drapery  in  Greek  sculpture,  205  ; 

in  Christian,  206 
Draught-board,  Roman,  7  ;  ivory, 

566  ;  vase,  324 
Drinking- vessels  ( Franks  collection ) , 

600 

Drusus  (son  of  Tiberius),  busts,  22 
Durden  collection    (Anglo- Roman 

antiquities),  761 
Duris  (vase  painter),  363 
Durobrivian  ware,  741 

Eagles  of  Agrigentum  (coin),  509 
Ear-rings,  563,  574  ;  on  coins,  517 
Eastlake,  Sir  C.  L. ,  cited,  170,  493 
Echetlus  at    Marathon  (Etruscan 

sepulchral  chest),  486 
Economy  in  sepulchral  jewellery, 

etc.,  451,  572,  576,  602,  681 


Education  of  boys,  illustrated  from 
Greek  terra-cottas,  673  ;  of 
girls,  674,  706 

Egg  and  tongue  pattern,  197 

Eggs  found  in  tombs,  symbolical 
meaning  of,  477,  550 

Egg-spoons,  old  superstitions  con- 
nected with,  751 

Egypt,  coins  of,  530 

Egypt,  influence  on  Greek  art,  94, 
289,  560,  564 ;  on  Roman 
art,  57,  64,  556 

Egyptian  pectoral  from  Enkomi, 
564 

Elgin,  Earl  of  (7th),  xix  ;  British 
ambassador  to  the  Porte,  148  ; 
firman  from  the  Sultan,  149  ; 
removes  the  Elgin  Marbles, 
150,  177  ;  offers  them  to  the 
nation,  152 

Elgin  Marbles  (Ch.  x.),  147  ;  unique 
value  of,  148  ;  story  of  their 
removal,  148  ;  suggested  re- 
turn of,  153  n. ,  187  n. 

Elis,  coins  of,  507 

Elworthy,  F.  T. ,  referred  to,  311 

Empedocles,  510 

Emperor  and  empress,  cameo  from 
Marlborough  collection,  646 

Enamelled  gold  cup  of  the  kings  of 
England  and  "France,  664 

Enamelling  :  meaning  of  the  term, 
747  ;  possible  British  origin  of 
the  art,  748  ;  slight  traces  on 
early  Greek  jewellery,  573  ; 
cloisomid  and  champleve',  748 
n. ;  translucent,  664 ;  enamelled 
objects  in  Anglo-Roman  collec- 
tion, 738,  747-749 

Encaustic  painting,  materials  used 
in,  551 

Endymion,  marble,  72 

Engraved  gems  (Ch.  xxvi.):  artistic 
character  of,  613  ;  incidental 
interest  of,  614  ;  works  of 
sculpture  represented  on,  614  ; 
collections  of,  in  ancient  and 
mediaeval  times,  615  ;  evolu- 
tion of  the  art  of  gem-engrav- 
ing, 632-634  ;  revival  of  the 
art,  659.  See  also  Intaglios 
and  Cameos 


776 


INDEX 


Enkomi,     Mycenaean     antiquities  ' 
from  :    pottery,    287  ;  glazed 
ware,  290  ;  bronzes,  290  ;  gold 
ornaments,  561;  ivories,  565 

Entaphia,  369 

Epkedrismas,  702 

Ephesus  (Ch.  ix. )  :  story  of  dis- 
coveries at,  51,  128  ;  the  ar- 
chaic temple,  105  ;  the  second 
temple,  130;  rebuilding  under 
Augustus,  5  ;  inscriptions  1 
from,  3,  5  ;  coins  of,  505,  ! 
525 

Epic  stage  in  art,  354 
Epictetus  (vase  painter),  356 
Epicurus,  bust,  12  ;  on  a  gem,  631 
Epirus,  coins  of,  537 
Erato  (marble  statuette),  70 
Erechtheum,  sculptures  from,  194  ; 

inscribed  report  on,  6 
Eretria,  terra-cotta  statuettes  from, 

693 

Erichthonius,  birth  of  (vase),  357, 
388 

Eros  :  types  of,  in  ancient  art,  71  ; 
Castellani,  136  ;  head  of.  from 
Paphos,  68  ;  so-called,  in  the 
Elgin  collection,  194  ;  terra- 
cottas, 694 

Eros  and  Aphrodite  (vase),  386, 
(gems),  640 

Eros  and  a  hare  (vase),  356 

Eros  and  Psyche  (gems),  626,  641,  j 
(terra-cottas),  698 

Eteocles  and  Polynices  (Etruscan 
sepulchral  chest),  486 

Ethelswith,  ring  of,  603 

Ethel wulf,  gold  ring  of,  666 

Etruria  (  Ch.  xxii. )  :  history  and 
origin  of  Etruscans,  457,  460  ; 
characteristics  of  Etruscan  art,  j 
458,  461,  463,  473,  481,  571; 
influence  of,  458,  463  ;  love  of 
jeweller}',  464  ;  luxury  of,  465  ; 
position  of  women,  466 

Etruscan  antiquities  :  architectural  I 
terra-cottas,    486  ;  bronzes, 
primitive,  475  ;  bronze  statu- 
ettes, 471;  later  bronzes,  478  ; 
chests,  478  ;  candelabra,  470  ;  ! 
coins,  517  ;  finger-rings,  590  ;  ' 
gems,  638  ;  minor  arts,  469  ; 


mirrors,  480  ;  jewellery,  early, 
569  ;  minuteness  of,  570  ;  re- 
vival of,  by  Castellani,  571; 
later  style,  576  ;  paintings, 
483  ;  silver-gilt  platings,  595  ; 
vases,  274,  337,  402 

Etruscan  tombs  :  general  charac- 
teristics, 75,  459  ;  copies  of,  in 
Museum  :  Grotta  Dipinta,  75  ; 
Campanari  tomb  at  Vulci,  80  ; 
tomb  paintings  (copies  in  vase 
rooms),  465  ;  terra-cotta  sar- 
cophagus from  Cervetri,  461  ; 
of  Seianti  Thanunia,  464  ; 
sepulchral  chests,  486  ;  stone 
sarcophagi,  77 

Eubcea,  coins  of,  500,  508 

Euphronius  (vase  painter],  363 

Euploia,  137 

Euripides,  busts,  12  ;  referred  to, 
317,  385,  403,  406,  409,  412, 
416,  591,  696,  698 

Europa,  rape  of  (vase  ,  401 

Evasnetus,  (coin  engraver),  509, 
513,  520,  521 

Evans,  A,  J. :  discoveries  in  Crete, 
502  ;  on  Syracusan  medallions, 
520  ;  on  gold  ornaments  from 
^Egina,  560 ;  on  Limavady 
treasure,  583,  586 

Evil  eye,  440 

Exergue,  623 

Ex  votos,  126,  680 

Eyes  inlaid  in  ancient  sculpture, 
136,  227,  427,  429 

Eyes  on  Greek  vases,  329,  341 

Ezekias  (vase-painter ),  348 

P^alerii,  archaic  pottery  from,  484 
Falterona,  Monte,  Etruscan  bronzes 

from,  473 
Family  portraits  (vase),  410 
Fans  (on  terra-cottas ),  676 
Farewell,    scenes   of,    on  Greek 

funereal  vases,  371 
Farnell,  L.  R. ,  cited,  219 
Fates,    on    E.    pediment   of  the 

Parthenon,  162 
Faun  :  Rondonini,  42  :  Macarani, 

60.     See  also  Satyrs 
Faustina  (wife  of  Antoninus  Pius_i. 

bust,  30 


INDEX 


111 


Faustina  (wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius), 

bust,  31  ;  on  a  gem,  631 
FavisscB,  699 

Favourite  names  on  Greek  vases 
discussed,  356,  359 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  his  explora- 
tions at  Xanthus,  99,  201, 
223,  243 

Fenchurch  Street,  Roman  pave- 
ment from,  721 

Fibulae,  bronze  (with  geometrical 
patterns),  295,  298  ;  others, 
453  ;  classification  of,  762  ; 
Anglo- Roman,  762 

Fikellura  ware,  302 

Filigree,  573 

Finger-rings  :  ancient  Egyptian, 
602  ;  from  Enkomi,  563  ; 
Greek,  590,  602  ;  not  repre- 
sented in  Greek  sculpture,  591 ; 
Etruscan  rings,  589  ;  Roman, 
589,  602  ;  early  Christian,  603  ; 
Byzantine,  603  ;  charm  rings, 
604,  666  ;  rings  with  patron- 
saints,  604  ;  magical,  605  ; 
"  giardinetti,"  605;  English 
signets,  605  ;  posy  rings, 
606  ;  decade  rings,  606  ; 
rings  in  niello,  606  ;  Stuart 
rings,  607  ;  mourning,  607  ; 
Papal  investiture,  607  ;  Jewish 
betrothal,  607  ;  ring  of  Ethel - 
wulf,  666 ;  of  Ethelswith,  603  ; 
children's,  765 

Finish  in  art  (even  where  invisible), 
167,  307 

Fishermen,  statues,  76 

Fish  plates  (from  Campania),  414 

Flaxman,  on  the  Elgin  Marbles, 
160,  181  ;  design  for  vase,  379 

Florus,  referred  to,  717 

Flute-player,  painting  from  Rome, 
593 

Flutes  in  wood  and  ivory,  551 
Fly,  on  a  ring  from  Cyprus,  568 
Flying  Eros  (terra-cotta  figure),  694 
Folklore  and  custom,  274,  708 
"  Food  for  the  dead,"  274 
Force-pumps,    parts   of  (Bronze 

Room),  452 
Forgeries  of  antiques  :  bronzes,  427 

n. ;  Etruscan  jewellery,  572  ; 


figurines,   684  ;    gems,  616, 

624  ;  silver,  595  ;  vases,  318  ; 

coins,  737 
Fors   Clavigera,   Etruscan  mirror 

design,  482 
Fortuna  Redux,  altar  dedicated  to 

(from  Chester),  723 
Fortune,  statue,  79 
Franks,  Sir  A.  W. ,  gifts  and  be- 
quest to  the  Museum,   599  ; 

anecdote  of,  738  n.  ;  cited, 

748,  764 
Frazer,    J.   G. ,  cited,   237,  248, 

384,  430,  431,  452,  681 
M  Friends  of  the  British  Museum," 

731;  cf.  665,  668 
Frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  173-188 
Froude,  J.  A.,  on  portrait  of  Julius 

Caesar,  20 
Fulcra,  449 

Funeral  games,  297,  309 

Funeral  urn,  Roman,  n 

Furtw angler,  A. ,  cited  :  on  bust  of 
Julius  Caesar,  20  n. ;  Diadu- 
menus,  38,  40 ;  Townley 
Venus,  48  ;  Discobolus,  49  ; 
Pourtales  Apollo,  51  ;  Her- 
cules (?  Myron),  56  ;  disk  of 
Niobe,  59  ;  Amazon  (?  Poly- 
clitus),  69  ;  Perseus,  138  ; 
Pericles,  190  ;  Tanagra  figu- 
rines, 695  ;  on  the  British 
Museum,  xix 

Galley,  prow  of  a  Roman  (bronze 
model  found  in  London),  745 

Ganymede,  marble,  65  ;  terra- 
cotta statuette,  692 

Gardner,  Prof.  E. ,  excavations  at 
Naucratis,  95  ;  cited,  20,  63, 
93,  161,  219 

Gardner,  Prof.  P.,  cited,  on  Greek 
sepulchral  monuments,  204, 
212,  240  ;  on  coin  types,  507, 
510,  518,  526,  543;  on  per- 
sonification of  rivers  in  Greek 
art,  317 

Gaulish  bronzes,  435 

Gela,  coins  of,  503 

Gem?nata  poctila,  546 

Germanicus,  Blacas  gem,  650 

Geryon.    See  Hercules 


778 


INDEX 


Giardinetti  finger-rings,  605 

Gibbon,  referred  to,  718  n. 

Gigantomachia  (vase  subject),  325 

Girgenti  :  head  of  Hera  from,  192  ; 
giant  in  Temple  of  Zeus  at, 
196  ;  colossal  heads  from, 
249  ;  Amazon  vase  from,  376  ; 
gold  bowl  from,  567.  See  also 
Agrigentum 

Gladiators  :  from  Ephesus,  134, 
139  ;  certificates  of,  551  ;  on 
Roman  lamps,  711  ;  ivory 
statuette  (Colchester),  732 

Glandular  gems,  634 

Glass :  invention  of,  734 ;  Phoe- 
nician variegated  glass,  305  ; 
Roman  uses  of  glass,  735  ; 
cinerary  vases,  735  ;•  tumbler 
of  colourless  glass,  735  ; 
moulded  glass,  735;  "pillar- 
moulded,"  735  ;  compound 
glass,  736  ;  window  glass,  735 

Glass  rosettes,  287 

Glass  vases,  299 

Glazed  ware  (Roman),  553 

Globular  jewellery,  570,  563 

Gnaios  (name  on  gem),  625 

Gnostics,  603 

Goethe  on  the  Elgin  Marbles,  152, 
164 

Gold  ornaments  (Ch.  xxv. )  :  dis- 
coveries at  Mycenae,  559  ; 
sepulchral  use  of  gold  orna- 
ments, 561,  572;  Mycenaean 
ornaments — from  yEgina,  559  ; 
Rhodes  and  Crete,  560  ;  En- 
komi,  561  ;  Anglo -Roman, 
668  ;  Anglo  -  Saxon,  668  ; 
Ashanti,  588  ;  bar  gold  from 
Kronstadt,  578  ;  Bactrian, 
601  ;  Celtic,  578  ;  Central 
American,  588  ;  Etruscan, 
569,  576  ;  Greek,  572,  576  ; 
Merovingian,  665  ;  Roman, 
576  ;  gold  charms,  577 

Goose,  boy  and,  silver  statuette, 
598 

Gordianus  Africanus,  bust,  34 
Gorgons  in  Greek  art,   323  ;  on 
vases,   323  ;    on    coins,  500, 
502  ;   on  an  Etruscan  chest, 
471 


Graeco- Asiatic  pottery,  304  ;  other 
antiquities,  305 

Graeco  -  Roman  sculpture,  history 
and  characteristics,  35  ;  gems, 
621,  640  ;  terra-cottas,  702 

Gray,  Mrs.  Hamilton,  on  Etruscan 
tombs,  466,  467,  771 

Greaves  (bronze),  424,  451  ;  from 
Enkomi,  290 

Greek  art,  general  characteristics, 
86 ;  adaptation  of  means  to 
material,  170,  494,  618  ; 
economy  of  method,  682  ; 
"dappled,"  314;  naturalism 
and  idealism,  180,  518  ;  no 
dramatic  strain,  519  ;  no  mys- 
ticism, 519  ;  no  love  of  the 
terrible,  323  ;  reserve,  .238  ; 
typical,  not  individual,  109, 
171,  244,  496;  "shorthand," 
504  ;  smallness  of  scale,  393, 
613  ;  want  of  expression,  513 

Greek  fret,  293 

Greek  gems,  Ch.  xxvi. 

Greek  gold  rings,  590,  602 

Greek  jewellery,  Ch.  xxv. ;  charac- 
teristics, 573 

Greek  law,  with  regard  to  antiqui- 
ties, 559  n. 

Greek  mirrors,  bronze,  artistic  value, 
442  ;  classification  of,  442, 
445 

Greek  sculpture  :  development  of, 
91  ;  general  characteris- 
tics, xii,  86  ;  characteristics  of 
archaic  style,  91 

Greyhounds  (marble  group),  13 

Grotesque,  in  figurines,  672,  690, 
709.     See  also  Humour 

Grotta  delle  Bighe,  paintings  from, 
467 

Grotta   delle   Iscrizione,  paintings 

from,  466 
Grotta  del  Triclinio,  paintings  from, 

465 

Grotta  Dipinta,  75 

"Grotta  d'Iside."    See  Polledrara 

tomb 
Gryphon,  337 
Guilloche,  638 
Gyges,  604 

Gypsum,  ornaments  in,  553 


INDEX 


779 


Haddon,  A.  C,  Evolution  in  Art, 
293  n. 

Hadrian,  full-length  military  statue, 
11  ;  busts,  26  ;  statue  from 
Cyrene,  29  ;  character  of,  26  ; 
bronze  head  (London),  727  ; 
bronze  statuette  (Winchester), 
73i 

Hair,  dedication  of,  194 

Hair,  treatment  of,  in  Greek  sculp- 
ture, 91  ;  fashions  in,  676 

Hairpin,  gold,  from  Cyprus,  575 

Halicarnassus,  inscription  from,  3  ; 
Mausoleum,  Ch.  xii.  ;  terra- 
cottas from,  698 

Halteres,  549 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  90,  279, 
-656 

Hare,  on  coin  of  Messina,  510 
Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  (vase), 
405 

Harpies,  in  Greek  Art,  102 
Harpocrates,  silver  statuette  (found 

in  the  Thames),  732 
Harpy  tomb,  from  Xanthus,  101 
Harrison,  Miss  Jane,  cited,  92,  238 

n.,  246  n.t  325,  336,  373,  378, 

380,  382,  384,  414 
Hats,  676 

Haverfield,  F. ,  cited,  xvi,  745,  760 
Haydon,  B.  R. ,  on  Elgin  Marbles, 

147,  151,  164 ;  on  Phigalian 

marbles,  233 
Hazlitt,  on  Elgin  Marbles,  166 
Head,    B.   V.,   on    coins   of  the 

ancients,  510,  511,  535 
Hecate  Triformis,  statue,  57 
Hector  and   Andromache  (vase), 

Hector,     Menelaus,  Euphorbus 

(vase),  302 
Hecuba  (vase),  416 
Hegeso,  sepulchral  monument  of, 

240 

Heios  (name  on  gem),  626 
Heliodorus,  the  Aithiopica  cited, 

178,  183,  187 
Helios,    pediment    of  Parthenon, 

159 

Hellenistic   School    of  Sculpture, 

characteristics,  52,  63 
Helmets  :  types  of,  450  ;  a  helmet 


dedicated  to  Zeus,  450  ;  Etrus- 
can, battle  of  Cumae,  459  ; 
Anglo -Roman,  from  Rib- 
chester,  727  ;  other  helmets 
found  in  Britain,  729 

Hephaestus,  forge  of  (vase),  347  ; 
return  to  heaven  (vase),  341 

Hera,  coin,  517 ;  head  of,  from 
Girgenti,  192 

Heraclea,  coins  of,  518,  527 

Heracles.    See  Hercules 

Hercules :  types  of,  in  ancient 
sculpture,  55  ;  youthful  head 
(Barberini),  55  ;  the  same 
(from  Genzano),  56  ;  in 
advanced  life,  56,  83 ;  as  an 
old  man,  59  ;  types  of,  on 
coins,  509,  518,  519,  523, 
527  ;  on  gems,  611,  625  ; 
bronze  gilt  (Anglo- Roman), 
729 ;  the  Tyrian  Hercules, 
altar  to,  725 
labours  of,  315  :  vases,  308, 
333,  342;  (1)  the  Nemean 
lion  (gem),  618  ;  (2)  the 
Hydra  (vase),  298  ;  (3)  the 
Stag  (marble),  73  ;  (4)  the 
Erymanthian  Boar  (vase),  326, 
349  ;  (6)  the  birds  of  Lake 
Stymphalis  (vase),  327  ;  (7) 
the  Cretan  Bull,  metope  of 
Olympia  (cast),  114  ;  vase, 
349  \  (9)  tne  girdle  of  the 
Amazon  Queen  (vase)  316  ; 
(10)  Geryon  (vase),  297,  316, 
333  ;  (11)  the  apple  of  the 
Hesperides  (vase),  387  ; 
bronze,  440 
life  and  adventures  :  suckled  by 
Hera  (vase),  411  ;  the  infant 
Hercules  and  the  snakes  (vase), 
417  ;  Hercules  and  Achelous 
(vases),  316,  354,  (gem)  618  ; 
Antaeus  (vase),  318  ;  Atlas, 
metope  of  Olympia  (cast), 
114;  Busiris  (vase),  357; 
Cercopes,  metope  of  Selinus 
(cast),  92  ;  Cycnus  (vase),  333, 
(gem),  639 ;  contest  for  the 
Tripod  (vase),  318  ;  Geras 
(vase),  356  ;  at  the  hot  springs 
(vase),  319 ;    Nessus  (vase), 


INDEX 


345  ;  Omphale  (cameo),  667  ; 
Pholus  (vase),  318  ;  repose  of 
Hercules  (vase),  349  ;  on  the 
funeral  pyre  (gem),  639  ;  apo- 
theosis of  (on  vases),  328,  347, 
(on  dishes)  407,  596 

Herennia  Etruscilla  (bust),  34 

Hermaphrodite  (term),  83 

Hermes  :  of  Praxiteles  (cast),  142, 
cf.  terra  -  cotta,  692  ;  story 
of  the  discovery,  143  ;  archaistic 
relief,  63  ;  statue  (Farnese), 
64  ;  bronzes,  435, 439  ;  Hermes 
making  the  lyre  (bronze  disk), 
446  ;  on  coins,  515  ;  on  sculp- 
tured column  from  Ephesus, 
132 

Herodotus,  referred  to,  83,  96,  104, 
105,  202,  213,  266,  304,  306, 
308,  348,  399,  448,  484,  498, 
500,  562,  632,  633,  690,  725 
Heroic  bust  (from  Ostia),  51 
Heroic  head  (Pergamene  school), 
69 

Heroic  statue  (in  style  of  Calamis), 
39 

Heroon  (vase),  403 
Hesiod  (?)  bust,  47  ;   referred  to, 
373.  377 

Hiero    II.    (of    Syracuse),  coin 

portrait,  533 
Hieroglyphics,     Egyptian,     on  a 

terra-cotta  relief  (Roman),  556 
Hieron  (vase  painter),  365 
Higgins,  Alfred,  on  the  game  of 

cottabos,  420 
Hill,  G.  F. ,  on  coins  of  the  ancients, 

497,  501,  511 
Himera,  coin  of,  510 
Hippocrates  (bust),  13 
Hippodamia  (vase),  416 
Hippolytus  (vase),  403 
Historical  relics,  660 
Hogarth,    D.   G. ,   excavations  in 

Cyprus,  263,  288 
Holofernes,  223 
Holy-water  basins,  84 
Home  life  of  the  Greeks  as  illustrated 

in  Tanagra  figurines,  671 
Homer  (bust),   47  ;    bronze  head 

(so  called),  433 
Homer,  referred  to  :  Iliad,  87,  no, 


3°3>  3°8-  3°9-  3IO>  3*7.  32°- 
324,  370,  377,  415,  418,  479, 
554.  555-  695  I  Odyssey,  305, 
316,  328,  345,  371,  377,  414, 
440,  569 
Homeric  hymns,  referred  to,  121, 

158,  199.  43°.  447,  695 
Horace,  portrait  on  a  gem,  631 
Horace,  referred  to,  316,  469,  516, 

554.  722,  752,  756 
Horai(or  Demeter  and  Persephone), 
on  E.  pediment  of  the  Parthe- 
non, 161 
Horror  vactii,  297,  301,  309,  500 
Horses  :     on    pediments    of  the 
Parthenon,  159,  164  ;  on  the 
Parthenon  frieze,  181  ;  head 
of  a   horse,  from  Tarentum. 
139 

,  Horse-races,  depicted  on  vases, 
332-  333»  347;  011  Etruscan 
tomb  paintings,  466,  467  ; 
relief  in  honour  of  a  winning 
horse,  246  ;  the  horsemen  of 
Tarentum,  coins,  517 

Huddilston,  J.  W. ,  on  Greek  vases, 
cited,  273,  409,  417 

Huish,  Marcus  B. ,  on  figurines, 
cited,  678,  684,  701,  704,  709 

Humour,  on  Greek  vases,  326,  335, 
336,  342,  386,  387,  419 

Hunter,  statuette  from  Naucratis,  97 

Hunting  knife  (Bronze  Room),  454 

Hutton,  Miss  C.  A.,  on  Greek 
terra-cottas,  cited,  682,  688, 
689,  692,  693,  696,  698,  707 

Hut  urns,  from  the  Albano  lake, 
485 

Hyacinthus  (gem),  641 
Hydria  (vase  shape),  276,  346 

Iacchus,  head  of,  135 

lalysus,  Mycenaean  antiquities  from, 

28 5  ;   gold  ornaments,   560 ; 

gems,  634 
Ictinus,  153 

Idalium,  262  ;  excavation  of,  263,; 

former  splendour,  264 
' '  Iliac  Table,"  551 
Imitation  of  wood  in  architecture, 

226 

Immortality  of  the  soul,  xvii,  413 


INDEX 


781 


Inscriptions  (Ch.  i. )  :  historical 
value  of,  1  ;  Sigean  marble, 
2  ;  inscriptions  from  Priene,  3  ; 
Halicarnassus,  3  ;  Ephesus,  3, 
5  ;  Salutarian  inscription,  5  ; 
inscriptions  from  Rhodes,  3  ; 
the  Roman  Forum,  4  ;  report 
on  the  Erechtheum,  6  ;  epitaph 
on  Athenians  who  fell  at 
Potidaea,  6  ;  Athenian  inscrip- 
tions, 6  ;  Roman,  7  ;  inscrip- 
tion to  an  Unknown  God,  8  ; 
bronze  inscriptions,  434,  455  ; 
Oscan,  471 

Intaglios  :  meaning  of  the  term, 
610  ;  how  made,  611  ;  artistic 
characteristics,  618  ;  select 
Greek,  618  ;  combination  of 
intaglio  and  cameo,  620  ; 
select  Graeco  -  Roman,  62 1  ; 
artists'  signatures  discussed, 
623;  signed  intaglios  described, 
625-628  ;  portraits,  628-632  ; 
origin  of  intaglios,  632  ;  island 
gems,  634-636 ;  scarabs  and 
scaraboids,  Greek,  636  ;  Phoe- 
nician, 638  ;  Etruscan  gems, 
638-640  ;  Graeco-Roman,  640- 
642 

International  arbitration  in  ancient 
times,  3 

Ionic  order  of  architecture,  157, 
195 

"  Ionica,"  referred  to,  372 

Iphigeneia  (vase),  397  • 

Iris,  on  E.  pediment  of  the  Parthe- 
non, 162 

Island  gems,  634 

Isocephalism,  179 

Ivory,  ancient  use  of,  550  ;  plaque 
incised  with  nymph  and  satyr, 

550  ;  tickets  and  other  objects, 

551  ;  draught  -  box  from 
Enkomi,  565 

Ixion,  punishment  of  (vase  subject), 
376 

Jason    (a    physician),  sepulchral 

monument  of,  241 
Jet  ornaments,  Anglo-Roman,  754 
Jewellery,  Mycenaean,   559  ;  early 

Phoenician,  567  ;  amber,  569  ; 


early  Etruscan,  569  ;  Greek, 
572  ;  later  Etruscan,  576  ; 
later  Greek,  576  ;  Roman, 
576  ;  Franks  collection,  608 

Jews,  coins  of,  536,  544 

Jockeys,  Greek,  333 

Johnson,  Dr.,  referred  to,  734 

Juba  I.,  coin  portrait,  542 

Judgment  of  Paris,  in  Greek  art, 
324 

Julia  and  Livia  (cameo  from  the 
Carlisle  collection)  649 

Julia  Mammaea  (bust),  33 

Julia  Sabina  (bust),  29 

Julius  Caesar  (bust),  20  ;  on  gems, 
629 

Juno  (bust),  43 

Jupiter  :  Graeco  -  Roman  type  of, 
41  ;  bust  (from  Hadrian's 
villa),  41  ;  seated  figure,  65  : 
infancy  of,  terra -cotta  relief, 
565.     See  also  Zeus 

Jupiter-Serapis,  64 

Juvenal,  referred  to,  717,  732, 
750,  761 

Juxon  medal,  660 

Kachrylion  (vase  painter),  363 
Karddea/xoL,  546 

Keats,  referred  to,  9,  508  ;  on  the 
Elgin  Marbles,  151,  153/2. 

Kelebe  (vase  shape),  327 

Kertch,  sepulchral  relief  from, 
242 

Key  pattern,  293 

Keys,  Anglo- Roman,  751 

Kimmeridge  shale,  755 

King,  C.  W. ,  on  engraved  gems, 

628,  633,  663 
"Kiss,  the"   (terra-cotta  group), 

701 

Knight,  Payne,  617  ;  on  the  Elgin 

Marbles,  150 
Knives,  Anglo-Roman,  750 ;  My- 
cenaean, 287 
Knucklebone  vase,  355 
Knucklebones  (game).  See  Astragali 
icvavos,  287 

Kyathos  (vase-shape),  276,  323 
Kylix    (vase    shape),    277,    353  ; 

evolution  of,  322  ;  polvchrome, 

358 


782 


INDEX 


Labyrinth  of  Lake  Moeris,  294 ; 
of  Crete,  on  coins,  501,  537 

Lachrymatories,  735 

Lamentation,  on  Greek  funereal 
vases,  370 

Lamia,  coin  of,  526 

Lamps  in  ancient  houses,  710  ;  use 
as  presents,  711;  sepulchral 
and  religious  use,  711  ;  in 
bronze,  448;  terra-cotta,  710; 
Anglo-Roman,  760 

Lampsacus,  coins  of,  513 

Landscape  in  Greek  art,  593 

Lang,  Sir  Hamilton,  259  ;  dis- 
coveries in  Cyprus,  260,  263 

Lanuvium,  architectural  terra-cottas 
from,  486 

Laocoon  ( Etruscan  sepulchral 
chest),  486 

Lapiths.    See  Centaurs 

Larissa,  coin  of,  516 

Larnaca,  antiquities  from,  298 

Leagros  (name  on  vases),  360 

Lebes  (shape  of  vase),  279 

Leg  of  a  bronze  statue,  424 

Lekythos  (shape  of  vase),  277 

Lenticular  gems,  634 

Lentulus,  Cnaeus  Cornelius  (head), 
12 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  323 
Leontini,  coins  of,  503 
Leucippidae,  rape  of  the  (vase), 
364 

Leucothea,  relief  so  called,  118 
XiXvir-qs,  556 

Limavady  treasure  of  Celtic  gold 
ornaments  :  described,  583  ; 
discovery  of,  584  ;  political 
discussions,  585  ;  theories  of 
their  origin  and  history,  586 

Lincoln,  Roman  sepulchral  monu- 
ments from,  723,  724,  725 

Lion  :  tomb  from  Xanthus,  10 1 ; 
lions  from  the  Nereid  monu- 
ment, 207  ;  lion  from  Bran- 
chidae,  95  ;  lions  from  the 
Mausoleum,  220  ;  lion  of 
Cnidus,  226  ;  lion  type  on 
coins,  499 

"Little  masters"  ot  Greek  vase- 
painting,  322 

Li  via  (gem),  630 


London,  Greek  architecture  in, 
174  n.t  195 

London,  Roman  sepulchral  monu- 
ments from,  724,  725,  726 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  625,  659, 
663 

Love  in  the  scales  (vase),  414 
Liibke  on  Parthenon  frieze,  173 
Lucian,  referred  to,  50,  85,  208, 
359»  522 

Lucilla,    wife    of    Lucius  Verus 

(bust),  32 
Lucius  Verus  :   marble  bust,  32  ; 

statue   from    Ephesus,    134  ; 

bronze  bust,  440 ;  Marlborough 

cameo,  667 
Lucretius,  referred  to,  555 
Ludovisi  Medusa,  91 
Lycia,    coin    of,    506  ;    rock -cut 

tombs  from  (casts),  243 
Lycurgus  (vase),  404 
Lydia,  sculptures  from,  104 
Lying -in -state  on  Greek  funereal 

vases,  368 
Lyre-player,  gem,  619 
Lysicrates,  Choragic  monument  of, 
.199 

Lysimachus,  coins  of,  525 
Lysippus,  works  and  characteristics 
of,  140,  437,  527,  727  ;  por- 
traits of  Alexander,  140 

Macaulay,  referred  to,  343,  485 
MacColl,  D.  S. ,  on  Greek  vases, 
374 

Macdonald,  Miss  L. ,  on  impre- 
catory tablets  from  Curium, 
549 

Macedonia,  coins  of,  537 
Machaon  and  Nestor,  terra-cotta 

relief,  555 
Mackail,  J.  W. ,  cited,  457 
Macmillan,    Malcolm,   vase  from 

Thebes,  300 
Maeander  pattern,  293,  429 
Maecenas,   cited    on    gems,   611  ; 

portrait  of,  on  a  gem,  630 
Magic  nails,  549  ;  formulas,  548  ; 

wheels  (vases),  413,  416 
Magna  Mater,  worship  of,  728 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  cited,   168,  232, 

241,  277 


INDEX 


783 


Marciana,  cameo  from  the  Marl- 
borough collection,  647 

Marcus  Aurelius,  statue,  9  ;  busts, 
31-  32 

Marlborough  gems,  646,  667  ; 
formation  of  the  collection, 
646  n. 

Marlowe,  referred  to,  159 
Marriage  processions  (vases),  333, 
372 

Mars,  a  Gaulish  bronze,  435  ; 
Anglo-Roman  statuette,  732  ; 
votive  tablets  to  (Anglo- 
Roman),  744 

Marseilles  (Massilia),  coins  of, 
527 

Marsyas,  bronze,  431  ;  legend  of, 
432 

Martial,  referred  to,  193,  211  n. , 
589,  602,  652,  659,  717,  750 

Masks,  Bacchic,  81  ;  terra-cotta, 
705.     See  also  Oscilla 

Mater  Dolorosa,  123 

Matteo  del  Nassaro,  intaglio  by, 
663 

Mau's    "  Pompeii,"    referred  to, 

491  n.,  737 
"Mausoleum,"  origin  of  the  term, 

209 

Mausoleum  of  Halicarnassus,  his- 
tory of,  209  ;  sculptures  of : 
chariot  group,  212  ;  marble 
steps,  213  ;  principal  frieze, 
214  ;  other  friezes,  217;  colon- 
nade, 217  ;  heads  from,  218, 
219,  220  ;  charioteer,  219  ; 
equestrian  torso,  220  ;  lions, 
220  ;  colossal  female  head, 
228  ;  conjectural  restorations, 

211,  212,  221  71. 

Mausolus,  209  ;  statue  of,  212 
Medea  (vase),  316  ;  terra-cotta  relief, 
555 

Medicine  stamps,  Anglo-Roman, 
752 

Medusa  :  types  of,  in  art,  ancient 
and  mediaeval,  91  ;  on  the 
metope  of  Selinus  (cast),  90  ; 
on  an  intaglio,  622  ;  '  *  Strozzi  " 
Medusa,  627  ;  cameo  on  an 
amethyst,  648 

Megarian  bowls,  406 


Meidias  (vase  painter),  364 
Melos,  necklace  from,  574 
Memnon  (vase),  348,  355 
Men's  clothes  in  Greece,  673 
Mercury,  Anglo -Roman  statuette, 

730.    See  also  Hermes 
Merovingian  jewellery,  608,  665 
Messina,  coins  of,  503,  510 
Meta,  554 

Metaportum,  coins  of,  502 
Metopes,  169 
Metrodorus,  bust,  13 
Mezzo-rilievo,  493 
Michaelis,  cited,  140,  148 
Midas,  terminal  figure,  61 
Middleton,  J.  H. ,  cited,  on  ancient 

mosaics,  255,  720  ;  on  gems, 

617,  643,  653 
Millais,   "Lorenzo  and  Isabella," 

316 

Milton,  referred  to,  381,  568 
Mina,  545 

Minerva,  conventional  type  of,  42  ; 
busts,  42,  58.   See  also  Athena 

Mirrors,  Etruscan,  480  ;  Greek, 
436;  on  figurines,  677  ;  Anglo- 
Roman,  750 

Mithradates  I.  of  Parthia,  coin  of, 
536 

Mithradates  II. ,  coin  of,  529 
Mithradates  VI.  (the  Great),  coin 
of,  538 

Mithras,  worship  of,  in  Roman 
world,  15  ;  in  Britain,  14  n. , 
734 ;  resemblance  to  Christi- 
anity, 16 

Mithras  and  the  Bull,  marble 
groups,  14,  65  ;  bronze,  456 

Modern  Greek  customs,  370,  371 

Modi  us,  125 

Money  box,  Roman  (found  at  Lin- 
coln), 747 
Months,  design  of,  in  mosaic,  253 
Moon,  torso,  E.  pediment  of  the 

Parthenon,  163 
Morra,  the  game  described,  439 
Mosaics,  ancient,  Ch.  xiv. ;  methods 
of  removing,  254,  256  ;  early 
Greek  mosaics,  251  ;  Roman, 
251 ;  Anglo-Roman,  252,  720; 
from  Carthage,  252  ;  from 
Utica,   255  ;    from  Ephesus, 


7§4 


INDEX 


256  ;  from  Halicarnassus,  82, 

257  ;  various  mosaics,  82 
Motto  cameos,  651 
Moulds,  terra-cotta,  704 
Mourners,  terra-cotta,  703 

Mule  car,  on  coin  of  Rhegium,  503, 

Mummy  of  a  boy  from  the  Fayoum, 

Munro,  J.  A.  R.,  cited,  135,  687 
Mural    decorations    (Roman)  in 

stucco,   fresco,    and  mosaic, 

553 

Murray,  A.  S. ,  excavations  at 
Enkomi,  287,  564  ;  conjec- 
tural restoration  of  Temple 
of  Ephesus,  106,  130  ;  Ruskin 
and,  304  ft. ;  cited  on — sculp- 
tures, 40,  88,  192;  perspective 
in  Greek  art,  339;  vases,  389; 
bronzes,  430,  431,  432,  433, 
435»  45 1  i  Etruscan  bronzes, 
472,  479,  482  ;  Etruscan  sar- 
cophagus, 462  ;  Clazomenae 
sarcophagus,  308  ;  painting, 
484,  592  ;  terra-cottas,  688, 
697,  704  ;  Anglo  -  Roman 
bronzes,  727,  730 

Muse,  head  of  a,  54 

Mutilation  of  statues  by  Christians, 
730 

Mycenae:  Pausaniason,  88;  Schlie- 
mann's  excavations,  89  ;  Lion 
Gate  of,  88,  339  ;  fragments 
from,  in  the  Museum,  87-90  ; 
tomb  of  Agamemnon,  89 

Mycenaean  antiquities  :  pottery, 
284 ;  objects  from  Cyprus, 
287  ;  gold  ornaments,  558  ; 
ivories,  565 

Mycenaean  civilisation :  questions 
relating  to,  discussed,  89,  285, 
289,  291,  306,  565  ;  datings, 
560,  563,  564 

Myrina,  terra-cotta  statuettes  from, 
698  ;  history  and  characteris- 
tics of,  697 

Myron  :  characteristics  ot,  49  ; 
works  of :  Discobolus,  49  ; 
Hercules,  56  ;  Perseus,  138  ; 
school  of,  198 

Myths,  Greek,  spirit  of,  122,  321 


Naegely,  H. ,  referred  to,  167  n., 
463 

Naucratis,  history  of  discoveries  at, 
95  ;  vases,  303,  334  ;  terra- 
cottas, 699 

Neapolis  (Naples),  coin  of,  517 

Necklace  from  Melos,  574  ;  neck- 
laces from  Enkomi,  563 

Nemesis,  Temple  of,  at  Rhamnus, 
fragment  from,  194 

Neptune,  Anglo  -  Roman  mosaic, 
721.     See  also  Poseidon 

Nereid  monument  from  Xanthus, 
Ch.  xi.  ;  statues  of  Nereids, 
202,  204 

Nero,  bust,  24 

Newton,  Sir  C.  T.,  portrait  bust  of, 
228  ;  work  and  character,  228; 
first  visit  to  Halicarnassus, 
209  ;  discovery  of  the  Mau- 
soleum, 210  ;  the  lions,  220  ; 
other  objects  at  Halicarnassus, 
257,  699  ;  the  Lion  of  Cnidus, 
226  ;  discoveries  at  Cnidus, 
121,  547  ;  at  Branchidae,  93  ; 
at  Calymnus,  446  ;  on  in- 
scriptions, 1  ;  on  the  Mau- 
soleum, 209,  214  ;  on  Greek 
coins,  509,  512  ;  on  the  bronze 
head  of  Aphrodite,  425  ;  on 
the  Camirus  vase,  362 

Niello,  606,  727 

Niger  Lapis,  4 

Nikosthenes  (vase  painter),  348 
Niobe,  legend  of,  59  ;  disk,  59 
Nollekens,  J.,  R.A.,  restorations  of 
Townley  Marbles,  37,  60,  703 

Octastyle,  157 

Oculists,  stamps  used  by  Roman, 

549  ;  in  Britain,  752 
Odysseus.     See  Ulysses 
Offerings  at  the  tomb,  on  Greek 

funereal  vases,  369 
Ogham  inscriptions,  726 
Oinochoe  (shape  of  vase),  276 
Old  age,  Greek  ideas  of,  356,  698 
Oldfield,    Edmund,  on  the  Mau- 
soleum, 211  ft.,  212  ft. 
Olympia,  discovery  of  the  Temple 
of  Zeus  (1829),  113  ;  German 
excavations    (1875-81),    113  ; 


INDEX 


78S 


of  metopes,  casts  from,  114  ; 
of     the     "  Victory,"  114; 
Hermes,  143 
Onyx,  640 

Orator,    bronze    statuette  (from 

.  Cricklade),  732 
Orders  of  architecture,  157 
Orestes  at  Delphi  (vase),  406 
Oropa,  sanctuary  of,  193 
Orophernes,   223  ;  coins  of,  223, 
535 

Orpheus  (vase),  418  ;  among  the 
Thracians  (vase),  388  ;  death 
of,  vase,  381  ;  Anglo- Roman 
mosaic,  722 

Orphics,  doctrines  of  the,  578 

Oscilla,  402,  705.    See  also  Masks 

Otacilia  Severa,  bust,  34 

Otho,  bust,  24 

Overbeck,  on  sculptures  of  ^Egina, 
110;  on  frieze  of  Phigalia, 
232 

Ovid,  referred  to,  44,  627 
Owl  in  marble  from  the  Parthenon, 
198 

Ox-chariot  (on  a  Thracian  coin), 
500 

Oxford,  Taylorian  Institution,  232 

Oxus  treasure,  600 

Oxybaphon  (shape  of  vase),  379 

Paeonius  of  Mende,  114 

Paestum,  coins  of,  502 

Painting,   Etruscan,   483  ;  Greek, 

307,  311,  592.  See  also  vases 
Pamphasus    (vase    painter),  347, 

354 

Pamphiios  (name  on  gem),  626 
Pan,    as    a   warrior    (relief  from 
Ephesus),    133  ;    on  a  gem, 
627  ;  terra-cotta  figurines,  694, 
695 

Panathenaic  Festival,  175 

Panathenaic  vases  :  origin  of,  330  ; 
dates  of,  331  ;  general  type 
of,  331  ;  particular  vases  de- 
scribed, 331,  396,  398,  399, 
400,  405 

Pandora,  creation  of  (vases),  372, 

397  ;  cf.  132  n. 
Pandosia,  coin  of,  508,  519 
Paniscus,  marbles,  61 

3 


Panther  and  Bacchus,  557 

Paphos,  gold  hairpin  from,  575 

Paramythia,  bronzes  from,  436 

Parthenon,  the,  history  of,  153  ; 
sculptures  of :  east  pediment, 
157  ;  west  pediment,  164  ; 
characteristics  of,  167  ;  me- 
topes, 169  ;  frieze :  general 
remarks,  173,  180;  plan,  176; 
west  frieze,  177  ;  north,  179  ; 
east,  183  ;  south,  186 

Parthia,  coins,  539 

Paste  gems,  use  of,  in  antiquity, 
652  ;  how  made,  653  ;  ancient 
pastes,  653  ;  modern,  by 
Tassie,  653 

Pater,  Walter,  on  portraits  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  31  ;  Faustina,  31  ; 
Greek  athletic  sculptures;  38  ; 
characteristics  of  Myron,  49  ; 
the  Spinario,  63  ;  the  Harpy 
Tomb,  103  ;  the  ^Eginetan 
marbles,  112  ;  the  Standing 
Demeter,  123  ;  Greek  sepul- 
chral reliefs,  242  ;  Greek  idea 
of  Pan,  695 

Patina,  427 

Paton,  W.  R. ,  299 

Patroclus  (vase),  320 ;  Etruscan 
bronze  chest,  479 

Patterns  :  evolution  of,  292  ;  egg- 
and- tongue  pattern,  197; 
Greek  fret,  293  ;  herring-bone, 
283  ;  honeysuckle,  326  ;  key, 
293 ;  maeander,  293  ;  mill- 
sail,  497  ;  scale,  285,  299  ; 
wave-scroll,  295  ;  reel,  733 

Pausanias,  referred  to,  78,  88,  113, 
143,  158,  196,  230,  235,  236, 

245.  333.  335.  339-  34L  345- 
370,  380,  382,  406,  411,  422, 
423,  430,  450,  476,  486,  500, 
516,  518,  531,  618,  687,  711 

Pavements,  tesselated,  720.  See 
also  Mosaics 

Pekin,  gold  vase  from,  588 

Peleus  and  Thetis  (vases),  320,  354, 
361  ;  terra-cotta  relief,  691 

Pellatt,  Apsley,  on  "Curiosities  of 
Glass  Making,"  735,  736 

Pelops  and  Hippodamia  (so  called), 
colossal  heads,  249 

1 

E 


786 


INDEX 


Pentathlon,  332 

Pergamum  :  School  of  Sculpture, 
history  and  characteristics, 
53,  534  ;  coins  of  Pergamum, 

529-  535 
Periander,  bust,  10 
Pericles,    154,    189  ;    portrait  of, 

190 

Peripteral,  157 

Perry,  W.  C. ,  on  Greek  sculpture, 
cited,  50,  51,  68,  69,  91,  163, 
174,  197,  200,  233 

Persephone,  legend  of,  121  ; 
statuette  from'  Cnidus,  125  ; 
type  in  terra-cotta  statuettes, 
689  ;  vase,  402  ;  coins,  521 

Perseus,  head  of,  138 

Perseus  and  Andromeda  (vase),  411 

Perseus  and  Medusa  (vases),  319, 
414  ;  Etruscan  mirror,  482  ; 
terra-cotta  reliefs,  554,  691 

Personification  in  Greek  art,  160, 
518  ;  of  cities,  508,  535, 
596-597,  728  n.  ;  rivers,  166, 
316,  354,  503,  508 

Perspective  in  Greek  art,  88,  296,. 
339.  412 

Pertinax,  bust,  32 

Petrie,  Prof.  W.  Flinders,  dis- 
coveries at  Daphnae,  334  ;  in 
the  Fayoum,55i  ;  atNaucratis, 
96  ;  on  Enkomi  datings,  289, 
290 

Petronius,  referred  to,  448,  454 
Pewter,  Anglo-Roman  dishes,  743; 

inscribed  cakes,  764 
Peytral  of  gold,  581 
Phaedra  (vase),  409 
Phaleron  pottery,  296 
Phanes,  304,  498 

Phidias,  works  and  characteristics 
of,  154,  189  ;  the  Zeus  of 
Olympia,  see  440,  516 

Phigalian  marbles,  230  ;  story  of 
the  discovery,  231  ;  frieze  of 
the  cella,  232  ;  characteristics 
of,  232 

Philip  V.  (of  Macedon),  coin,  531 
Philippi,  coins  of,  516 
"Philips"  (coins),  516 
Philistis,  Queen,  coin  of,  533 
Philosopher,  bronze,  432 


Philostratus,  referred  to,  747 
Phocaea,  coins  of,  seal  type,  500 
Phoenician  influence  on  Greek  art, 

97,  289,  305,  306 
Phoenician  jewellery,  early,  567 
Phoenician  scarabs,  638 
Phoenician  teira-cottas,  686 
Physicomorph,  293  n. 
Picture  frame,  from  an  Egyptian 

tomb,  552 
Pig  in  worship  of  Demeter,  127  n.  ; 

marble  pigs  from  Cnidus,  126 
Pindar,  referred  to,  158,  330,  399, 

459,  501,  509 
Pins  of  gold  wire,  562 
Pistrucci,  617 

Pithos  (shape  of  cask),  275,  295, 
373  *• 

Plato,  ideal  head  on  a  gem,  631 
Plato,  referred  to,  155,  247,  357, 
437.  546,  566,  577,  604,  680 
Plautus,  referred  to,  742,-  757 
Pliny,  referred  to,  39,  47,  49,  131, 
I33»   189 205,  208,  209, 
251,  404,  417,  429,  441,  469, 
484,  490,  546,  553,  569,  590, 
598,  611,  615,  616  n.,  623, 
629,  652,  654,  712,  729,  734, 

739.  751-  76i 
Ploughman,   bronze   figure  (from 

Durham),  731 
Plutarch,  referred  to,  141,  190,  382, 

430,  526,  527,  713,  727 
Poet,  head  of  (Alexandrine),  137 
iroLKiXia,  314 

Polledrara  Tomb,  early  Etruscan 

antiquities  from,  475 
Polybius,  referred  to,  531 
Polychromy,  106,  136,  146 
Polyclitus, characteristics,  38 ;  works : 

Diadumenus,  38;  Amazon,  69; 

Hera,  192 
Polyeidus  and  Glaucus  (vase),  358 
Polygnotus  (vase  painter),  366 
Polyphemus.     See  Ulysses 
Polyxena,  sacrifice  of  (vase),  340, 

See  also  Troilus 
Pomander  case,  668 
Pomegranate,  125 
Pompeii,  calcined  food  from,  549  ; 

mural  decorations,  554  ;  paint 

ings,  592 


INDEX 


787 


Poole,  R.  S. ,  on  coins  of  the 
ancients,  506,  507,  511,  536, 
542 

Populonia,  coins  of,  502 
Porcelain,  glazed,  antiquities  in, 
545 

Portland  vase  :  how  made,  654 ; 
its  artistic  and  technical 
characteristics,  654  ;  subjects 
on,  discussed,  655;  history  of, 

656  ;  broken  in  the  Museum, 

657  ;  copies  of,  657 
Portraiture,  Greek,  characteristics 

of,  20,  140,  190,  244  ;  early, 
at  Branchidae,  94 ;  on  coins, 
525,  528,  530,  534,  542-544 ; 
on  mummy  cases,  551  ;  on 
gems,  628 

Portraiture,  Roman,  of  the  Em- 
perors, 18  ;  characteristics  of 
Roman  portrait-sculpture,  21  ; 
on  gems,  629 

Poseidon,  bronze  statuette,  437  ; 
on  coins,  500,  502 

Poseidon  and  Athena,  legend  of, 
165  ;  on  W.  pediment  of  the 
Parthenon,  165 

Postage  stamps,  495  n. ,  500 

Posy  rings,  606 

Potidaea,  battle  of,  epitaph,  6 ; 
coins  of,  500 

Potter  at  work  (on  a  vase),  330 

Pottery,  Anglo  -  Roman  :  abund- 
ance of,  739  :  plain  red,  739  ; 
Upchurch  ware,  740  ;  Durob- 
rivian,  741  ;  Samian,  741 

Poynter,  Sir  E.  J.,  P.R.A.,  on 
development  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture, 86,  87  ;  on  bronze 
leg,  42 

Prcefericulum,  730 

Prasneste,  Etruscan  chests  from, 
478 

Praxiteles,  works  and  character- 
istics, 138,  144  ;  contrasted 
with  Phidias,  144  ;  with 
Scopas,  218  ;  the  Hermes  of 
Olympia  (cast),  142,  692 ; 
the  Aberdeen  head  (attributed 
to),  218  ;  other  sculptures  in 
the  Museum  connected  with, 
43,  48,  75,  436 


Precious     stones,     ancient  and 

modern,  574,  610 
Prempeh,  King,  gold  ornaments, 

588 

Priam,  relief,  79  ;  death  of  (vase), 
327 

Priapus,  relief,  81 
Priene,  temple  at,  222  ;  excava- 
tions at,  222  :  sculptures  from, 
222  ;    colossal    statue,    223  ; 
inscriptions  from,  2,  3 
Priestess,  Roman  portrait,  23 
Priesthoods,  perquisites  of,  2 
Procris  and  Cephalus  (vase),  384 
Prothesis  (subject  on  Greek  funeral 

vases),  340,  368 
Proto-Corinthian  pottery,  296 
Prusias  I.  (of  Bithynia),  coin,  529 
Pseudamphora   (shape   of  vase), 
285 

Ptolemy  Soter,  coin  of,  525 
Pullan,  R. ,  210,  211  n.,  222,  226 
Punjab,  Greek  coins  from,  524 
Purse,   Anglo  -  Roman   (found  in 

Farndale),  755 
Pyrgoteles,  Alexander's  engraver, 

628  ;  gems  signed  by,  627 
Pyrrhus,  coins  of,  533 
Pythios  (architect),  222 
Python,  vase  by,  412 
Pyxis  (shape  of  vase),  278,  378 

Quatremere  de  Quincy  on  the  Elgin 

Marbles,  163,  166 
Queen  of  Ptolemaic  dynasty  (statue), 

.  77 

Quintilian,  referred  to,  38,  49 

Ramsay,  W.  M. ,  on  Myrina  figur- 
ines, 697 

Raphael  "  Ansidei  Madonna,"  294 

Read,  C.  H. ,  on  Limavady  trea- 
sure, 584,  586  ;  on  Anglo- 
Roman  antiquities,  743,  745 

Relief,  high  and  low,  principles  of, 
170  ;  conditions  of  bas-relief, 
179 

Reliquary  with  a  spine  from  the 

Crown  of  Thorns,  662 
Restoration  of  vases,  318 
Rhegium,  coins  of,  503 
Rhodes  :  arbitrator  between  Samos 


788 


INDEX 


and  Priene,  3  ;  inscription 
from,  4;  knights  of,  and  Castle 
of  Budrum  (Halicarnassus), 
209  ;  slab  of  Mausoleum  frieze 
from,  216  ;  coins,  514,  525  ; 
gold  ornaments,  566  ;  sculp- 
tures in  limestone,  99  ;  terra- 
cottas, 688  ;  vases,  302,  386. 
See  also  Camirus  and  Ialysus 
Rhyton  (shape  of  vase),  278,  387, 
400 

Ridgeway,  Professor,  on  ' '  Early 
Age  of  Greece,"  286  n. ;  on 
the  origin  of  metallic  currency, 
491,  498,  499,  500,  506,  523 
Rietschl  on  the  Elgin  Marbles,  167 
Ring  money,  560,  562,  581 
Rio   Tinto  mine,    Roman  wheel 
from,  79 

Rivers  in  Greek  art,  166,  316,  354, 
503.  S08 

Rodd,  Sir  Rennell,  his  Customs  and 
Lore  of  Modern  Greece  referred 
to,  370,  708  ;  verses  cited,  447 

Rogers,  Samuel,  antiquities  from 
his  collection,  346 

Roman  Britain  (Ch.  xxviii. )  :  his- 
torical interest  of  the  anti- 
quities, 719,  759  ;  reasons  for 
their  comparative  paucity,  719  ; 
general  sketch  of  civilisation 
in,  71S 

antiquities  from  :  armour,  727, 
729,  758  ;  animals  in  bronze, 
731;  bells,  763  ;  bronze  statues 
and  statuettes,  727,  729  ; 
brooches,  749,  755,  762  ; 
coins,  753  ;  coiners'  outfit, 
737  ;  combs,  752  ;  caves,  an- 
tiquities from,  764  ;  enamelled 
objects,  738,  747  ;  glass,  734  ; 
gold  pin,  668  ;  inscribed  stones, 
723;  jet,  754;  keys,  751; 
knives,  750  ;  lamps,  760 ; 
leaden  seals,  746 ;  medicine 
stamps,  752  ;  milestone,  716  ; 
military  antiquities,  758  ;  mir- 
rors, 750  ;  miscellaneous  anti- 
quities, 764  ;  money  box,  747  ; 
ornaments,  household,  744  ; 
personal,  754 ;  pewter,  743, 
764 ;    pottery,    739  ;  sarco- 


phagi, 723  ;  seal-boxes,  757  ; 
sepulchral  vessels,  733  ;  shale, 
755  ;  shoes,  761;  silver  dishes, 
746  ;  silver  statuette,  732  ; 
spoons,  750  ;  steelyards,  752, 
763  ;  tesselated  pavements, 
720  ;  toilet  articles,  751;  writ- 
ing implements,  756  ;  women's 
work,  756 
Roman  coinage,  527,  532,  537, 
539 

Roman  empress,  portrait  bust,  un- 
identified, 25 

Roman  finger-rings,  590 

Roman  frescoes,  591 

Roman  General,  bronze  from  Bark- 
ing Hall,  727 

Roman  jewellery,  576 

Roman  portraits,  unidentified 
(marbles),  19,  32,  33,  34 

Roman  sculpture,  characteristics 
of,  36 

Roman  silver-plate,  594,  596 
Roman  soldiers,  monuments  to,  dis- 
covered in  Britain,  723,  724 
Rose,  on  coins  of  Rhodes,  514 
Rothschild,  Baron  Ferdinand  de, 
bequest  to  the  Museum,  658  ; 
agate  vase,  658 
Rouge  found  in  a  toilet  vase,  388 
Rubens,    "Judgment    of  Paris," 
324 

Ruskin  :  gifts  to  the  Museum,  286, 
471,  634  ;  on  characteristics 
of  Greek  art,  86,  111,  323, 
519  ;  of  Greek  legends,  150, 
171,  321,  329  ;  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon,  160^.,  174  n., 
186  ;  Greek  coins,  506,  509, 
511,  512  ;  Aphrodite  on  the 
Swan  (vase),  375  ;  Greek 
drapery,  206  n. ;  evolution 
of  pattern,  293  ;  Etruscan  art 
influence,  458 

Rydberg,  Viktor,  on  portraits  of 
the  Caesars,  18,  22,  24 

Sabinia  Tranquillina  (bust),  34 
Safety  -  pin,    evolution    of,    562  ; 

types  of,  454,  762.     See  also 

Fibulas 

Salami's    (Cyprus),     capital  with 


INDEX 


789 


winged  bulls  from,  135.  See 
also  Enkomi 

Salutarian  inscription,  5,  129 

Salzmann  and  Biliotti,  excavations 
by,  311,  361,  566 

Samian  ware  :  why  so  called,  712  ; 
method  of  manufacture,  713  ; 
frailty  of,  742  ;  methods  of 
decoration,  743  ;  imported  to 
Britain,  714;  Anglo-Roman 
specimens,  741  ;  potteries  at 
Rheinzabern,  742 

Samory  (Mohammedan  chief),  gold 
ring  of,  588 

Sandwith,  T.  B. ,  on  pottery  of 
Cyprus,  274 

Sta.  Eufemia,  treasure  of,  575 

Santorin,  prehistoric  antiquities 
from,  284 

Sappho,  head  of  (?),  65,  78  ;  terra- 
cotta relief,  691.  See  also 
Alcaeus 

Sarcophagus  :  marble,  from 
Ephesus,  84  ;  terra  -  cotta, 
sculptured,  from  Cervetri, 
461  ;  of  Seianti  Thanunia, 
463  ;  terra  -  cotta  painted, 
from  Clazomense,  307,  from 
Camirus,  311 

Sardalus,  monument  erected  by 
(Cyprus),  265 

Satyr  :  types  of,  in  ancient  art,  43  ; 
Satyr  and  Infant  Bacchus 
(statue),  42;  recumbent,  60; 
youthful  figure,  60 

Saucepans,  753 

Savile,  Lord,  excavations  at  Rome, 
8  ;  atCivita  Lavinia,  139,  486 

Scabellum,  554 

Scale  pattern,  299 

Scarabs  and  scaraboids  :  Greek 
gems,  636 

Sceptre  from  Tarentum,  574 

Schliemann,  excavations  at  Mycenae, 
89.  559 

Scopas  :  works  and  characteristics, 
218  ;  heads  from  Tegea  (casts), 
217  ;  works  in  the  Museum,  by 
some  attributed  to  him  or  his 
school,  126,  131,  138,  215, 
228  ;  charioteer  of  the  Mau- 
soleum, 219 


Scott,  W.  B. ,  referred  to,  731 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  referred  to,  562 
Scylla,  marble,  137  ;  bronze,  440  ; 

vase,  414 ;  terra-cottas,  691, 

702 

Seal  boxes  (or  perfume  boxes), 
757 

Seals,  leaden,  Anglo-Roman,  746 

Seasons,  allegorical  figures  (mosaics 
from  Carthage),  253  ;  (terra- 
cotta reliefs),  555  ;  (on  a 
Roman  shield),  758  ;  (on  a 
terra-cotta  vase),  713 

Seated  philosopher  (bronze  statu- 
ette), 453 

Seleucid  kings,  coins  of,  524,  530, 
.  536 

Selinus  :  excavations  at,  in  1823, 
90  ;  foundation  of,  90  ; 
metopes  of  (casts),  60-93  5  coins 
of,  504,  510  ;  discussion  of 
the  selinon  plant,  504  ?i. 

Sellers,  Eugenie,  on  the  "  Aberdeen 
Head,"  219 

Seneca,  referred  to,  577 

Septimius  Severus,  bu^t,  33  ;  gem, 
630 

Sepulchral  reliefs,  Greek :  character- 
istics of,  237  ;  motives  :  scenes 
of  parting,  238  ;  domestic 
scenes,  240  ;  disease,  '241  ;  in 
memory  of  the  young,  241  ; 
banquet  scenes,  242  ;  heroic  re- 
liefs, 243  ; — historical  develop- 
ment of,  the  plain  stele,  243, 
portraits,  244,  temple  form  or 
door,  244,  sepulchral  vase, 
245;  Anglo-Roman,  723 
Sepulchral     vessels    in  Roman 

Britain,  733,  735 
Serapis,  silver  statuette,  598 
Serpent,  in  Greek  mythology,  431 
Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  xviii, 
130 

Shading  on  vases,  415 
Shakespeare,  referred  to,  164,  605, 

608,  757 
Shale  ornaments,  Anglo -Roman, 

755 

Shelley,  referred  to,  28,  155,  219, 
433  ;  on  Greek  sculpture,  135 
Shells,  engraved,  306 


79° 


INDEX 


Shield,  boss  of  a  Roman  (with  the 

Seasons,  etc,),  758 
Shoemaker  (vase),  384 
Shoes,  Anglo-Roman,  761 
Sicily,  terra-cotta  statuettes  from, 

701.       See     also  Himera, 

Syracuse,  etc. 
Sidon,  coins  of,  525  ;  sarcophagi, 

142  n. 
Sigean  marble,  2 
Signets,  ancient  use  of,  632 
Silenus  and  Dionysus  (in  attitude 

of  Hermes  of  Praxiteles),  terra- 
cotta statuette,  692 
Silenus  Kistophoros,  bronze,  432 
Silphium  (badge  of  Cyrene),  338, 

343.  S23 

Silver,  objects  in,  594-598  ;  use  of,  in 
Rome,  594;  inEtruria,  595  ;  in 
Greece,  595  ;  shrines,  598  ; 
statuettes,  596  ;  hoard  from 
Cuerdale,  587  ;  ornaments 
from  Bolivia,  588  ;  statuette 
(Anglo- Roman),  732  ;  hoard  of 
old  silver  (Ireland),  747 

Silver-plate,  .Roman,  594  ;  Anglo- 
Roman,  745,  746 

Sirens,  in  Greek  art,  102,  342,  708 

Siris,  bronzes  of,  443 

Sisyphus,  gem,  640 

Situla  (shape  of  vase),  278 

"Skeleton  at  the  Feast"  (bronze 
figure),  448 

Skeuomorph,  293  n. 

Slade  collection,  455,  713,  735 

Slave  Asleep,  bronze  vessel  (Aid- 
borough),  731 

Slave's  badge  (Bronze  Room),  456 

Sleep,  winged  head  of,  bronze,  433 

Sling  bolts,  549 

"  Slip,"  342 

Smith,  Arthur  Hamilton,  cited,  94, 

132,  464,  708,  711 
Smith,  Cecil  Harcourt,  cited,  248, 

251  n.t  300,  329,  330  n.t  376, 

382,  389,  410,  475  m,  477 
Smith,  Charles  Roach,  his  services, 

719  ;    cited,   250,   718,  722, 

731.  735.  736>  745.  751.  753. 
761 

Smith,  H.  E.,  cited,  732 

Smith,  Sir  Robert  Murdoch,  with 


Newton  at  Halicarnassus,  44, 
210  ;  removes  the  Lion  of 
Cnidus,  226  ;  expedition  to 
Cyrene,  44 

Snow-man  technique,  265 

Snuff-boxes  presented  by  Napoleon, 
660 

Socrates,  portrait  on  gems,  631, 
649 

Sophocles,  bust,  10 ;  referred  to, 
354.  676 

Sotades  (vase-painter),  358 

South  Kensington  Museum,  collec- 
tion of  casts  at,  91 

Spain,  personification  of,  137 

Speculator,  724 

Sphinx,  Roman  sculpture,  14  ;  from 
Branchidae,  95  ;  from  Xanthus, 
105;  on  sepulchral  monuments, 
244 

Spina,  554 

Spinario,  motive,   63  ;   marble  in 

Museum,  63 
Spinning,  344 

Spinning,  implements  for  (Anglo- 
Roman),  753 

Spiral  in  Mycenaean  and  Celtic 
jewellery,  565 

Spoons,  Anglo-Roman,  750 

Stamnos  (shape  of  vase),  275 

Statue,  unidentified  (Roman  con- 
sul?), 12 

Steelyards,  Roman,  545  ;  Anglo- 
Roman,  752,  763 

Stele,  243 

Stosch,  Baron,  collection  of  gems, 

616,  624 
Strabo,  referred  to,  502,  579 
Strangford   Apollo,    116  ;  shield, 

189 

Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  Lord,  209, 
221 

Strigil,    bronze    (Etruscan),   478  ; 

(Anglo- Roman),  754 
Strozzi  gems,  625,  627,  645 
"Style,"  756 

Stylus  in  ivory,  551;  Anglo-Roman, 
756 

Suetonius,  referred  to,   406,  542, 

721,  756,  763 
Sun,  on  coins  of  Rhodes,  514 
Sun-dials,  Roman,  83 


INDEX 


791 


Sunrise  (vase),  379 

Surgical  instruments,  452 

Swing  (vase),  417 

' '  Sword    of    Tiberius  ' '    ( Bronze 

Room),  455 
Symbolic  Hands,  bronze,  440 
Symonds,  J.  A.,  on  portraits  of 

Antinous,  29 
Syracuse,  coins  of,  504,  528,  533  ; 

**  medallions,"  520 

Tabachetti,  696 

Tabellce,  757 

Table-leg  in  porphyry,  82 

Tacitus,  referred  to,  546,  717 

Tales  of  Troy  (vases),  408 

Tanagra  figurines,  distinctive  charm 
of,  671  ;  as  illustrating  home 
life  of  the  Greeks,  671  ;  story 
of  their  discovery,  678  ;  dis- 
cussion of  their  meaning,  679  ; 
methods  of  manufacture,  682  ; 
forgeries  of,  684  ;  prices  of, 
684  ;  motives  of,  derived  from 
pictures,  sculptures,  and  litera- 
ture, 693  ;  possible  Dionysiac 
significance,  696 

Taphanhes,  334  n. 

rapavTL^eiv,  518 

Taras,  502 

Tarentum  :  coins  of,  502,  508,  517, 
527  ;  horse's  head  from,  139  ; 
jewelled  sceptre,  574 ;  silver 
disk,  597  ;  vases,  395 
Tassie,  James,  paste  gems  by,  653 
"  Tavola  d'Agnone,"  471 
Tegea,  heads  from  (casts),  217 
Telephus  and  Orestes  (vase),  389 
Temples,  used  as  banks,  7,  223 
Tenedos,  coins  of :  meaning  of  the 
double  head  and  axe,  499,  535 
Tennyson,  referred  to,  237 
Terina,  coins  of,  503,  509,  519 
Terra  -  cottas  (Ch.  xxvii. )  :  archaic 
reliefs,  690 
figurines  :   method  of  manufac- 
ture,   682  ;     origin    of  the 
statuettes,  686  ;  early  Grasco- 
Phcenician,  686  ;  later,  from 
Cyprus,    687  ;    female  type, 
688  ;     female    types :  bust, 
688  ;  standing  woman,  689  ; 


seated,  689  ;  grotesques,  690, 
699  ;  genre  subjects,  690  ; 
archaic  reliefs,  690 ;  later 
statuettes  from  Greek  sites, 
692 ;  from  Eretria,  693  ; 
legendary  subjects,  694;  genre, 
696  ;  from  Myrina,  697  ;  from 
Halicarnassus  and  Cnidus,  698 ; 
from  N.African  sites, 699;  from 
the  Cyrenaica,  699 ;  Sicily,  701 ; 
from  Canossa,  702 ;  Grasco- 
Roman,  703  ;  moulds,  704  ; 
antefixes,  704;  Sardinian,  705; 
lamps,  710  ;  vases,  712.  See 
also  Tanagra 

Terra  -cotta  slabs  with  moulded 
relief  (Roman),  553 

Tertullian,  referred  to,  717 

Thalia,  statue,  13 

Thames,  bronze  statuettes  found 
in,  730 

Thapsus,  terra-cottas  from,  699 
Tharros,  terra-cottas  from,  705 
Theatre  tickets  (Roman),  551 
Thebes,  coins  of,  506 
Theocritus,  referred  to,  413,  672, 

674,  676 
Theoxenia,  343 

Theseum  (Athens),  sculptures  from 

(casts),  198 
Theseus,  figure  so  called,  from  the 

Parthenon,  160 
Theseus,  exploits  of  (vase),  381  ; 

and  the  Minotaur  (vases),  319, 

347 

Thetis  (vases),  317,  377.  See  also 
Peleus 

Thorwaldsen  on  the  Bronzes  of 
Siris,  443 

Threadneedle  Street,  Roman  pave- 
ment from,  721 

Thucydides,  referred  to,  179,  190, 
346 

Thurium,  coins  of,  508,  518 

Tiberius,  portrait  busts,  23 

Tigranes,  coin,  539 

Timoleon,  coins  of,  522 

Titus,  bust,  26  ;  on  a  gem,  630 

Toilet   requisites  (Bronze  Room), 

452  ;  secrets  of  the,  479,  677  ; 

scenes  of,  on  Greek  funereal 

vases,  371 


792 


INDEX 


"  Tomb  of  Romulus,"  4 

Tomb  of  the  Nasones,  paintings 
from,  593 

Tombstones,  Greek,  characteris- 
tics of,  238  ;  compared  with 
Christian,  238 

Torch  races,  described,  383-384  ; 
vases,  383,  409  ;  votive  relief, 
247 

Tores,  Greek  and  Roman,  con- 
trasted with  Celtic,  580 

Tortoise  of  ^Egina,  coin,  501 

Townley,  Charles,  history  of  his 
collection,  36,  47,  48,  71,  73, 
704,  727 

Toys,  295,  448,  549,  706 

Trajan,  bust,  25  ;  denarius  of, 
found  in  Britain,  753 

Treaties,  434,  455 

Tridacna  squamosa,  306 

Triglyphs,  157 

Triptolemus  (vases),  365,  381,  389 
Triqueti,  H.  de,  on  a  bronze  lamp, 
449 

Triton  blowing  a  shell,  from 
Ephesus,  133  ;  torso,  from 
Delos,  138 

Troilus  and  Polyxena  (vases),  340, 
349.  388 

Tryphon  (son  of  Eutychus),  sepul- 
chral monument  of,  242 

Tumbler,  on  a  crocodile,  marble 
figure,  77 ;  female,  on  a  vase, 
414 

Tupper,  Martin,  referred  to,  749 
Turks    and   antiquities,  xxi,  129, 

148,  221,  220  n. ,  231 
Turner,  Miss  E.  T. ,  bequest  to  the 

Museum,  287,  305  n. 
Turtle,  640 

Two  youths  on  horseback,  relief,  70 
Tylor,  Alfred,  cited,  733 
Typhon,  painted  head,  76 
Tyszkiewicz  collection,    319,  383, 
444.  576 

Ulysses  and  Circe  (vase),  336,  and 
Polyphemus  (vases),  316, 
344,  345  ;  and  sirens  (vase) 
377  ;  (picture),  592 

Unknown  portraits,  19,  631 

Upchurch  ware,  740 


Upcott,  L.  E.,  on  Greek  sculpture, 
cited,  50,  84,  120,  132,  159 

Urns,  marble,  84  ;  terra-cotta  urn 
with  gryphons,  708.  See  also 
Sepulchral  Vessels 

Valerio  Vicentino  (mediaeval  gem- 
engraver),  659 

Varvakion  statuette,  188 

Vasari,  cited,  659,  668 

Vases,  Greek  painted  (Chs.  xvi.- 
xx. ),  (a) general  characteristics, 
(b)  classification,  (c)  particular 
vases : 

(a)  charactej'istics :  conditions  of 
the  art,  270  ;  conventions  in, 
xvi,  270,  314 ;  shorthand, 
270,  394  ;  shapes  of  vases, 
270,  275-279  ;  subjects  of, 
mythical,  271  ;  daily  life,  272; 
literary  associations,  272,  378, 
391,  406,  414 ;  associations 
with  pictures,  388,  398,  404, 
with  the  stage,  418  ;  historical 
importance  of,  273  ;  Greek, 
not  Etruscan,  in  origin,  274, 
280  ;  uses  of,  in  funeral  cere- 
monies, 274,  367  ;  ritual,  275, 
338,  345  ;  daily  life,  275  ; 
ornaments,  378  ;  favourite 
names  on,  359,  391 ;  decorative 
patterns  on,  326  ;  technique, 
313,  351  ;  meaning  of  eyes 
upon,  329 

(b)  classification:  (1)  Primitive 
(Ch.  xvii. )  :  Prehistoric,  283  ; 
Mycenaean,  284  ;  Geometrical, 
or  Dipylon,  292  ;  Phaleron 
and  Proto  -  Corinthian,  296, 
299  ;  Corinthian,  300  ;  Fikel- 
lura,  302  ;  Rhodian,  302  ; 
Naucratis,  303  ;  Cyprus,  305  ; 
Archaistic,  304  ;  (2)  Black- 
figure  (Ch.  xviii. )  :  develop- 
ment of,  312  ;  artistic  effect, 

313  ;    subjects,    314  ;  date, 

314  ;   transition  to  red-figure, 

315  ;  Amphorae,  315,  319, 
324,  333 ;  Athenian  kylixes, 
321,  329  ;  Chalcidian,  327  ; 
Daphnae,  333  ;  Panathenaic 
vases,   330,   396,    398,  400, 


INDEX 


793 


405  ;  Naucratis,  334  ;  Thebes, 
335  ;  Etruscan,  337 ;  Corin- 
thian and  Cyrenaic,  337  ; 
Athenian  later,  341,  on  white 
ground,  342,  opaque  on  black 
ground,  344,  Hydria,  346  ;  (3) 
Red-figure  (Ch.  xix. )  :  styles 
of,  352  ;  transition  vases, 
353  ;  kylixes,  355,  363,  365  ; 
finest  period,  signed,  358  ; 
Athenian  lekythi,  367  ; 
"severe"  style,  376,  378, 
379  ;  Sicilian  lekythi,  381  ; 
select  Athenian  vases,  383  ; 
Black  ware  with  gilt  decora- 
tions, 385  ;  Polychrome  and 
moulded  ware,  385  ;  Cyrenaic 
vases,  386  ;  Rhodian,  386  ; 
Rhytons,  387  ;  (4)  Decadence 
(Ch.  xx. ) ;  characteristics  of, 
393  ;  subjects,  395,  400  ; 
geographical  classification, 
395  ;  Etruscan,  in  imitation  of 
Greek,  402 ;  black  glazed 
ware,  moulded  designs,  405, 
414  ;  Megarian  bowls,  406  ; 
Calenian,  407 ;  Greek  vases, 
410  ;  Italian  fabric,  412  ; 
opaque  red  on  black,  415  ; 
' '  Florid  "  style,  415 
(c)  particular  vases  (only  a  few 
of  the  more  celebrated  here 
enumerated)  :  Aphrodite  on 
the  Swan  (Camirus),  373  ; 
Amazons  (Forman  collection), 
375  ;  Burgon  vase,  330  ; 
Camirus  vase  (Thetis),  361  ; 
Callias  vase,  320  ;  Castellani 
rhyton,  367  ;  Iphigeneia  vase, 
397  ;  Knucklebone  vase,  355  ; 
Macmillan  vase,  300  ;  Meidias 
vase,  364  ;  Pandora  vase,  372 

Venus."    See  Aphrodite 

Vervel,  in  gold,  662 

Vespasian,  portrait  on  a  gem,  630 

Victory :  on  E.  pediment  of  the 
Parthenon,  162  ;  flying  figure 
from  Olympia  (cast),  114  ;  on 
gems,  621  ;  on  coins,  503, 
508,  509,  524,  526  ;  archaic 
figure  of  (Etruscan  bronze), 
472 


Victory  sacrificing  a  bull,  types  of 
the  subject,  82 ;  marble  groups, 
82  ;  bronze  mirror- case,  445  ; 
vase,  409  ;  terra-cotta  reliefs, 
556 

Vintage  scenes  (terra-cotta  relief), 
554 

Virgil  (referred  to),  8i,  297,  317, 
468,  592 

Voltaire,  a  gem  once  belonging  to, 
625 

Votive  reliefs,  193,  246,  248 

Waddington,  R. ,  referred  to,  129 
Walters,  H.  B, ,  cited,  on  Cypriot 

antiquities,     262,     266  ;  on 

fibulae,  763  :  on  Greek  bronzes, 

428  7z.,  431 
Warwick   Square,    E.C.,  Roman 

sepulchral  vessels  from,  733 
Water,  representation  of,  in  ancient 

art,  159,  166,  401,  409,  482 
Water-organ,  on  a  gem,  642 
Waterloo  medal,  508 
Watts,  G.  F.,  R.A.,  on  traces  of 

colour    in    marbles    of  the 

Mausoleum,  107 
Wave  pattern,  159 
Webster,  cited,  xvi 
Wedding  party  (vase),  345 
Wedgwood,  Josiah,  on  the  Port- 
land Vase,  654  ;  his  copies  of, 

657  ;  copy  of  a  Greek  painted 

vase,  379 
Weights   and   measures,  Roman, 

545  ;  Greek,  545 
Whibley,  Charles,  on  portraits  of 

Alexander,  142 
Winckelmann,   referred    to,  274, 

520 

Window  glass,  736 
Wine,  Greek  method  of  drinking, 
277 

Winged-chariot  tomb,  224 
Wingless  Victory,  temple  of,  235 
Withington  (Gloucestershire),  Ro- 
man mosaics  from,  721 
Women's  dress    in   Greece,  675  ; 

home  life,  674 
Wood  and  stone,  293 
Wood,     J.    T. ,     excavations  at 
Ephesus,  5,  129,  256 


794 


INDEX 


Wordsworth,  referred  to,  133 
"  Worship  of  sorrow,"  126 
Wright,  T.,   on  "Celt,  Roman, 
and  Saxon,"  cited,  718,  721, 

737.  74i.  755 
W riting  implements  ( Bronze  Room ) , 

452  ;  (Anglo- Roman),  756 
Wroth,   Warwick,  on  coin  types, 

499,  500 

Xanthippus,  sepulchral  monument 
of,  241 

Xanthus  :  discoveries  at,  by  Fel- 
lows, 99 ;  lion  tomb,  101  ; 
harpy    tomb,    101  ;  friezes, 


104  ;  other  fragments,  105  ; 
Nereid  monument,  201  ; 
Chimaera  tomb,  224  ;  winged 
chariot  tomb,  224 
Xenophon,  referred  to,  355,  414, 
451,  674,  675,  677,  694 

Young  man,  bronze  figure  (seated 

on  a  rock),  444 
Youth  holding  a  horse  (relief),  71 

Zeus  Ammon,  coin  type,  522 
Zeus,  types  of,  on  coins,  507,  516, 

524,  533 
Zeuxis,  417 


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